Jeʂtəra morphology

Main article: Jeʂtəra

This page gives an extensive description of Jeʂtəra morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in Jeʂtəra language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings. On rare occasions other vowels, derived from the original language of the loanword, are used in this euphonic role.

Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: the so-called ergative class or class I and inactive class or class II. The ergative class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the inactive class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:

• class I: human beings, animals, deities
• class II: plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions

A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class.

For example, the word ṕiəḱe, water, and rūro, fire are more than often included in the class I. In earlier texts plants are consistently included in the class II, as entities unable to move, while in the later period some plant names can shift to the class I, as living beings.

Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.

There are two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular and plural.

Cases

Jeʂtəra nouns do decline, according to an ergative-absolutive system with 6 cases:

Case	Meaning
Ergative	This case marks the subject of a transitive verb. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.
Absolutive	This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.
Genitive	This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It can also mark the origin or the source, usually limited to nouns with a locative meaning or place names.
Dative	This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place), usually limited to nouns with a locative meaning or place names.
Causative	This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.
Abessive	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing an action or being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.

The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:

1. Primary main cases: ergative
2. Secondary main cases: absolutive
3. Primary oblique cases: genitive, dative, causative
4. Secondary oblique cases: abessive

Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various prepositions, which can select one or more cases.

During the history of the language the abessive case slowly loses its vitality in use as a grammar case, being reduced to ad adverbial/adjectival form in later texts.

Noun declension

Nouns are declined in case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

	Class I		Class II
	singular	plural	singular	plural
ergative	-liə	-liəno
absolutive	-	-no	-	-no
genitive	-ra	-rano	-ra	-rano
dative	-xə	-xəno	-xə	-xəno
causative	-xəw	-xəwno	-xəw	-xəwno
abessive			-giəl	-giəlno

Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, papəw, father, and a class II noun, sōgo, house.

	papəw		sōgo
	singular	plural	singular	plural
agentive	papəwliə	papəwliəno
passive	papəw	papəwno	sōgo	sōgono
genitive	papəwra	papəwrano	sōgora	sōgorano
dative	papəwxə	papəwxəno	sōgoxə	sōgoxəno
causative	papəwxəw	papəwxəwno	sōgoxəw	sōgoxəwno
abessive			sōgogiəl	sōgogiəlno

As for the rules, the endings for the abessive case cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the ergative case cannot be added to a class II noun.

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Both attributive and predicative adjectives are always placed after the nouns they specify, with a few exceptions.

līro jōpā
the young man

ʔəɳ līro jōpā
the man is young

Prepositive adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes. Attributive adjectives, conversely, agree with the noun they specify, being declined with a different set of ending.

	singular	plural
ergative	-l	-liən
absolutive	-	-n
genitive	-r	-r
dative	-x	-x
causative	-x	-x
abessive	-	-n

This declension pattern display a substantially poorer set of endings. Number is not conveyed in the primary oblique cases, while the endings of the abessive case are the same of the absolutive case.

mēʔiəs sōgo rēʔo līrora jōpār ʔūm ləḱiə piəko
the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Example: rēʔo, new

	attributive declension		predicative declension
	singular	plural	singular	plural
ergative	rēʔol	rēʔoliən	rēʔoliə	rēʔoliəno
absolutive	rēʔo	rēʔon	rēʔo	rēʔono
genitive	rēʔor	rēʔor	rēʔora	rēʔorano
dative	rēʔox	rēʔox	rēʔoxə	rēʔoxəno
causative	rēʔox	rēʔox	rēʔoxəw	rēʔoxəwno
abessive	rēʔo	rēʔon	rēʔogiəl	rēʔogiəlno

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms for the ergative case and the forms for the other cases.

The first two persons (1^st and 2^nd) have indeed two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension. On the other hand, the 3^rd person has only one root, displaying, however, a similar declension.

	1st sing.	2nd sing.	3rd sing.	1st plur.	2nd plur.	3rd plur.
ergative	oltəw	ertəw	ət́lo	oltəwno	ertəwno	ət́lono
absolutive	jo	nə	ət́	jono	nəno	ət́no
genitive	jora	nəra	ət́ra	jorano	nərano	ət́rano
dative	joxə	nəxə	ət́əxə	joxəno	nəxəno	ət́əxəno
causative	joxəw	nəxəw	ət́əxəw	joxəwno	nəxəwno	ət́əxəwno
abessive			ət́əgiəl			ət́əgiəlno

First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the class I or class II.

In most oblique cases in the third person an euphonic vowel -ə- is inserted between the root and the case endings.

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).

• what: ʂə
• who: ʂā

Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.

ʔakoləker ṕiəḱe ʂāxə?
whom did you give water to?

There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):

• ʂəloʈar: where (static location)
• ʂəloxə: where (motion toward)
• ʂəlora: where... from (motion form)
• ʂəloxəw: why (cause)
• ʂəlēto : when (in which period)
• ʂəjuʔō: when (in which moment)
• ʂəmiəne: how much
• ʂəməgiə: how

There are also the following interrogative adjectives:

• ʂəko: which (inanimate)
• ʂāko: which (animate)
• ʂəmiəneko: how much / many

Within an interrogative clause, pronouns usually are usually placed in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be introduced by prepositions:

ʈəgelugət́ gū ʂāxə?
whom is he talking about?

However, interrogative adjectives tend to be placed before the noun:

ʈəgelugət́ gū ʂākox fūkaxə?
which person is he talking about?

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

Cardinal numerals

The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
1:	ʂāʔo
2:	ʔakiə
3:	miəkō
4:	gōle
5:	ṕāge
6:	ðūla
7:	haʂə
8:	ḱəwʔe
9:	ʈōjəw
10:	fēʔo

Numerals from 11 to 13 are built with the construction NUM + fēʔo:

digit	noun form
11:	ʂāʔofēʔo
12:	ʔakiəfēʔo
13:	miəkōfēʔo

Numerals from 14 to 19 are built with the construction fēʔo + NUM:

digit	noun form
14:	fēʔogōle
15:	fēʔoṕāge
16:	fēʔoðūla
17:	fēʔohaʂə
18:	fēʔoḱəwʔe
19:	fēʔoʈōjəw

The numerals for 20 is a noun-like form on their own, being actually a loanword:

digit	noun form
20:	ʔatrū

Numerals for 30, 50, 70 and 90 are built with the construction NUM + fēʔot́əw:

digit	noun form
30:	miəkōfēʔot́əw
50:	ṕāgefēʔot́əw
70:	haʂəfēʔot́əw
90:	ʈōjəwfēʔot́əw

Numerals for 40, 60 and 80 are built with the construction 2 / 3 / 4 + ʔatrūt́əw:

digit	noun form
46:	ʔakiəʔatrūt́əw
60:	miəkōʔatrūt́əw
80:	gōleʔatrūt́əw

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
100:	ɳāt́əw
1000:	liəʔā

The numerals for the multiples of hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + ɳāt́əwt́əw / liəʔāt́əw, with some irregularities:

	hundreds	thousands
2x:	ʔakiəɳāt́əwt́əw	ʔakiəliəʔāt́əw
3x:	miəkōɳāt́əwt́əw	miəkōliəʔāt́əw
4x:	gōleɳāt́əwt́əw	gōleliəʔāt́əw
5x:	ṕāgeɳāt́əwt́əw	ṕāgeliəʔāt́əw
6x:	ðūlaɳāt́əwt́əw	ðūlaliəʔāt́əw
7x:	haʂəɳāt́əwt́əw	haʂəliəʔāt́əw
8x:	ḱəwʔeɳāt́əwt́əw	ḱəwʔeliəʔāt́əw
9x:	ʈōjəwɳāt́əwt́əw	ʈōjəwliəʔāt́əw

All cardinal numerals up to these forms are meant as invariable.

The numeral for “million” is a loanword. Numbers above the millions have no name and are specified by the lesser numerals.

digit	noun form
1,000,000:	t́ənt

This form is treated as a regularly declinable noun:

digit	noun form
3,000,000:	miəkō t́əntəno
25,000,000:	ʔatrū ṕāge t́əntəno

If this numeral is used as a simple count form, it is declined in the passive case. Inside of a structured sentence, it is declined according the case required by its syntactical role. Nouns adjoining such numerals are introduced by the preposition čɛl and are declined in the ablative case.

ʔakiə t́əntəxəno fūkarano
to two millions people

Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

• 1985: liəʔā ʈōjəwɳāt́əwt́əw gōleʔatrūt́əw ṕāge

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the ordinal ending -lo to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	adjective form
1st:	ʂāʔolo
2nd:	ʔakiəlo
3rd:	miəkōlo
4th:	gōlelo
5th:	ṕāgelo
6th:	ðūlalo
7th:	haʂəlo
8th:	ḱəwʔelo
9th:	ʈōjəwlo
10th:	fēʔolo
11th:	ʂāʔofēʔolo
12th:	ʔakiəfēʔolo
20th:	ʔatrūlo
30th:	miəkōfēʔot́əwlo
60th:	miəkōʔatrūt́əwlo

The ordinal numeral for “millionth” is regularly formed from its corresponding cardinal forms, by adding the epenthetic vowel -ə-, while its multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only adjectival word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000th:	t́əntəlo
3,000,000th:	miəkōt́əntəlo

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25^th: ʔatrū ṕāgelo

Fractional numerals

Fractional numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -gū to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numeral one, and an irregular suppletive form:

digit	full form
1:	-
2:	ḱūfo
3:	miəkōgū
4:	gōlegū
5:	ṕāgegū
6:	ðūlagū
7:	haʂəgū
8:	ḱəwʔegū
9:	ʈōjəwgū
10:	fēʔogū
11:	ʂāʔofēʔogū
12:	ʔakiəfēʔogū
20:	ʔatrūgū
30:	miəkōfēʔot́əwgū
60:	miəkōʔatrūt́əwgū

The fractional numeral for “millionth” is formed by adding the epenthetic vowel -ə-, before adding the regular morpheme -gū, while its multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only word:

digit	full form
1,000,000:	t́əntəgū
3,000,000:	miəkōt́əntəgū

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: ʔatrū ṕāgegū

Multiplier numerals

Multiplier numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -gū to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numeral one, and an irregular suppletive form:

digit	full form
1:	ʂāʔore
2:	ʔakiəre
3:	miəkōre
4:	gōlere
5:	ṕāgere
6:	ðūlare
7:	haʂəre
8:	ḱəwʔere
9:	ʈōjəwre
10:	fēʔore
11:	ʂāʔofēʔore
12:	ʔakiəfēʔore
20:	ʔatrūre
30:	miəkōfēʔot́əwre
60:	miəkōʔatrūt́əwre

The multiplier numeral for “million” is formed by adding the epenthetic vowel -ə-, before adding the regular morpheme -gū, while its multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only word:

digit	full form
1,000,000:	t́əntəre
3,000,000:	miəkōt́əntəre

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: ʔatrū ṕāgere

Verbs

The verbal system of Jeʂtəra language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C

Example:

Rimp = gagok- → Rprf = gogak-

In addition to vowels, the diphthongs -iə- and -əw- can be switched:

Rimp = ʔīsəwg- → Rprf = ʔəwsīg-

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowel involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:

Rimp = giəhēmon- → Rprf = giəhomēn-

Rimp = kəlokōr- → Rprf = koləkōr-

Rimp = həʈəgelōr- → Rprf = həʈegəlōr-

Monosyllabic roots, quite rare, are usually not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective).

Irregular roots, mostly loanwords, derive their perfective form by adding the morpheme -iək-:

Rimp = akar- → Rprf = akariək-

Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.

Rimp = gagok- → Rimp-past = ʔagagok-

When the root begins with a vocalic phoneme, an adjoining consonant, usually -ʔ-, is added between the augment and the verbal root.

Rimp = akar- → Rimp-past = ʔaʔakar-

There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional
• Non-finite: infinitive, active participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -əme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1st sing.	-ol
2nd sing.	-er
3rd sing.	-ət́
	-
1st plur.	-olon
2nd plur.	-eron
3rd plur.	-ət́on
	-on

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

• indicative: Ø
• subjunctive: -iəɳ-
• conditional: -oṕ-

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

• infinitive: -əme
• agentive participle: -īto
• passive participle: -əwkiə-

The infinitival form is meant as a class II noun.

Conjugation of regular verbs

Sample verbs: māḱekəme, to close, to shut, featuring the regular introflexive process of vowel switching between the root, and ʂetenəme, to write, featuring the -iək- expansion in the perfective root.

(All verbs forming their perfective root with the -iək- infix are regarded as irregular. They, however, follow the regular conjugation patters of regular verbs, besides the irregular perfective formation)

Indicative mood

Imperfective present tense

The imperfective present is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the imperfective root:

	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	māḱekol	ʂetenol
2nd sing.	māḱeker	ʂetener
3rd sing.	māḱekət́	ʂetenət́
	māḱek	ʂeten
1st plur.	māḱekolon	ʂetenolon
2nd plur.	māḱekeron	ʂeteneron
3rd plur.	māḱekət́on	ʂetenət́on
	māḱekon	ʂetenon

The imperfective present tense conveys ongoing, habitual or gnomic actions or states.

Perfective present/future tense

The perfective present/future is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the perfective root:

	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	meḱākol	ʂeteniəkol
2nd sing.	meḱāker	ʂeteniəker
3rd sing.	meḱākət́	ʂeteniəkət́
	meḱāk	ʂeteniək
1st plur.	meḱākolon	ʂeteniəkolon
2nd plur.	meḱākeron	ʂeteniəkeron
3rd plur.	meḱākət́on	ʂeteniəkət́on
	meḱākon	ʂeteniəkon

The perfective present/future tense conveys completed actions or states, mostly in the future, but also in the immediate present, especially in dependent clauses.

Imperfective past tense

The imperfective past is a simple tense. The augment and the personal endings are added to the imperfective root:

	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	ʔamāḱekol	ʔaʂetenol
2nd sing.	ʔamāḱeker	ʔaʂetener
3rd sing.	ʔamāḱekət́	ʔaʂetenət́
	ʔamāḱek	ʔaʂeten
1st plur.	ʔamāḱekolon	ʔaʂetenolon
2nd plur.	ʔamāḱekeron	ʔaʂeteneron
3rd plur.	ʔamāḱekət́on	ʔaʂetenət́on
	ʔamāḱekon	ʔaʂetenon

The imperfective past tense conveys ongoing or habitual actions or states in the past.

Perfective past tense

The perfective past is a simple tense. The augment and the personal endings are added to the perfective root:

	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	ʔameḱākol	ʔaʂeteniəkol
2nd sing.	ʔameḱāker	ʔaʂeteniəker
3rd sing.	ʔameḱākət́	ʔaʂeteniəkət́
	ʔameḱāk	ʔaʂeteniək
1st plur.	ʔameḱākolon	ʔaʂeteniəkolon
2nd plur.	ʔameḱākeron	ʔaʂeteniəkeron
3rd plur.	ʔameḱākət́on	ʔaʂeteniəkət́on
	ʔameḱākon	ʔaʂeteniəkon

The past tense conveys completed actions or states in the past.

Imperfective future tense

The imperfective future is the only compound tense. It is built with the indicative present forms of the verb ʔəɳəme, to be, with the imperfective present infinitive form of the conjugated verb, placed at the end of the clause:

	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	ʔəɳol māḱekəme	ʔəɳol ʂetenəme
2nd sing.	ʔəɳer māḱekəme	ʔəɳer ʂetenəme
3rd sing.	ʔəɳət́ māḱekəme	ʔəɳət́ ʂetenəme
	ʔəɳ māḱekəme	ʔəɳ ʂetenəme
1st plur.	ʔəɳolon māḱekəme	ʔəɳolon ʂetenəme
2nd plur.	ʔəɳeron māḱekəme	ʔəɳeron ʂetenəme
3rd plur.	ʔəɳət́on māḱekəme	ʔəɳət́on ʂetenəme
	ʔəɳon māḱekəme	ʔəɳon ʂetenəme

The verb ʔəɳəme, in its non-auxiliary function, does not usually display any long form in the 3^rd singular person. As an auxiliary it may build the long form according to its adjoining verb.

The imperfective future tense conveys ongoing or habitual actions or states in the future.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is mostly used in dependent clauses, in the so-called personal constructions. Its usage in main clauses is quite limited, except for its role as an imperative an exhortative form.

The subjunctive widely features the infix -iəɳ-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings. In the imperfective future tense, the infix is placed on the auxiliary verb.

	imperfective present
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	māḱekiəɳol	ʂeteniəɳol
2nd sing.	māḱekiəɳer	ʂeteniəɳer
3rd sing.	māḱekiəɳət́	ʂeteniəɳət́
	māḱekiəɳ	ʂeteniəɳ
1st plur.	māḱekiəɳolon	ʂeteniəɳolon
2nd plur.	māḱekiəɳeron	ʂeteniəɳeron
3rd plur.	māḱekiəɳət́on	ʂeteniəɳət́on
	māḱekiəɳon	ʂeteniəɳon

	perfective present/future
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	meḱākiəɳol	ʂeteniəkiəɳol
2nd sing.	meḱākiəɳer	ʂeteniəkiəɳer
3rd sing.	meḱākiəɳət́	ʂeteniəkiəɳət́
	meḱākiəɳ	ʂeteniəkiəɳ
1st plur.	meḱākiəɳolon	ʂeteniəkiəɳolon
2nd plur.	meḱākiəɳeron	ʂeteniəkiəɳeron
3rd plur.	meḱākiəɳət́on	ʂeteniəkiəɳət́on
	meḱākiəɳon	ʂeteniəkiəɳon

	imperfective past
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	ʔamāḱekiəɳol	ʔaʂeteniəɳol
2nd sing.	ʔamāḱekiəɳer	ʔaʂeteniəɳer
3rd sing.	ʔamāḱekiəɳət́	ʔaʂeteniəɳət́
	ʔamāḱekiəɳ	ʔaʂeteniəɳ
1st plur.	ʔamāḱekiəɳolon	ʔaʂeteniəɳolon
2nd plur.	ʔamāḱekiəɳeron	ʔaʂeteniəɳeron
3rd plur.	ʔamāḱekiəɳət́on	ʔaʂeteniəɳət́on
	ʔamāḱekiəɳon	ʔaʂeteniəɳon

	perfective past
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	ʔameḱākiəɳol	ʔaʂeteniəkiəɳol
2nd sing.	ʔameḱākiəɳer	ʔaʂeteniəkiəɳer
3rd sing.	ʔameḱākiəɳət́	ʔaʂeteniəkiəɳət́
	ʔameḱākiəɳ	ʔaʂeteniəkiəɳ
1st plur.	ʔameḱākiəɳolon	ʔaʂeteniəkiəɳolon
2nd plur.	ʔameḱākiəɳeron	ʔaʂeteniəkiəɳeron
3rd plur.	ʔameḱākiəɳət́on	ʔaʂeteniəkiəɳət́on
	ʔameḱākiəɳon	ʔaʂeteniəkiəɳon

	imperfective future
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	ʔəɳiəɳol māḱekəme	ʔəɳiəɳol ʂetenəme
2nd sing.	ʔəɳiəɳer māḱekəme	ʔəɳiəɳer ʂetenəme
3rd sing.	ʔəɳiəɳət́ māḱekəme	ʔəɳiəɳət́ ʂetenəme
	ʔəɳiəɳ māḱekəme	ʔəɳiəɳ ʂetenəme
1st plur.	ʔəɳiəɳolon māḱekəme	ʔəɳiəɳolon ʂetenəme
2nd plur.	ʔəɳiəɳeron māḱekəme	ʔəɳiəɳeron ʂetenəme
3rd plur.	ʔəɳiəɳət́on māḱekəme	ʔəɳiəɳət́on ʂetenəme
	ʔəɳiəɳon māḱekəme	ʔəɳiəɳon ʂetenəme

The subjunctive forms display the same irregularities as their indicative counterparts and follow the same rules.

Conditional mood

The conditional mood is used to convey wish, desire and probability. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses.

The subjunctive widely features the infix -oṕ-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings. In the imperfective future tense, the infix is placed on the auxiliary verb.

	imperfective present
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	māḱekoṕol	ʂetenoṕol
2nd sing.	māḱekoṕer	ʂetenoṕer
3rd sing.	māḱekoṕət́	ʂetenoṕət́
	māḱekoṕ	ʂetenoṕ
1st plur.	māḱekoṕolon	ʂetenoṕolon
2nd plur.	māḱekoṕeron	ʂetenoṕeron
3rd plur.	māḱekoṕət́on	ʂetenoṕət́on
	māḱekoṕon	ʂetenoṕon

	perfective present/future
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	meḱākoṕol	ʂeteniəkoṕol
2nd sing.	meḱākoṕer	ʂeteniəkoṕer
3rd sing.	meḱākoṕət́	ʂeteniəkoṕət́
	meḱākoṕ	ʂeteniəkoṕ
1st plur.	meḱākoṕolon	ʂeteniəkoṕolon
2nd plur.	meḱākoṕeron	ʂeteniəkoṕeron
3rd plur.	meḱākoṕət́on	ʂeteniəkoṕət́on
	meḱākoṕon	ʂeteniəkoṕon

	imperfective past
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	ʔamāḱekoṕol	ʔaʂetenoṕol
2nd sing.	ʔamāḱekoṕer	ʔaʂetenoṕer
3rd sing.	ʔamāḱekoṕət́	ʔaʂetenoṕət́
	ʔamāḱekoṕ	ʔaʂetenoṕ
1st plur.	ʔamāḱekoṕolon	ʔaʂetenoṕolon
2nd plur.	ʔamāḱekoṕeron	ʔaʂetenoṕeron
3rd plur.	ʔamāḱekoṕət́on	ʔaʂetenoṕət́on
	ʔamāḱekoṕon	ʔaʂetenoṕon

	perfective past
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	ʔameḱākoṕol	ʔaʂeteniəkoṕol
2nd sing.	ʔameḱākoṕer	ʔaʂeteniəkoṕer
3rd sing.	ʔameḱākoṕət́	ʔaʂeteniəkoṕət́
	ʔameḱākoṕ	ʔaʂeteniəkoṕ
1st plur.	ʔameḱākoṕolon	ʔaʂeteniəkoṕolon
2nd plur.	ʔameḱākoṕeron	ʔaʂeteniəkoṕeron
3rd plur.	ʔameḱākoṕət́on	ʔaʂeteniəkoṕət́on
	ʔameḱākoṕon	ʔaʂeteniəkoṕon

	imperfective future
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
1st sing.	ʔəɳoṕol māḱekəme	ʔəɳoṕol ʂetenəme
2nd sing.	ʔəɳoṕer māḱekəme	ʔəɳoṕer ʂetenəme
3rd sing.	ʔəɳoṕət́ māḱekəme	ʔəɳoṕət́ ʂetenəme
	ʔəɳoṕ māḱekəme	ʔəɳoṕ ʂetenəme
1st plur.	ʔəɳoṕolon māḱekəme	ʔəɳoṕolon ʂetenəme
2nd plur.	ʔəɳoṕeron māḱekəme	ʔəɳoṕeron ʂetenəme
3rd plur.	ʔəɳoṕət́on māḱekəme	ʔəɳoṕət́on ʂetenəme
	ʔəɳoṕon māḱekəme	ʔəɳoṕon ʂetenəme

The conditional forms display the same irregularities as their indicative counterparts and follow the same rules.

Non-finite forms

The non-finite verbal forms are:

Infinitive

It is regarded as the citation form of the verb, and it is not conjugated in person or number. It is marked by the ending -əme. It distinguishes four forms:

	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
imperfective present	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
imperfective past	ʔamāḱekəme	ʔaʂetenəme
perfective present	meḱākəme	ʂeteniəkəme
perfective past	ʔameḱākəme	ʔaʂeteniəkəme

The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as a class II noun.

Participle

There are two participial forms, the active participle and the passive participle. As they are adjectival forms, they are both declined as such, while also displaying four forms, differing in aspect and tense.

The active participle is formed through the ending -īto, while the passive participle through the ending -əwkiə:

	active participle
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
imperfective present	māḱekīto	ʂetenīto
imperfective past	ʔamāḱekīto	ʔaʂetenīto
perfective present	meḱākīto	ʂeteniəkīto
perfective past	ʔameḱākīto	ʔaʂeteniəkīto

	passive participle
	māḱekəme	ʂetenəme
imperfective present	māḱekəwkiə	ʂetenəwkiə
imperfective past	ʔamāḱekəwkiə	ʔaʂetenəwkiə
perfective present	meḱākəwkiə	ʂeteniəkəwkiə
perfective past	ʔameḱākəwkiə	ʔaʂeteniəkəwkiə

The active participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun

The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.

Both participial forms are widely used in relative clauses building.

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative adverb ʔīs. Unlike other adverbs, this adverb is firmly placed at the end of the clause.

ʔaɳīmaḱət́ sopaliə līro → ʔaɳīmaḱət́ sopaliə līro ʔīs
the dog bit the man → The dog didn't bite the man

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative adverb.