Viwdiwgu morphology

Main article: Viwdiwgu

This page gives an extensive description of Viwdiwgu morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in Viwdiwgu language end almost exclusively in a vowel or in the recurring -iw diphthong. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -u-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.

Nouns display neither gender nor class distinction. There are, however, three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular, dual, and plural.

The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):

līlužū suvö
I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)

līlužū suvɛhiw
I see two dogs (it cannot be any other number)

In this case, the usage of the numeral hɛgiw, two, is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.

līlužū hɛɣiw suvɛhiw
I see two dogs (the amount of two is purposedly highlighted)

There is a limited case system. If a noun is deemed as indefinite, a form of indefinite article is used and placed before it.

Cases

Viwdiwgu nouns do decline, according to a nominative-accusative system with 3 cases:

Case	Meaning
Direct	This case marks both the subject and the direct object of a verb. It is also used with some prepositions. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.
Genitive	This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It is used with many prepositions. It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb.
Dative	This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place). It is used with many prepositions.

Articles

There is no article per se, but the numeral ṡāhu, one, can play the role of an indefinite article. It is placed before the noun, agreeing with it in case by using the adjectival endings.

	formal	informal
direct	ṡāhu	ṡāhu
genitive	ṡāhurɛ	ṡāhur
dative	ṡāhuxjɛ	ṡāhux

Examples:

suvɛ līlužɛc sōgu pūɣɛrɛ
the dog see the house of the man

ṡāhu suvɛ līlužɛc ṡāhu sōgu ṡāhurɛ/ṡāhur pūɣɛrɛ
a dog sees a house of a man

Noun declension

Nouns are declined in case by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

direct	-
genitive	-rɛ
dative	-xjɛ

Nouns are also declined for number, with different models:

• The base form for the dual number is built by adding the ending -hiw:

suvɛ → suvɛhiw
dog → two dogs

• The base form for the plural number is built by changing the last vowel of the noun root. The general vowel changes are:

u → ū	ū → ū	ä → äw
o → ū	ō → ū	ö → ő
i → ü	ī → ü	ő → őw
ɛ → ö	ā → āw	ü → ü
a → o		iw → ü

As it can be noticed, nouns whose base form ends in -ū and -ü do not distinguish any different plural forms.

Case endings are added to these base forms.

Some examples are shown below: vɛvju, father, and hő, woman.

	vɛvju		hő
	singular	dual	plural	singular	dual	plural
direct	vɛvju	vɛvjuhiw	vɛvjū	hő	hőhiw	hőw
oblique	vɛvjurɛ	vɛvjuhiwrɛ	vɛvjūrɛ	hőrɛ	hőhiwrɛ	hőwrɛ
oblique	vɛvjuxjɛ	vɛvjuhiwxjɛ	vɛvjūxjɛ	hőxjɛ	hőhiwxjɛ	hőwxjɛ

Nouns ending in a consonant in their base form, mostly loanwords, usually add a euphonic vowel before the endings of the other cases. This vowel is generally -u-, but other vowels are also possible. These added vowels undergo the regular pluralization process.

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, usually showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them of after the verb.

çōvā vīru
the young man

vīru çōvā 
the man is young

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings.

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Adjectival declension follow the same rules as the nominal declension, with the same exceptions.

Example: ṡūriw, big, with sōgu, house

	attributive declension
	singular	dual	plural
direct	ṡūriw sōgu	ṡūriwhiw sōguhiw	ṡūrü sōgū
genitive	ṡūriwrɛ sōgurɛ	ṡūriwhiwrɛ sōguhiwrɛ	ṡūrürɛ sōgūrɛ
dative	ṡūriwxjɛ sōguxjɛ	ṡūriwhiwxjɛ sōguhiwxjɛ	ṡūrüxjɛ sōgūxjɛ

In the colloquial speech and in informal texts, attributive adjectives display a set of simpler endings.

	attributive declension
	singular	dual	plural
direct	ṡūriw sōgu	ṡūriwhiw sōguhiw	ṡūrü sōgū
genitive	ṡūriwr sōgurɛ	ṡūriwhiwr sōguhiwrɛ	ṡūrür sōgūrɛ
dative	ṡūriwx sōguxjɛ	ṡūriwhiwx sōguhiwxjɛ	ṡūrüx sōgūxjɛ

In some dialects, this set is even simpler, both losing the distinction between the genitive case and the dative case ending, which merge in the sole ending -r, and losing the distinction between plural and dual forms, which are conveyed by the plural forms alone.

	attributive declension
	singular	dual	plural
direct	ṡūriw sōgu	ṡūrü sōguhiw	ṡūrü sōgū
genitive	ṡūriwr sōgurɛ	ṡūrür sōguhiwrɛ	ṡūrür sōgūrɛ
dative	ṡūriwr sōguxjɛ	ṡūrür sōguhiwxjɛ	ṡūrür sōgūxjɛ

The usage of these simpler sets of endings is generally proscribed in formal speech and in official texts.

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns feature a distinction between two forms for the direct case. The first form (named direct₁) is used as the subject of the clauses, for every kind of verbs. The second form (named direct₂) is used as the direct object of the clause, for transitive verbs, and with every preposition requiring the direct case.

Moreover, the first two persons (1^st and 2^nd) have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension. On the other hand, the 3^rdperson has only one root, displaying, however, a similar irregular declension.

	1st sing.	2nd sing.	3rd sing.	1st dual.	2nd dual.	3rd dual.	1st plur.	2nd plur.	3rd plur.
direct1	ūdju	irdju	jɛšlu	ūdjuhiw	irdjuhiw	jɛšluhiw	ūdjū	irdjū	jɛšlū
direct2	çu	njɛ	jɛš	çuhiw	njɛhiw	jɛšhiw	çū	njö	jɛžū
genitive	çurɛ	njɛrɛ	jɛšrɛ	çuhiwrɛ	njɛhiwrɛ	jɛšhiwrɛ	çūrɛ	njörɛ	jɛžūrɛ
dative	çuxjɛ	njɛxjɛ	jɛšxjɛ	çuhiwxjɛ	njɛhiwxjɛ	jɛšhiwxjɛ	çūxjɛ	njöxjɛ	jɛžūxjɛ

When used alone, the forms for the direct object may be placed before the conjugated verb in the sentence, but they are usually found in their syntactical position.

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).

• what: šɛ
• who: ṡā

Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings.

ṡāxjɛ guʝɛɣīdu irdju šiwči?
whom did you give water to?

There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):

• šɛlutsɛr: where (static location)
• šɛluxjɛ: where (motion toward)
• šɛlužu: where... from (motion form)
• šɛluku: why (cause)
• šɛčuhō: when
• šɛmiwni: how much (inanimate)
• ṡāmiwni: how much (animate)
• šɛʝābču: how

There are also the following interrogative adjectives:

• šɛgu: which (inanimate)
• ṡāgu: which (animate)
• šɛmiwni: how much / many (inanimate)
• ṡāmiwni: how much / many (animate)

Adjectives display a complete adjectival declension, while pronouns are declined according the nominal declension.

Within an interrogative clause, pronouns usually are usually moved at the beginning of the sentence. Their syntactical position is regarded as extremely marked.

ṡāmiwnü çɛɣü xihīxir?
how many sheep do you have?

In addition, like other parts of the sentences, they can be introduced by prepositions:

gū ṡāxjɛ cɛgiʝug?
whom is he talking about?

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

Cardinal numerals

The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
1:	ṡāhu
2:	hɛɣiw
3:	miwgō
4:	gōli
5:	šāɣi
6:	tūlɛ
7:	xɛžɛ
8:	čuhi
9:	tsōǧu
10:	pihu

Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + pihü, with some irregularities:

digit	noun form
11:	ṡāhupihü
12:	hɛɣiwpihü
13:	miwgōpihü
14:	gōlipihü
15:	šāɣipihü
16:	tūlɛpihü
17:	xɛžɛpihü
18:	čuhipihü
19:	tsōǧupihü

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
100:	ňācju
1000:	viwhā

The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + -pihudjū / -ňācjū / -viwhādjū, with some irregularities:

	tens	hundreds	thousands
2x:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiw	hɛɣiwňācjuhiw	hɛgiviwhādjuhiw
3x:	miwgōpihudjū	miwgōňācjū	miwgōviwhādjū
4x:	gōlipihudjū	gōliňācjū	gōliviwhādjū
5x:	šāɣipihudjū	šāɣiňācjū	šāɣiviwhādjū
6x:	tūlɛpihudjū	tūlɛňācjū	tūlɛviwhādjū
7x:	xɛžɛpihudjū	xɛžɛňācjū	xɛžɛviwhādjū
8x:	čuhipihudjū	čuhiňācjū	čuhiviwhādjū
9x:	tsōǧupihudjū	tsōǧuňācjū	tsōǧuviwhādjū

The numerals for “million” and “billion” are nominal forms on their own (the latter is an adapted loanword from Iðâɣ language):

digit	noun form
1,000,000:	viwhālu
1,000,000,000:	mesürentu (from I. mêšúrěntu)

These forms are treated as regularly declinable nouns:

digit	noun form
3,000,000:	miwgō viwhālū
6,000,000,000:	tūlɛ mesürentū

If these numerals are used as simple count forms, they are declined in the direct case. Inside of a structured sentence, they are declined according the case required by their syntactical role. Nouns adjoining such numerals are introduced by the preposition xāč and are declined in the genitive case:

hɛɣiw viwhāluhiwxjɛ xāč pūɣörɛ
to two millions people

Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

• 1985: viwhā tsōǧuňācjū čuhipihudjū šāɣi

When cardinal numbers have an adjective-like function, or when they are used as as simple count forms, they are meant as indeclinable forms (except for "million" and "billion").

sōgu miwgō mācudürɛ çurɛ 
my three friends' house

ṡāhu, hɛɣiw, miwgō, gōli, ...
one, two, three, four, ...

Every numeral, however, can also have a pronominal function. In this case, they are declined in the required case. They are declined only in the singular declension.

sōgu miwgōrɛ 
the house of those three (people)

The numeral ṡāhu is a notable exception, since its role as an indefinite article in modern texts is rapidly increasing. It thus displays a complete adjectival declension.

In the earlier modern period the idea of “zero” is introduced from Cärähə language. This numeral is however usually limited to mathematics:

digit	noun form
0:	xesü (from C. xesü)

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the ordinal ending -rō to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	adjective form
1st:	ṡāhurō
2nd:	hɛɣiwrō
3rd:	miwgōrō
4th:	gōlirō
5th:	šāɣirō
6th:	tūlɛrō
7th:	xɛžɛrō
8th:	čuhirō
9th:	tsōǧurō
10th:	pihurō
11th:	ṡāhupihürō
12th:	hɛɣiwpihürō
20th:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiwrō
60th:	tūlɛpihudjūrō

Ordinal numerals for “millionth” and “billionth” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only adjectival word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000th:	viwhālurō
1,000,000,000th:	mesürenturō
3,000,000,000th:	miwgōmesürentūrō

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25^th: hɛɣiwpihudjū šāɣirō

Fractional numerals

Fractional numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -gū to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numerals zero, one, and an irregular suppletive form:

digit	full form
1:	-
2:	čūpu
3:	miwgōgū
4:	gōligū
5:	šāɣigū
6:	tūlɛgū
7:	xɛžɛgū
8:	čuhigū
9:	tsōǧugū
10:	pihugū
11:	ṡāhupihügū
12:	hɛɣiwpihügū
20:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiwgū
60:	tūlɛpihudjūgū
300:	miwgōňācjūgū
9000:	tsōǧuviwhādjūgū

Fractional numerals for “millionth” and “billionth” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000:	viwhālugū
1,000,000,000:	mesürentugū
3,000,000,000:	miwgōmesürentūgū

Distributive numerals

Distributive numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -riǧi to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	full form
1:	ṡāhuriǧi
2:	hɛɣiwriǧi
3:	miwgōriǧi
4:	gōliriǧi
5:	šāɣiriǧi
6:	tūlɛriǧi
7:	xɛžɛriǧi
8:	čuhiriǧi
9:	tsōǧuriǧi
10:	pihuriǧi
11:	ṡāhupihüriǧi
12:	hɛɣiwpihüriǧi
20:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiwriǧi
60:	tūlɛpihudjūriǧi
300:	miwgōňācjūriǧi
9000:	tsōǧuviwhādjūriǧi

Distributive numerals for “million” and “billion” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000:	viwhāluriǧi
1,000,000,000:	mesürenturiǧi
3,000,000,000:	miwgōmesürentūriǧi

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: hɛɣiwpihudjū šāɣiriǧi

Multiplier numerals

Multiplier numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -rigu to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	full form
1:	ṡāhurigu
2:	hɛɣiwrigu
3:	miwgōrigu
4:	gōlirigu
5:	šāɣirigu
6:	tūlɛrigu
7:	xɛžɛrigu
8:	čuhirigu
9:	tsōǧurigu
10:	pihurigu
11:	ṡāhupihürigu
12:	hɛɣiwpihürigu
20:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiwrigu
60:	tūlɛpihudjūrigu
300:	miwgōňācjūrigu
9000:	tsōǧuviwhādjūrigu

Multiplier numerals for “million” and “billion” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000:	viwhālurigu
1,000,000,000:	mesürenturigu
3,000,000,000:	miwgōmesürentūrigu

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: hɛɣiwpihudjū šāɣirigu

Verbs

The verbal system of Viwdiwgu language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C

Example:

Rimp = gɛɣuɣ- → Rprf = guɣɛɣ-

In addition to vowels, the diphthongs -jɛ-, -ju- and -iw- can be switched:

Rimp = čiwgul- → Rprf = čugiwl-

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowels involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:

Rimp = hūɣāzuz- → Rprf = hūɣuzāz-

Rimp = ṡihiwšōr- → Rprf = ṡiwhižōr-

Rimp = xjɛcɛɣilig- → Rprf = xjɛtsiɣɛlig-

Some monosyllabic roots are not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective).

A very limited amount of roots, mostly loanwords and some monosyllabic roots, derive their perfective roots by adding the suffix -ig.

A threefold temporal distinction is also made, among present, past, and future tenses. In the present tense there is no aspectual distinction, being this tense built only on the imperfective root.

There are three verbal moods and two non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, potential
• Non-finite: infinitive, participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -iwgɛ, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

All verbs are divided in two classes, depending on the outcome of the third singular person. In the first class (class I), the ending -jɛc/-́ɛc is used, with some possible irregularities, while in the second class (class II), a null ending is used, with a more regular outcome.

The following personal endings are then added to various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	-ū	-ū
2nd sing.	-ir	-ir
3rd sing.	-jɛc / -jɛc	-
1st dual	-iwhū	-iwhū
2nd dual	-iwhir	-iwhir
3rd dual	-iwcɛc	-iwh
1st plur.	-ü	-ü
2nd plur.	-ür	-ür
3rd plur.	-ünjɛc	-ün

In the 3^rd singular person, one of the endings displays two possible forms, -jɛc or -^jɛc. After some consonants this ending appears as -ɛc, and palatalizes the previous consonant, or it is added to an already palatalized consonant without further effects.

djumɛliwgɛ → djumɛʝɛc
to drink → he/she/it drinks

lilužiwgɛ → līlužɛc
to see → he/she/it sees

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

• indicative: Ø
• subjunctive: -iwň-
• potential: -jɛts- / -^jɛts-

The potential mood infix displays the same irregularities as the 3^rd singular person ending and it follows the same rules. All modal infixes merge with the 3^rd singular person ending:

• -iwň- + -jɛc = -iwňɛc
• -jɛts- + -jɛc = -jɛcɛc

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

• infinitive: -iwgɛ
• passive participle: -juɣiw- / -^juɣiw-

The participle ending displays the same irregularities as the 3^rd singular person ending and it follows the same rules.

A distinction between an active diathesis and a passive diathesis is made. However, the passive diathesis distinguishes an extremely reduced amount of forms.

Conjugation of regular verbs

Sample verbs: as a class I verb, mōtsɛdiwgɛ, to pick up, to collect, as a class II verb, xiṡɛɣiwgɛ, to fall.

Active diathesis

Indicative mood

Imperfective present tense

The imperfective present is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the imperfective root:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mōtsɛdū	xiṡɛɣū
2nd sing.	mōtsɛdir	xiṡɛɣir
3rd sing.	mōtsɛdjɛc	xiṡɛg
1st dual	mōtsɛdiwhū	xiṡɛɣiwhū
2nd dual	mōtsɛdiwhir	xiṡɛɣiwhir
3rd dual	mōtsɛdiwcɛc	xiṡɛɣiwh
1st plur.	mōtsɛdü	xiṡɛɣü
2nd plur.	mōtsɛdür	xiṡɛɣür
3rd plur.	mōtsɛdünjɛc	xiṡɛɣün

In the 3^rd singular person, which features the ending -jɛc/-^jɛc or null ending, irregularities may often occur, including palatalization or alteration of the last root consonant.

Perfective future tense

The perfective future is a simple tense. The personal endings are added to the perfective root:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mɛtsōdū	xɛṡiɣū
2nd sing.	mɛtsōdir	xɛṡiɣir
3rd sing.	mɛtsōdjɛc	xɛṡig
1st dual	mɛtsōdiwhū	xɛṡiɣiwhū
2nd dual	mɛtsōdiwhir	xɛṡiɣiwhir
3rd dual	mɛtsōdiwcɛc	xɛṡiɣiwh
1st plur.	mɛtsōdü	xɛṡiɣü
2nd plur.	mɛtsōdür	xɛṡiɣür
3rd plur.	mmɛtsōdünjɛc	xɛṡiɣün

In the 3^rd singular person, which features the ending -jɛc/-^jɛc or null ending, irregularities may often occur, including palatalization or alteration of the last root consonant.

Imperfective future tense

The imperfective future is a simple tense. The infix -iwç- and the personal endings are added to the imperfective root:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mōtsɛdiwçū	xiṡɛɣiwçū
2nd sing.	mōtsɛdiwçir	xiṡɛɣiwçir
3rd sing.	mōtsɛdiwčɛc	xiṡɛɣiwç
1st dual	mōtsɛdiwçiwhū	xiṡɛɣiwçiwhū
2nd dual	mōtsɛdiwçiwhir	xiṡɛɣiwçiwhir
3rd dual	mōtsɛdiwçiwcɛc	xiṡɛɣiwçiwh
1st plur.	mōtsɛdiwçü	xiṡɛɣiwçü
2nd plur.	mōtsɛdiwçür	xiṡɛɣiwçür
3rd plur.	mōtsɛdiwçünjɛc	xiṡɛɣiwçün

The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only slight irregularity the merging of the infix with the 3^rd singular person ending.

Imperfective past tense

The imperfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). The suffix -īdu is added to the imperfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person) through the morphemes of the nominal/adjectival declension.

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mōtsɛdīdu	xiṡɛɣīdu
2nd sing.	mōtsɛdīdu	xiṡɛɣīdu
3rd sing.	mōtsɛdīdu	xiṡɛɣīdu
1st dual	mōtsɛdīduhiw	xiṡɛɣīduhiw
2nd dual	mōtsɛdīduhiw	xiṡɛɣīduhiw
3rd dual	mōtsɛdīduhiw	xiṡɛɣīduhiw
1st plur.	mōtsɛdīdū	xiṡɛɣīdū
2nd plur.	mōtsɛdīdū	xiṡɛɣīdū
3rd plur.	mōtsɛdīdū	xiṡɛɣīdū

As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.

Perfective past tense

The perfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). The suffix -īdu is added to the perfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person) through the morphemes of the nominal/adjectival declension.

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mɛtsōdīdu	xɛṡiɣīdu
2nd sing.	mɛtsōdīdu	xɛṡiɣīdu
3rd sing.	mɛtsōdīdu	xɛṡiɣīdu
1st dual	mɛtsōdīduhiw	xɛṡiɣīduhiw
2nd dual	mɛtsōdīduhiw	xɛṡiɣīduhiw
3rd dual	mɛtsōdīduhiw	xɛṡiɣīduhiw
1st plur.	mɛtsōdīdū	xɛṡiɣīdū
2nd plur.	mɛtsōdīdū	xɛṡiɣīdū
3rd plur.	mɛtsōdīdū	xɛṡiɣīdū

As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.

The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the same perfective root.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is mostly used in dependent clauses, in the so-called personal constructions. Its usage in main clauses is quite limited, except for its role as an imperative an exhortative form.

The subjunctive widely features the infix -iwň-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings.

Imperfective present tense

The imperfective present is a simple tense. The infix -iwň- and the personal endings are added to the imperfective root:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mōtsɛdiwňū	xiṡɛɣiwňū
2nd sing.	mōtsɛdiwňir	xiṡɛɣiwňir
3rd sing.	mōtsɛdiwňɛc	xiṡɛɣiwň
1st dual	mōtsɛdiwňiwhū	xiṡɛɣiwňiwhū
2nd dual	mōtsɛdiwňiwňiwhir	xiṡɛɣiwňiwhir
3rd dual	mōtsɛdiwňiwcɛc	xiṡɛɣiwňiwh
1st plur.	mōtsɛdiwňü	xiṡɛɣiwňü
2nd plur.	mōtsɛdiwňür	xiṡɛɣiwňür
3rd plur.	mōtsɛdiwňünjɛc	xiṡɛɣiwňün

The subjunctive infix merges with the 3^rd singular person ending in class I, turning into -iwňɛc. The 3^rd singular person ending in class II is generally regular. No other irregularities usually occur.

Perfective future tense

The perfective future is a simple tense. The infix -iwň- and the personal endings are added to the perfective root:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mɛtsōdiwňū	xɛṡiɣiwňū
2nd sing.	mɛtsōdiwňir	xɛṡiɣiwňir
3rd sing.	mɛtsōdiwňɛc	xɛṡiɣiwň
1st dual	mɛtsōdiwňiwhū	xɛṡiɣiwňiwhū
2nd dual	mɛtsōdiwňiwňiwhir	xɛṡiɣiwňiwhir
3rd dual	mɛtsōdiwňiwcɛc	xɛṡiɣiwňiwh
1st plur.	mɛtsōdiwňü	xɛṡiɣiwňü
2nd plur.	mɛtsōdiwňür	xɛṡiɣiwňür
3rd plur.	mɛtsōdiwňünjɛc	xɛṡiɣiwňün

The subjunctive infix merges with the 3^rd singular person ending in class I, turning into -iwňɛc. The 3^rd singular person ending in class II is generally regular. No other irregularities usually occur.

Imperfective future tense

The imperfective future is a simple tense. The subjunctive infix -iwň-, the infix -iwç- and the personal endings are added to the imperfective root:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mōtsɛdiwňiwçū	xiṡɛɣiwňiwçū
2nd sing.	mōtsɛdiwňiwçir	xiṡɛɣiwňiwçir
3rd sing.	mōtsɛdiwňiwčɛc	xiṡɛɣiwňiwç
1st dual	mōtsɛdiwňiwçiwhū	xiṡɛɣiwňiwçiwhū
2nd dual	mōtsɛdiwňiwçiwhir	xiṡɛɣiwňiwçiwhir
3rd dual	mōtsɛdiwňiwçiwcɛc	xiṡɛɣiwňiwçiwh
1st plur.	mōtsɛdiwňiwçü	xiṡɛɣiwňiwçü
2nd plur.	mōtsɛdiwňiwçür	xiṡɛɣiwňiwçür
3rd plur.	mōtsɛdiwňiwçünjɛc	xiṡɛɣiwňiwçün

The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only slight irregularity the merging of the infix with the 3^rd singular person ending.

Imperfective past tense

The imperfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). The subjunctive infix -iwň- and the suffix -īdu are added to the imperfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person) through the morphemes of the nominal/adjectival declension.

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mōtsɛdiwňīdu	xiṡɛɣiwňīdu
2nd sing.	mōtsɛdiwňīdu	xiṡɛɣiwňīdu
3rd sing.	mōtsɛdiwňīdu	xiṡɛɣiwňīdu
1st dual	mōtsɛdiwňīduhiw	xiṡɛɣiwňīduhiw
2nd dual	mōtsɛdiwňīduhiw	xiṡɛɣiwňīduhiw
3rd dual	mōtsɛdiwňīduhiw	xiṡɛɣiwňīduhiw
1st plur.	mōtsɛdiwňīdū	xiṡɛɣiwňīdū
2nd plur.	mōtsɛdiwňīdū	xiṡɛɣiwňīdū
3rd plur.	mōtsɛdiwňīdū	xiṡɛɣiwňīdū

As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.

Perfective past tense

The perfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). TThe subjunctive infix -iwň- and the suffix -īdu are added to the perfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person) through the morphemes of the nominal/adjectival declension.

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mɛtsōdiwňīdu	xɛṡiɣiwňīdu
2nd sing.	mɛtsōdiwňīdu	xɛṡiɣiwňīdu
3rd sing.	mɛtsōdiwňīdu	xɛṡiɣiwňīdu
1st dual	mɛtsōdiwňīduhiw	xɛṡiɣiwňīduhiw
2nd dual	mɛtsōdiwňīduhiw	xɛṡiɣiwňīduhiw
3rd dual	mɛtsōdiwňīduhiw	xɛṡiɣiwňīduhiw
1st plur.	mɛtsōdiwňīdū	xɛṡiɣiwňīdū
2nd plur.	mɛtsōdiwňīdū	xɛṡiɣiwňīdū
3rd plur.	mɛtsōdiwňīdū	xɛṡiɣiwňīdū

As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.

The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the same perfective root.

Potential mood

The potential mood is used to convey potentiality and probability. It is regularly used both in main and dependent clauses.

The potential widely features the infix -jɛts-/-́ɛts-, which is placed between the root and the personal endings. This infix displays two possible forms, -jɛts- or -^jɛts-. The latter form is used after some consonants, palatalizing them, or is used after already palatalized consonants, without any further effect.

djumɛliwgɛ → djumɛʝɛtsū
to drink → I might drink

lilužiwgɛ → līlužɛtsū
to see → I might see

Imperfective present tense

The imperfective present is a simple tense. The infix -jɛts-/-́ɛts- and the personal endings are added to the imperfective root:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mōtsɛdjɛtsū	xiṡɛɣjɛtsū
2nd sing.	mōtsɛdjɛtsir	xiṡɛɣjɛtsir
3rd sing.	mōtsɛdjɛcɛc	xiṡɛɣjɛts
1st dual	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwhū	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwhū
2nd dual	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwňiwhir	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwhir
3rd dual	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwcɛc	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwh
1st plur.	mōtsɛdjɛtsü	xiṡɛɣjɛtsü
2nd plur.	mōtsɛdjɛtsür	xiṡɛɣjɛtsür
3rd plur.	mōtsɛdjɛtsünjɛc	xiṡɛɣjɛtsün

The potential infix merges with the 3^rd singular person ending in class I, turning into -jɛcɛc. The 3^rd singular person ending in class II is generally regular. No other irregularities usually occur.

Perfective future tense

The perfective future is a simple tense. The infix -jɛts-/-́ɛts- and the personal endings are added to the perfective root:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mɛtsōdjɛtsū	xɛṡiɣjɛtsū
2nd sing.	mɛtsōdjɛtsir	xɛṡiɣjɛtsir
3rd sing.	mɛtsōdjɛcɛc	xɛṡiɣjɛts
1st dual	mɛtsōdjɛtsiwhū	xɛṡiɣjɛtsiwhū
2nd dual	mɛtsōdjɛtsiwňiwhir	xɛṡiɣjɛtsiwhir
3rd dual	mɛtsōdjɛtsiwcɛc	xɛṡiɣjɛtsiwh
1st plur.	mɛtsōdjɛtsü	xɛṡiɣjɛtsü
2nd plur.	mɛtsōdjɛtsür	xɛṡiɣjɛtsür
3rd plur.	mɛtsōdjɛtsünjɛc	xɛṡiɣjɛtsün

The potential infix merges with the 3^rd singular person ending in class I, turning into -jɛcɛc. The 3^rd singular person ending in class II is generally regular. No other irregularities usually occur.

Imperfective future tense

The imperfective future is a simple tense. The potential infix -jɛts-/-́ɛts-, the infix -iwç- and the personal endings are added to the imperfective root:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwçū	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwçū
2nd sing.	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwçir	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwçir
3rd sing.	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwčɛc	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwç
1st dual	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwçiwhū	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwçiwhū
2nd dual	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwçiwhir	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwçiwhir
3rd dual	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwçiwcɛc	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwçiwh
1st plur.	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwçü	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwçü
2nd plur.	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwçür	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwçür
3rd plur.	mōtsɛdjɛtsiwçünjɛc	xiṡɛɣjɛtsiwçün

The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only slight irregularity the merging of the infix with the 3^rd singular person ending.

Imperfective past tense

The imperfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). The potential infix -jɛts-/-́ɛts- and the suffix -īdu are added to the imperfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person) through the morphemes of the nominal/adjectival declension.

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mōtsɛdjɛtsīdu	xiṡɛɣjɛtsīdu
2nd sing.	mōtsɛdjɛtsīdu	xiṡɛɣjɛtsīdu
3rd sing.	mōtsɛdjɛtsīdu	xiṡɛɣjɛtsīdu
1st dual	mōtsɛdjɛtsīduhiw	xiṡɛɣjɛtsīduhiw
2nd dual	mōtsɛdjɛtsīduhiw	xiṡɛɣjɛtsīduhiw
3rd dual	mōtsɛdjɛtsīduhiw	xiṡɛɣjɛtsīduhiw
1st plur.	mōtsɛdjɛtsīdū	xiṡɛɣjɛtsīdū
2nd plur.	mōtsɛdjɛtsīdū	xiṡɛɣjɛtsīdū
3rd plur.	mōtsɛdjɛtsīdū	xiṡɛɣjɛtsīdū

As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.

Perfective past tense

The perfective past is a simple tense (although derived from an older compound tense). TThe potential infix -jɛts-/-́ɛts- and the suffix -īdu are added to the perfective root. The forms of this tense agree with the clause subject only in number (not in person) through the morphemes of the nominal/adjectival declension.

	class I	class II
1st sing.	mɛtsōdjɛtsīdu	xɛṡiɣjɛtsīdu
2nd sing.	mɛtsōdjɛtsīdu	xɛṡiɣjɛtsīdu
3rd sing.	mɛtsōdjɛtsīdu	xɛṡiɣjɛtsīdu
1st dual	mɛtsōdjɛtsīduhiw	xɛṡiɣjɛtsīduhiw
2nd dual	mɛtsōdjɛtsīduhiw	xɛṡiɣjɛtsīduhiw
3rd dual	mɛtsōdjɛtsīduhiw	xɛṡiɣjɛtsīduhiw
1st plur.	mɛtsōdjɛtsīdū	xɛṡiɣjɛtsīdū
2nd plur.	mɛtsōdjɛtsīdū	xɛṡiɣjɛtsīdū
3rd plur.	mɛtsōdjɛtsīdū	xɛṡiɣjɛtsīdū

As these forms do not agree in person with the subject, the usage of personal pronouns is mandatorily required, when a noun is not used.

The formation of this tense is regarded as essentially regular, being the only irregularities in the same perfective root.

Non-finite forms

The non-finite verbal forms are:

Infinitive

It is regarded as the citation form of the verb, and it is not conjugated in person or number. It has, however, an imperfective and a perfective form, respectively built on the imperfective root and on the perfective root. It is marked by the ending -iwgɛ.

	class I	class II
imperfective	mōtsɛdiwgɛ	xiṡɛɣiwgɛ
perfective	mɛtsōdiwgɛ	xɛṡiɣiwgɛ

The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb and it can be declined only in the singular number. It can also be introduced by a preposition. Its basic form is regarded as the direct case.

There are, however, a limited amount of verbs with irregular infinitive forms, where the infinitve ending merges with the root or is slightly altered.

čilügɛ
to sleep

Participle

The participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It has a passive meaning and it is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state. It is, thus, usually not used with intransitive verbs (with some of which it may take an impersonal value). In verbal conjugation, it agrees with the subject in number, while it agrees also in case with its adjoining noun, displaying thus a complete declension, in its adjectival role.

It has, however, an imperfective and a perfective form, respectively built on the imperfective root and on the perfective root. It widely features the infix -juɣi/-́uɣi, which is placed between the root and the personal endings. This infix displays two possible forms, -juɣi or -^juɣi-. The latter form is used after some consonants, palatalizing them, or is used after already palatalized consonants, without any further effect.

djumɛliwgɛ → djumɛʝuɣiw
to drink → drunk

lilužiwgɛ → līlužuɣiw
to see → seen

Examples:

	class I	class II
imperfective	mōtsɛdjuɣiw	xiṡɛɣjuɣiw
perfective	mɛtsōdjuɣiw	xɛṡiɣjuɣiw

Passive diathesis and impersonal form

The passive diathesis displays a far lesser amount of forms than the active diathesis. It is formed with the participle, which distinguished only the verbal aspect and the number of the clause subject.

• The imperfective form of the participle is used to convey an ongoing action, mainly in the present or in the future.
• The perfective form of the participle is used to convey a completed and finished action, mainly in the past.

Examples:

šūnju šiwšɛčuɣiw
the field is/will be cultivated

šūnjū šɛšiwɛčuɣü
the fields were cultivated

Intransitive verbs do not have a proper passive diathesis, but they may have a participial form. This form is used with an impersonal value, instead of a passive one.

xiṡɛɣjuɣiw
one falls, people fall

The impersonal form is mostly used in the singular number, but it may be found also in the plural, with a kind of collective meaning.

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb hīziwgɛ. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.

Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the indicative infinitival form of the negated verb as direct object, which is placed right after the negative verb itself. Aspect and tense are conveyed by the combinations of the negative verb and the infinitival forms, according to the following patterns:

Imperfective present	present forms of hīziwgɛ + imperfective infinitive
Imperfective future	present forms of hīziwgɛ + imperfective infinitive
Perfective future	present forms of hīziwgɛ + perfective infinitive
Imperfective past	past forms of hīziwgɛ + imperfective infinitive
Perfective past	past forms of hīziwgɛ + perfective infinitive

The building patterns of the imperfective present and the imperfective future are essentially the same. Only the context, or some temporal hints, like adverbs, can distinguish the correct tense.

The object of the infinitive is, notably, usually declined in the genitive case. In the colloquial language and in modern texts, conversely, this object is commonly declined in the direct case.

suvɛ ňɛmīčɛc vīru → suvɛ hīsjɛc ňɛmīčiwgɛ vīrurɛ/vīru
the dog will bite the man → the dog won’t bite the man

suvɛ čilun → suvɛ hīs čilügɛ
the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping

As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the class of the negated verb.

With modal verbs the infinitival form of the modal verb is used, while the negative verb is used in the same tense and mood of the modal verb in the positive form.

pjɛɣizir çɛziriwgɛ çu → hīzir pjɛɣiziwgɛ çɛziriwgɛ çu
you can help me → you cannot help me

The negation of the passive diathesis is formed, conversely, by replacing the infinitival form of the negated verb with its participle. In this form, only the 3^rd person endings of the class II are used:

vīru ňīmɛčuɣiw → vīru hīs ňīmɛčuɣiw
the man is bitten → the man is not bitten

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.