Viwdiwgu morphology

Main article: Viwdiwgu

This page gives an extensive description of Viwdiwgu morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in Viwdiwgu language end almost exclusively in a vowel or in the recurring -iw diphthong. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -u-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.

Nouns display neither gender nor class distinction. There are, however, three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular, dual, and plural.

The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):

līlužū suvö
I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)

līlužū suvɛhiw
I see two dogs (it cannot be any other number)

In this case, the usage of the numeral hɛgiw, two, is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.

līlužū hɛɣiw suvɛhiw
I see two dogs (the amount of two is purposedly highlighted)

There is a limited case system. If a noun is deemed as indefinite, a form of indefinite article is used and placed before it.

Cases

Viwdiwgu nouns do decline, according to a nominative-accusative system with 3 cases:

Case	Meaning
Direct	This case marks both the subject and the direct object of a verb. It is also used with some prepositions. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.
Genitive	This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It is used with many prepositions. It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb.
Dative	This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place). It is used with many prepositions.

Articles

There is no article per se, but the numeral ṡāhu, one, can play the role of an indefinite article. It is placed before the noun, agreeing with it in case by using the adjectival endings.

	formal	informal
direct	ṡāhu	ṡāhu
genitive	ṡāhurɛ	ṡāhur
dative	ṡāhuxjɛ	ṡāhux

Examples:

suvɛ līlužɛc sōgu pūɣɛrɛ
the dog see the house of the man

ṡāhu suvɛ līlužɛc ṡāhu sōgu ṡāhurɛ/ṡāhur pūɣɛrɛ
a dog sees a house of a man

Noun declension

Nouns are declined in case by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

direct	-
genitive	-rɛ
dative	-xjɛ

Nouns are also declined for number, with different models:

• The base form for the dual number is built by adding the ending -hiw:

suvɛ → suvɛhiw
dog → two dogs

• The base form for the plural number is built by changing the last vowel of the noun root. The general vowel changes are:

u → ū	ū → ū	ä → äw
o → ū	ō → ū	ö → ő
i → ü	ī → ü	ő → őw
ɛ → ö	ā → āw	ü → ü
a → o		iw → ü

As it can be noticed, nouns whose base form ends in -ū and -ü do not distinguish any different plural forms.

Case endings are added to these base forms.

Some examples are shown below: vɛvju, father, and hő, woman.

	vɛvju		hő
	singular	dual	plural	singular	dual	plural
direct	vɛvju	vɛvjuhiw	vɛvjū	hő	hőhiw	hőw
oblique	vɛvjurɛ	vɛvjuhiwrɛ	vɛvjūrɛ	hőrɛ	hőhiwrɛ	hőwrɛ
oblique	vɛvjuxjɛ	vɛvjuhiwxjɛ	vɛvjūxjɛ	hőxjɛ	hőhiwxjɛ	hőwxjɛ

Nouns ending in a consonant in their base form, mostly loanwords, usually add a euphonic vowel before the endings of the other cases. This vowel is generally -u-, but other vowels are also possible. These added vowels undergo the regular pluralization process.

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, usually showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them of after the verb.

çōvā vīru
the young man

vīru çōvā 
the man is young

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings.

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Adjectival declension follow the same rules as the nominal declension, with the same exceptions.

Example: ṡūriw, big, with sōgu, house

	attributive declension
	singular	dual	plural
direct	ṡūriw sōgu	ṡūriwhiw sōguhiw	ṡūrü sōgū
genitive	ṡūriwrɛ sōgurɛ	ṡūriwhiwrɛ sōguhiwrɛ	ṡūrürɛ sōgūrɛ
dative	ṡūriwxjɛ sōguxjɛ	ṡūriwhiwxjɛ sōguhiwxjɛ	ṡūrüxjɛ sōgūxjɛ

In the colloquial speech and in informal texts, attributive adjectives display a set of simpler endings.

	attributive declension
	singular	dual	plural
direct	ṡūriw sōgu	ṡūriwhiw sōguhiw	ṡūrü sōgū
genitive	ṡūriwr sōgurɛ	ṡūriwhiwr sōguhiwrɛ	ṡūrür sōgūrɛ
dative	ṡūriwx sōguxjɛ	ṡūriwhiwx sōguhiwxjɛ	ṡūrüx sōgūxjɛ

In some dialects, this set is even simpler, both losing the distinction between the genitive case and the dative case ending, which merge in the sole ending -r, and losing the distinction between plural and dual forms, which are conveyed by the plural forms alone.

	attributive declension
	singular	dual	plural
direct	ṡūriw sōgu	ṡūrü sōguhiw	ṡūrü sōgū
genitive	ṡūriwr sōgurɛ	ṡūrür sōguhiwrɛ	ṡūrür sōgūrɛ
dative	ṡūriwr sōguxjɛ	ṡūrür sōguhiwxjɛ	ṡūrür sōgūxjɛ

The usage of these simpler sets of endings is generally proscribed in formal speech and in official texts.

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

Cardinal numerals

The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
1:	ṡāhu
2:	hɛɣiw
3:	miwgō
4:	gōli
5:	šāɣi
6:	tūlɛ
7:	xɛžɛ
8:	čuhi
9:	tsōǧu
10:	pihu

Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + pihü, with some irregularities:

digit	noun form
11:	ṡāhupihü
12:	hɛɣiwpihü
13:	miwgōpihü
14:	gōlipihü
15:	šāɣipihü
16:	tūlɛpihü
17:	xɛžɛpihü
18:	čuhipihü
19:	tsōǧupihü

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:

digit	noun form
100:	ňācju
1000:	viwhā

The numerals for the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + -pihudjū / -ňācjū / -viwhādjū, with some irregularities:

	tens	hundreds	thousands
2x:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiw	hɛɣiwňācjuhiw	hɛgiviwhādjuhiw
3x:	miwgōpihudjū	miwgōňācjū	miwgōviwhādjū
4x:	gōlipihudjū	gōliňācjū	gōliviwhādjū
5x:	šāɣipihudjū	šāɣiňācjū	šāɣiviwhādjū
6x:	tūlɛpihudjū	tūlɛňācjū	tūlɛviwhādjū
7x:	xɛžɛpihudjū	xɛžɛňācjū	xɛžɛviwhādjū
8x:	čuhipihudjū	čuhiňācjū	čuhiviwhādjū
9x:	tsōǧupihudjū	tsōǧuňācjū	tsōǧuviwhādjū

The numerals for “million” and “billion” are nominal forms on their own (the latter is an adapted loanword from Iðâɣ language):

digit	noun form
1,000,000:	viwhālu
1,000,000,000:	mesürentu (from I. mêšúrěntu)

These forms are treated as regularly declinable nouns:

digit	noun form
3,000,000:	miwgō viwhālū
6,000,000,000:	tūlɛ mesürentū

If these numerals are used as simple count forms, they are declined in the direct case. Inside of a structured sentence, they are declined according the case required by their syntactical role. Nouns adjoining such numerals are introduced by the preposition xāč and are declined in the genitive case:

hɛɣiw viwhāluhiwxjɛ xāč pūɣörɛ
to two millions people

Composite numbers are built by just putting them beside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

• 1985: viwhā tsōǧuňācjū čuhipihudjū šāɣi

When cardinal numbers have an adjective-like function, or when they are used as as simple count forms, they are meant as indeclinable forms (except for "million" and "billion").

sōgu miwgō mācudürɛ çurɛ 
my three friends' house

ṡāhu, hɛɣiw, miwgō, gōli, ...
one, two, three, four, ...

Every numeral, however, can also have a pronominal function. In this case, they are declined in the required case. They are declined only in the singular declension.

sōgu miwgōrɛ 
the house of those three (people)

The numeral ṡāhu is a notable exception, since its role as an indefinite article in modern texts is rapidly increasing. It thus displays a complete adjectival declension.

In the earlier modern period the idea of “zero” is introduced from Cärähə language. This numeral is however usually limited to mathematics:

digit	noun form
0:	xesü (from C. xesü)

Ordinal numerals

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the ordinal ending -rō to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	adjective form
1st:	ṡāhurō
2nd:	hɛɣiwrō
3rd:	miwgōrō
4th:	gōlirō
5th:	šāɣirō
6th:	tūlɛrō
7th:	xɛžɛrō
8th:	čuhirō
9th:	tsōǧurō
10th:	pihurō
11th:	ṡāhupihürō
12th:	hɛɣiwpihürō
20th:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiwrō
60th:	tūlɛpihudjūrō

Ordinal numerals for “millionth” and “billionth” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only adjectival word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000th:	viwhālurō
1,000,000,000th:	mesürenturō
3,000,000,000th:	miwgōmesürentūrō

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25^th: hɛɣiwpihudjū šāɣirō

Fractional numerals

Fractional numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -gū to the cardinal numeral form, with the exceptions of the numerals zero, one, and an irregular suppletive form:

digit	full form
1:	-
2:	čūpu
3:	miwgōgū
4:	gōligū
5:	šāɣigū
6:	tūlɛgū
7:	xɛžɛgū
8:	čuhigū
9:	tsōǧugū
10:	pihugū
11:	ṡāhupihügū
12:	hɛɣiwpihügū
20:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiwgū
60:	tūlɛpihudjūgū
300:	miwgōňācjūgū
9000:	tsōǧuviwhādjūgū

Fractional numerals for “millionth” and “billionth” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000:	viwhālugū
1,000,000,000:	mesürentugū
3,000,000,000:	miwgōmesürentūgū

Distributive numerals

Distributive numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -riǧi to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	full form
1:	ṡāhuriǧi
2:	hɛɣiwriǧi
3:	miwgōriǧi
4:	gōliriǧi
5:	šāɣiriǧi
6:	tūlɛriǧi
7:	xɛžɛriǧi
8:	čuhiriǧi
9:	tsōǧuriǧi
10:	pihuriǧi
11:	ṡāhupihüriǧi
12:	hɛɣiwpihüriǧi
20:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiwriǧi
60:	tūlɛpihudjūriǧi
300:	miwgōňācjūriǧi
9000:	tsōǧuviwhādjūriǧi

Distributive numerals for “million” and “billion” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000:	viwhāluriǧi
1,000,000,000:	mesürenturiǧi
3,000,000,000:	miwgōmesürentūriǧi

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: hɛɣiwpihudjū šāɣiriǧi

Multiplier numerals

Multiplier numerals are formed by adding the derivative ending -rigu to the cardinal numeral form:

digit	full form
1:	ṡāhurigu
2:	hɛɣiwrigu
3:	miwgōrigu
4:	gōlirigu
5:	šāɣirigu
6:	tūlɛrigu
7:	xɛžɛrigu
8:	čuhirigu
9:	tsōǧurigu
10:	pihurigu
11:	ṡāhupihürigu
12:	hɛɣiwpihürigu
20:	hɛɣiwpihudjuhiwrigu
60:	tūlɛpihudjūrigu
300:	miwgōňācjūrigu
9000:	tsōǧuviwhādjūrigu

Multiplier numerals for “million” and “billion” are regularly formed from their corresponding cardinal forms, while their multiples are formed by unifying the separated forms in an only word:

digit	adjective form
1,000,000:	viwhālurigu
1,000,000,000:	mesürenturigu
3,000,000,000:	miwgōmesürentūrigu

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

• 25: hɛɣiwpihudjū šāɣirigu

Verbs

The verbal system of Viwdiwgu language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV1CV2C → CV2CV1C

Example:

Rimp = gɛɣuɣ- → Rprf = guɣɛɣ-

In addition to vowels, the diphthongs -jɛ-, -ju- and -iw- can be switched:

Rimp = čiwgul- → Rprf = čugiwl-

In disyllabic verbal root, all vowels are involved in the switching process.

However, multisyllabic verbal roots can be formed through morphological derivation by adding prefixes or suffixes or both of them. These morphological affixes are usually not involved in the switching process. The vowels involved are those belonging to the original disyllabic root:

Rimp = hūɣāzuz- → Rprf = hūɣuzāz-

Rimp = ṡihiwšōr- → Rprf = ṡiwhižōr-

Rimp = xjɛcɛɣilig- → Rprf = xjɛtsiɣɛlig-

Some monosyllabic roots are not involved in the vowel switching process, being thus deemed as invariable roots without a perfective form (or without an imperfective form, in the very rare case when the base meaning is intrisically perfective).

A very limited amount of roots, mostly loanwords and some monosyllabic roots, derive their perfective roots by adding the suffix -ig.

A threefold temporal distinction is also made, among present, past, and future tenses. In the present tense there is no aspectual distinction, being this tense built only on the imperfective root.

There are three verbal moods and two non-finite forms:

• Moods: indicative, subjunctive, potential
• Non-finite: infinitive, participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -iwgɛ, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

All verbs are divided in two classes, depending on the outcome of the third singular person. In the first class (class I), the ending -jɛc/-́ɛc is used, with some possible irregularities, while in the second class (class II), a null ending is used, with a more regular outcome.

The following personal endings are then added to various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

	class I	class II
1st sing.	-ū	-ū
2nd sing.	-ir	-ir
3rd sing.	-jɛc / -jɛc	-
1st dual	-iwhū	-iwhū
2nd dual	-iwhir	-iwhir
3rd dual	-iwcɛc	-iwh
1st plur.	-ü	-ü
2nd plur.	-ür	-ür
3rd plur.	-ünjɛc	-ün

In the 3^rd singular person, one of the endings displays two possible forms, -jɛc or -^jɛc. After some consonants this ending appears as -ɛc, and palatalizes the previous consonant, or it is added to an already palatalized consonant without further effects.

djumɛliwgɛ → djumɛʝɛc
to drink → he/she/it drinks

lilužiwgɛ → līlužɛc
to see → he/she/it sees

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

• indicative: Ø
• subjunctive: -iwň-
• potential: -jɛts- / -^jɛts-

The potential mood infix displays the same irregularities as the 3^rd singular person ending and it follows the same rules. All modal infixes merge with the 3^rd singular person ending:

• -iwň- + -jɛc = -iwňɛc
• -jɛts- + -jɛc = -jɛcɛc

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not add the personal endings, but they are declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

• infinitive: -iwgɛ
• passive participle: -juɣiw- / -^juɣiw-

The participle ending displays the same irregularities as the 3^rd singular person ending and it follows the same rules.

A distinction between an active diathesis and a passive diathesis is made. However, the passive diathesis distinguishes an extremely reduced amount of forms.