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| = Introduction =
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| '''Kala''' is a personal artistic language, or constructed language (''conlang''). It is the culmination of my life-long appreciation and fascination with language and linguistics. This fascination began in my youth, c. 1988 when I received a book about ciphers and codes. I have studied multiple natural languages since that time, including several European languages, Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese (Mandarin), to name only a few. I have focused much of my interest in the subfield of writing systems, which will likely be apparent to anyone familiar with '''Kala''' and its many varied writing systems.
| | en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext |
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| '''Kala''' draws on ''natlangs'' (natural language), other ''conlangs'', and of course imagination. '''Kala''' was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. '''Kala'''’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed considerably based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of '''Kala''' lexemes are derived from or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a cipherlang from my youth) and '''[[Qatama]]''' (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
| | = Heading 1 = |
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| == Borrowing ==
| | * In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} replaces {{IPA|[s]}}. |
| | * In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} replaces {{IPA|[z]}}. |
| | * {{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʙ]}} are in free variation. |
| | * {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[ʀ]}} are in free variation. |
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| As can be seen [[Kala/etymology|here]], '''Kala''' borrows from many varied languages, including but not limited to: Arabic, Mandarin, Japanese, Korean, Spanish, Turkish, and several others. These borrowings are most often based on aesthetics and function of the word. When borrowing, often changes made to the word include dropping of one or more syllables, vowel changes, and occasionally metathesis. These changes frequently leave the word unrecognizable from its original form. However, with each borrowing, an attempt has been made to retain as much original phonological and semantic meaning as possible. Of the numerous examples of borrowing, here is a breakdown of a few that are commonly used;
| | Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Miyu''' allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. |
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| ::* '''niha''' – ''good; nice; cool; sweet; enjoyable'' (from Arabic [[wiktionary:منيح|'''منيح''']] /mnīḥ/, meaning “fine; good”). So, the /m/ was dropped and an /a/ was added, also the /ḥ/ becomes /ɦ/. These changes align the word with the CVCV structure that the majority of '''Kala''' lexemes adhere to, as well as the phonological and phonotactical rules. This has been further reduced to a derivational suffix, -'''ni''' denoting a quality of goodness.
| | == Heading 2 == |
| | === Heading 3 === |
| | ==== Heading 4 ==== |
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| ::* '''yohua''' – ''night(time); darkness'' (from Classical Nahuatl [[wiktionary:yohualli|'''yohualli''']] /jo(w)alli/, meaning “night; nighttime; darkness”). The absolutive suffix –'''''lli''''' was dropped, and the Spanish spelling used to inform pronunciation, making it /joːhʷa/. This word has been used in portmanteau to create new words such as '''huatso''' “''midnight''”.
| | <nowiki> |
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| ::* '''tsoya''' – ''center; middle; mid-; half'' (from Mandarin [[wiktionary:中#Definitions|'''中''']] / ʈ͡ʂʊŋ/, meaning “middle; center”). So, the coda / ŋ/ was dropped and /ja/ was added, also the /ʈ͡ʂ/ becomes /ts~t͡ʃ/. This has been further reduced to a derivational suffix, -'''tso''' denoting half, or the middle of something. This word has been used in portmanteau to create new words such as '''huatso''' “''midnight''” and '''yotso''' “''midday; noon''”.
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| This is a very small sample of borrowings:
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| :* '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[wiktionary:pato#Noun_9|''pato'']]
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| :* '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
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| :* '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
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| :* '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
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| :* '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[wiktionary:橙#Chinese|''chéng'']]
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| :* '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]
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| :* '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
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| So, some phrases can contain words from multiple natlangs:
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| * '''ta (ke) inun uasiye ka'''
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| : <small>2sg (O) drink-ACC take-PST Q</small>
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| : ''Did you take the drink?''
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| * '''ta''' - Arabic [[wiktionary:أنت|''ʾanta'']]; '''ke''' - Chinese [[wiktionary:個#Definitions|''gè'']]; '''inu''' - Hawaiian [[wiktionary:inu#Hawaiian|''inu'']]; '''uasi''' - Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]; '''ka''' - Japanese [[wiktionary:か#Particle|''か'']]
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| =Phonology=
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| = Nominal Morphology =
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| The morphology of '''Kala''' nouns can be complex enough to include number, gender, size, case, quality, etc. However, it should be noted that a few of these are also non-obligatory. That is, if the meaning or intended meaning can be deduced from context, certain nominal modifiers may be omitted. Due to the semantic range of '''Kala''' words, the declension of nouns is often used to convey both the lexical role, but also the semantic use, and grammatical importance of the word.
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| == Pronouns ==
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| '''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
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| {{col-begin}} | | {{col-begin}} |
| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| Personal pronouns:
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| * '''na''' - 1st person
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| * '''ta''' - 2nd person
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| * '''ha''' - 3rd person
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| * '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
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| {{col-break}}
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| Modifiers:
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| * '''-m''' - plural
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| * '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
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| * '''e-''' - patient
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| * '''-i''' - reflexive
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| * '''-yo''' - possessive
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| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| Other pronouns include:
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| * '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
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| * '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
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| * '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
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| * '''nokua''' - everything
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| * '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
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| * '''nok''' - nothing
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| {{col-end}}
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| | ety |
| |+ nkalo
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| |-
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| !
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| ! Agent
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| ! Patient
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| ! Reflexive
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| ! Possessive
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| ! Reciprocal
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| |-
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| ! 1sg
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| | '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 2sg
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| | '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 3sg
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| | '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 4sg
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| | '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
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| |-
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| ! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
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| | '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
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| |-
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| ! 2pl
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| | '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 3pl
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| | '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
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| |-
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| ! 4pl
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| | '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
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| |}
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| ===Pronominal constructions===
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| The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}} | | {{col-break}} |
| * '''neha anya'''
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| : <small>1s-P.3s see</small>
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| : ''I see her.''
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| * '''kameta motoyek'''
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| : <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small>
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| : ''They didn’t remember you.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tametla yohauek'''
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| : <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small>
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| : ''You (all) don’t want to have it.''
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| * '''nya tena tapya ka'''
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| : <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small>
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| : ''Why are you following me?''
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| {{col-end}} | | {{col-end}} |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
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| ! A/P
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| ! ''1sg''
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| ! ''2sg''
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| ! ''3sg''
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| ! ''4sg''
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| ! ''1pl''
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| ! ''1pl.EXCL''
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| ! ''2pl''
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| ! ''3pl''
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| ! ''4pl''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''1sg''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''neta'''
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| | '''neha'''
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| | '''netla'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''netam'''
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| | '''nekam'''
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| | '''netlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''2sg''
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| | '''tena'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''teha'''
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| | '''tetla'''
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| | '''tenam'''
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| | '''tena'am'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tekam'''
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| | '''tetlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''3sg''
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| | '''hena'''
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| | '''heta'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''hetla'''
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| | '''henam'''
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| | '''hena'am'''
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| | '''hetam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''hetlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''4sg''
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| | '''tlena'''
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| | '''tleta'''
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| | '''tleha'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tlenam'''
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| | '''tlena'am'''
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| | '''tletam'''
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| | '''tlekam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''1pl''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''nameta'''
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| | '''nameha'''
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| | '''nametla'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''nametam'''
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| | '''namekam'''
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| | '''nametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''1pl.EXCL''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''na'ameta'''
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| | '''na'ameha'''
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| | '''na'ametla'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''na'ametam'''
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| | '''na'amekam'''
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| | '''na'ametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''2pl''
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| | '''tamena'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tameha'''
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| | '''tametla'''
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| | '''tamenam'''
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| | '''tamena'am'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tamekam'''
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| | '''tametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''3pl''
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| | '''kamena'''
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| | '''kameta'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''kametla'''
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| | '''kamenam'''
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| | '''kamena'am'''
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| | '''kametam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''kametlam'''
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| |-align=center
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| ! ''4pl''
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| | '''tlamena'''
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| | '''tlameta'''
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| | '''tlameha'''
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| | '''-'''
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| | '''tlamenam'''
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| | '''tlamena'am'''
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| | '''tlametam'''
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| | '''tlamekam'''
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| | '''-'''
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| |}
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| === Reflexives and Reciprocals ===
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| Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –'''i''', when added to verbs it is –'''ki''', from '''ki''' meaning “''self; essence''”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –'''nku''', , from '''anku''' meaning “''reciprocate; [in] return''”.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''na'i sepaye'''
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| : <small>1s.REFL injure-PST</small>
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| : ''I hurt myself.''
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| * '''ha'i tlela'''
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| : <small>3s.REFL bathe</small>
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| : ''She bathes herself.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa'''
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| : <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love</small>
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| : ''My parents love each other.''
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| * '''na'anku amyapak'''
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| : <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small>
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| : ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -'''li''' (“''each; every''”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tanakoli matakiye'''
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| : <small>fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
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| : ''Each one of the warriors killed himself.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''kanku ke tanakoli matakiye'''
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| : <small>3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
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| : ''The warriors killed each other ['''and nobody survived'''].''
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| {{col-end}}
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| === Determiners & Demostratives ===
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| The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
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| {{col-begin}}
| | </nowiki> |
| {{col-break}}
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| * '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
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| * '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
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| * '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)
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| Examples:
| | ===== Heading 5 ===== |
| | ====== Heading 6 ====== |
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| * '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs''
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| * '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
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| * '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
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| {{col-break}}
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| Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.
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| * '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
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| * '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
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| * '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
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| * '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
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| * '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
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| * '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
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| * '''maha''' - more; plus
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| * '''ohi''' - less; fewer
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| {{col-end}}
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| === Correlatives ===
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| | * Item1 |
| |+ uatse
| | * Item4 |
| |-
| | ** Sub-item 4 a) |
| !
| | *** Sub-item 4 a) 1. |
| ! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
| | **** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i) |
| ! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
| | ** Sub-item 4 b) |
| ! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
| | * Item5 |
| ! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
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| ! Negative<br>'''-k'''
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| ! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
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| |-
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| ! mo<br>''(place)''
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| | '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
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| |-
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| ! ko<br>''(person)''
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| | '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
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| |-
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| ! uku<br>''(amount)''
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| | '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
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| |-
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| ! ama<br>''(time)''
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| | '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
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| |-
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| ! so<br>''(kind, type)''
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| | '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
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| |-
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| ! no<br>''(thing)''
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| | '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
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| |-
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| ! to<br>''(manner, way)''
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| | '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
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| |}
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| =Derivational morphology=
| | # Item1 |
| | # Item4 |
| | ## Sub-item 1 |
| | ### Sub-sub-item |
| | #### Sub-sub-sub-item |
| | ## Sub-item 2 |
| | # Item5 |
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| Because '''Kala''' has only two main parts of speech ([[wp:Content_word|content]] and [[wp:function_word|functional words]]), new words formed by derivation should be analyzed based on context. [[wp:Function_word|Functional]] words can rarely be used to form new words, but this is typically to form extensions of functions, or new functions.
| | ; Term : Definition1 |
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| == Compounding ==
| | ; Term |
| | : Definition1 |
| | : Definition2 |
| | : Definition3 |
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| New nouns are usually created through head-initial compounding, using both nominal and verbal stems as the second, dependent element of the compound. The resulting lexical entries usually behave as single phonological words, which, however, have four full syllables: '''kuatlatloha''' "grass snake". Compounding of more than two elements is not common.
| | To ''italicize text'', put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it. |
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| * '''kayapusu''' - "earthquake" → '''kaya''' - earth + '''pusu''' - vibrate
| | Three apostrophes each side will '''bold the text'''. |
| * '''asuaseka''' - "leather" → '''asua''' - skin + '''seka''' - dry
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| Clipped compounding does occur and is distinctive. This clipping occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries. Syllables are clipped based on euphonic choices but must remain recognizable and retain grammatical functionality.
| | Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces '''''bold italics'''''. |
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| * '''naka''' – woman & '''kana''' – leader → '''nakkan''' – chieftess; queen
| | '''''Italic and bold formatting''''' works correctly only within a single line. |
| * '''naua''' – to tie & '''ualo''' – bring → '''naualo''' – get someone involved in one's trouble
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| * '''uaso''' – cup; jug; vessel & '''sitsa''' – hot; heat → '''uassitsa''' – flask; thermos; bottle
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| * '''yasa''' – wind & '''sitsa''' – hot; heat → '''yassitsa''' – warm breeze
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| * '''yasa''' – wind & '''yesa''' – peace → '''yassa''' – peaceful-wind
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| There are also numerous [[Kala/affixes|'''affixes''']] used to form new meanings. A few examples are;
| | For text as {{smallcaps|small caps}}, use the template {{tl|smallcaps}}. |
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| * '''tiyasu''' - "bakery" → '''tiya''' - bread + '''-su''' - market; shop
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| * '''onyomo''' - "school" → '''onyo''' - learn + '''-mo''' - place; location
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| * '''kuhasa''' - "kitchen" → '''kuha''' - cook + '''-sa''' - room; chamber
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| * '''pyetampu''' - "egg-shaped" → '''pyeta''' - egg + '''-mpu''' - shape; form
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| == Derivation ==
| | * [[WP:Lingua Franca Nova|LFN]] |
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| In Kala, new words can be formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to existing words, or by combining two existing words as a compound noun. It's also possible to reuse adjectives as nouns, and verbs as nouns, without adding an affix.
| | * [[Wiktionary:亡|tokomo]] |
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| The most common ending (other than tense, aspect, and modals) is the adverbial ending –'''n'''. It is used to mean ''"similar to ...", "-like", "-ish", "full of ..." or "made of ..."'', and ''"pertaining to ..."'' or ''"to do with ..."''.
| | = old / wrong = |
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| Here are some common examples:
| | '''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession. |
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| * '''kyo’a''' - "quiet" → '''kyo’an''' – ''quietly''
| | '''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language. |
| * '''enke''' - "simple" → '''enken''' – ''simply''
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| * '''ntahi''' - "child" → '''ntahin''' – ''childish; childlike''
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| * '''putsu''' - "monster" → '''putsun''' – ''monstrous''
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| * '''yoti''' - "game" → '''yotin''' – ''playful''
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| * '''hanya''' - "nation" → '''hanyan''' – ''national''
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| * '''kuaha''' - "science" → '''kuahan''' – ''scientific''
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| * '''olo''' - "gold" → '''olon''' – ''made of gold''
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| === Verbalization ===
| | Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects. |
| | [n] and [l] are in free variation. |
| | [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/. |
| | /x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/. |
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| Causative verbs (as well as achievement verbs) can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mya|-'''mya''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''muya''']] - ''"do, make, cause"'') or [[Kala/affixes#la|-'''la''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ela''']] - ''"become; change into; turn into"''). This type of derivation is fairly common; however, verbs created in this way are syntactically defective and tend to appear only in serial verb constructions.
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| * '''tinamya''' - "bend" ← '''tina''' - be bent
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| * '''pitamya''' - "hollow out" ← '''pita''' - be hollow; void
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| * '''enomya''' - "annoy, bother" ← '''eno''' - be angry
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| * '''tsipuela''' - "slow down" ← '''tsipue''' - be slow
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| * '''kyolola''' - "speed up" ← '''kyolo''' - be quick
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| Intensive verbs can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mpa|-'''mpa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#mpa|'''mpa''']] - ''"many; much; very"''), or more commonly [[Kala/affixes#hu|-'''hu''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''kyohu''']] - ''"be drastic; extreme; aggressive"'').
| | === writing === |
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| * '''ketsahu''' - "dismiss, reject, repudiate" ← '''ketsa''' - doubt
| | [[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]] |
| * '''amyampa''' - "fall in love with" ← '''amya''' - be fond of; like; prefer (of people)
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| Adjective-like stative verbs which name an associated quality may be formed from nouns by [[Kala/affixes#n|-'''n''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#na|'''no''']] - ''"thing" (-ish, -ly, -ous)'').
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| * '''timan''' - "be cruel, be bloody" ← '''tima''' - blood
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| * '''amyan''' - "be welcoming, be hospitable" ← '''amya''' - be fond of
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| === Nominalization === | | [[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]] |
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| ==== Agentive ==== | | == allophony == |
| | The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible. |
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| Nouns referring to a human subject of a verb (''usually in a habitual sense'') can be formed with the agentive suffix [[Kala/affixes#ko|-'''ko''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''ko''']] - ''"individual; person"''). This suffix changes to '''-tlo''' when a [[wp:Velar_stop|velar stop]] is present in the preceding syllable.
| | = Syntax = |
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| * '''kitlako''' - "craftsman" ← '''kitla''' - create; invent; make-up
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| * '''sutako''' - "inhabitant (of)" ← '''suta''' - live; reside; dwell; inhabit; settle
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| * '''yekatlo''' - "unmarried young adult" ← '''yeka''' - be separate, be on one's own
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| * '''makatlo''' - "musician" ← '''maka''' - music; play ~; tune
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| * '''tsaniko''' - "storyteller" ← '''tsani''' - recite, tell (a story)
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| ==== Instrumental ====
| | * '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV) |
| | : |
| | * '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO) |
| | : |
| | * '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV) |
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| Instrument nouns and names for tools and other inanimates can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#nyo|-'''nyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mayo''']] - ''"device; equipment; tool"'').
| | = Nouns = |
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| * '''hitanyo''' - "atlatl (spear-thrower)" ← '''hita''' - throw; cast; expel
| | Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''. |
| * '''amonyo''' - "handle (for carrying)" ← '''amo''' - transport; carry
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| * '''kusunyo''' - "clasp, brooch, fibula" ← '''kusu''' - squeeze
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| * '''toponyo''' - "lock" ← '''topo''' - door; gate
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| ==== Locative ==== | | == pronouns == |
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| Location nouns can be formed from both nouns and verbs by several suffixes. These indicate specific places where either something happens, or something resides there are a few affixes which modify both verbs and nouns.
| | '''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''". |
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| [[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mo''']] - ''"location; place; site"''). This suffix is used to form the general idea of where something happens or resides.
| | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;" |
| | ! |
| | ! singular |
| | ! plural |
| | ! possessive |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! 1st person |
| | | '''wa'''<br>I; me |
| | | '''walo'''<br>we; us |
| | | '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s) |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! 2nd person |
| | | '''ni'''<br>you |
| | | '''nilo'''<br>you (all) |
| | | '''niyo'''<br>your(s) |
| | |-align=center |
| | ! 3rd person |
| | | '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it |
| | | '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those |
| | | '''koyo'''<br>their(s) |
| | |} |
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| * '''tanamo''' - "battlefield; boxing ring; wrestling mat, etc." ← '''tana''' - fight; combat | | * '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.'' |
| * '''uelomo''' - "bicycle-place; bike path; bike rack, etc." ← '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
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| * '''inamo''' - "eat-place; dining room; restaurant" [This can also mean food-place; pantry, etc.] ← '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''onyomo''' - "learn-place; school" ← '''onyo''' - learn; study
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| [[Kala/affixes#su|-'''su''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''suku''']] - ''"market; shop; store"''). This suffix is used to specify a business where items are produced and/or sold.
| | * '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.'' |
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| * '''tiyasu''' - "bread-shop; bakery" ← '''tiya''' - bread
| | = Verbs = |
| * '''inasu''' - "food-market; grocery store; restaurant" ← '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''uelosu''' - "bicycle-shop" ← '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
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| [[Kala/affixes#kyo|-'''kyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ha|'''hakyo''']] - ''"college; school; university"''). This suffix is used to specify a location where students learn. This can also be used to indicate a school of thought, or ideology.
| | Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles. |
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| * '''tanakyo''' - "dojo; martial arts training academy; etc." ← '''tana''' - fight; combat | | * '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]]) |
| * '''kuhakyo''' - "culinary-school; chef’s academy" ← '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
| | * '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]]) |
| * '''tsiyakyo''' - "liberalism" ← '''tsiya''' - freedom; liberty | |
| * '''ya'akyo''' - "medical-school" ← '''ya'a''' - medicine; drug; cure
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| [[Kala/affixes#sa|-'''sa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''sala''']] - ''"chamber; room; section"''). This is more specific than
| | == tense, aspect, and mood == |
| [[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] and used primarily for spaces inside buildings.
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| * '''kuhasa''' - "cook-room; kitchen" ← '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
| | Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]). |
| * '''mokusa''' - "sleep-room; bedroom" ← '''moku''' - sleep; rest
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| * '''inasa''' - "eat-room; dining room" ← '''ina''' - food; eat
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| * '''onyosa''' - "learn-room; classroom" ← '''onyo''' - learn; study
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| ==== Diminutive ==== | | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;" |
| | |-− |
| | !tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation |
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| | |present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go'' |
| | |- |
| | |past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went'' |
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| | |future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go'' |
| | |- |
| | |conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go'' |
| | |} |
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| Diminutive nouns and endearment terms can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#hi|-'''hi''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ahi''']] - ''"few; small"''). This becomes '''-ki''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
| | * '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.'' |
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| * '''mukuhi''' - "blade" ← '''muku''' - knife | | * '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.'' |
| * '''umahi''' - "foal" ← '''uma''' - horse; equine
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| * '''mitahi''' - "puppy" ← '''mita''' - dog; canine
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| * '''ohuaki''' - "indulgence" ← '''ohua''' - luxurious; extravagant
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| ==== Augmentative ==== | | == positional verbs == |
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| Augmentative nouns can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#ha|-'''ha''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ta|'''taha''']] - ''"big; large; grand"''). This becomes '''-ka''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
| | '''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations. |
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| * '''kamaha''' - "city" ← '''kama''' - village; town | | * '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]]) |
| * '''ohaka''' - "dislocate one's jaw" ← '''oha''' - yawn; open one's mouth | | * '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]) |
| * '''mosaha''' - "epic; novel" ← '''mosa''' - book; letter; scroll
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| * '''tiniha''' - "hurricane" ← '''tini''' - spiral; whorl
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| ==== Honorific ==== | | = Particles = |
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| Honorific nouns can be formed from other nouns by prefixing [[Kala/affixes#o|'''o'''-]].
| | == determiners == |
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| * '''omasa''' - "stag" ← '''masa''' - deer; cervine
| | Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify. |
| * '''okama''' - "capital" ← '''kama''' - town; village
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| =Syntax= | | === deixis === |
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| Kala has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles). The subject, if understood, can be omitted at the end of an utterance: '''pana''' ("''It is raining.''") '''pana!''' ("''Rain!''") An utterance can be anything from an interjection to a story.
| | * '''pu''' - this; these |
| | * '''su''' - that; those |
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| ==Basic Sentences== | | === amount === |
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| The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:
| | * '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred) |
| | * '''kula''' - all; every; each |
| | * '''ne''' - no; none; zero |
| | * '''poka''' - some; several; a few |
| | :: |
| | * '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little |
| | * '''maso''' - more |
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| {{col-begin}}
| | === other-ness === |
| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita tlaka anya'''
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| : <small>dog man see</small>
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| : ''The dog sees the man.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tlaka mita anya'''
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| : <small>man dog see</small>
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| : ''The man sees the dog.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In both sentences, the words are identical: '''mita''' – “''dog''”, '''tlaka''' – “''man''”, '''anya''' - “''eye; see''”. The only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence. Intransitive (including those of the existential type) clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''nta’i moku'''
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| : <small>baby sleep</small>
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| : ''The baby sleeps.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''sama nala'''
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| : <small>sun shine</small>
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| : ''The sun shines.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Transitive clauses follow a SOV pattern and grammatically require the object particle '''ke'''.
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''ona ke matla kuha'''
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| : <small>mother O stew cook</small>
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| : ''(The) mother is cooking (the) stew.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''tasako ke masami yake'''
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| : <small>hunt-AG O deer-PAU pursue</small>
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| : ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==Predicates==
| | * '''asi''' - such |
| | * '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever |
| | * '''oto''' - other |
| | * '''tonye''' - same |
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| In the simplest form, the adjective simply appears after the noun, in verbal position. Many statements that would be phrased as adjectival predicates in English are preferably expressed with stative intransitive verbs in Kala, requiring no copula. (For simplicity, such verbs are glossed without “be” in interlinears.)
| | = Number = |
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita hikya'''
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| : <small>dog old</small>
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| : ''The dog is old.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''nahi tayo aya'''
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| : <small>daughter 2s.GEN beautiful</small>
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| : ''Your daughter is beautiful.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| The same phrases can be formed using the copula '''a''', this is grammatical but bulky and jarring.
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| {{col-begin}}
| | When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number. |
| {{col-break}}
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| * '''mita hikya a'''
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| : <small>dog old COP</small>
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| : ''The dog is old.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''nahi tayo aya a'''
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| : <small>daughter 2s.GEN beautiful COP</small>
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| : ''Your daughter is beautiful.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ===Negation===
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| The negative mood [NEG] (always marked finally on the primary verb) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or –'''nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/). ''See also: 3.2.3) Mood''
| | * '''ko yo le o kasa ke li''' |
| | : <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small> |
| | : ''She had two houses.'' |
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| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''wa wite o nano ke si''' |
| {{col-break}}
| | : <small>1s see O man NUM four </small> |
| * '''tahi inyak'''
| | : ''I see four men.'' |
| : <small>boy hunger-NEG</small>
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| : ''The boy is not hungry.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''yohuaye ha ke samalo anyak'''
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| : <small>night-PST 3s O star-PL watch-NEG</small>
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| : ''She did not watch the stars last night.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In general, contiguous serial verb constructions can only be negated as a whole. Negating one or more of the verbs in the construction separately is ungrammatical.
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| * '''na ke tsakahue nya ina ka’elatlik''' | |
| : <small>1s O home-LOC for eat toward-MVT-FUT-NEG</small> | |
| : ''I'm not coming home for dinner.'' | |
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| However, if there is a modal auxiliary, negation may either take scope over the modal (and thus over the whole clause), or alternatively only over the non-modal part of the serial verb construction:
| | == Higher Numbers == |
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| {{col-begin}}
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''eta tlahapok'''
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| : <small>P.2s leave-compel-NEG</small>
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| : ''You don't have to leave.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''eta tlahamyok'''
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| : <small>P.2s leave-PERM-NEG</small>
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| : ''You're not allowed to leave.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| In some serial verb constructions, where the middle noun phrase acts both as the object of the first verb and as the subject of the second verb, each verb phrase can be negated separately.
| | * '''yewa''' - 11; eleven |
| | * '''yeli''' - 12; twelve |
| | * '''liye''' - 20; twenty |
| | * '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four |
| | * '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve |
| | * '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five |
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| ===Voice===
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| Passive voice emphasizes the process rather than who is performing the action. In Kala this form is called '''kemi'''. There are few patterns to help distinguish between active and passive voices in Kala verbs. Using the passive voice is not common in Kala. It can sometimes be used to emphasize what would normally have been the object of the sentence. In order to shift emphasis away from the agent and towards the patient or theme, a transitive sentence can be passivized simply by word order, or using the particle '''ni''' (“''by''”) ['''PASS'''].
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| {{col-begin}}
| | __NOTOC__ |
| {{col-break}}
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| '''''ACTIVE'''''
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| * '''na ke tanum yempahue moheye'''
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| : <small>1s O plate-PL table-LOC place-PST</small>
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| : ''I put dishes on the table.''
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| * '''na ke topa muntaye'''
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| : <small>1s O bed rearrange-PST</small>
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| : ''I changed the bed.''
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| * '''ha ke yona yomutli'''
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| : <small>3s O book read-FUT</small>
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| : ''She will read the book.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| '''''PASSIVE'''''
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| * '''ke tanum yempahue moheye'''
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| : <small>O plate-PL table-LOC place-PST</small>
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| : ''Dishes were put on the table.''
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| * '''ke topa ni naku nayo muntaye'''
| | <center> |
| : <small>O bed PASS sister 1s.GEN rearrange-PST</small>
| | [[#ka|ka]] [[#sa|sa]] [[#ta|ta]] [[#na|na]] [[#pa|pa]] [[#ma|ma]] [[#ya|ya]] [[#la|la]] [[#wa|wa]] [[#a|a i u e o]] |
| : ''The bed was changed by my sister.''
| | </center> |
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| * '''ke yona ni kola yomutli'''
| | = ka = |
| : <small>O book PASS AG.INDEF read-FUT</small>
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| : ''The book will be read by someone.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| ==Compound Sentences==
| | * '''kisa''' /ˈki.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]] |
| | : ''part'' - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND] |
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| Two sentences may be joined together to form a longer compound sentence. Both sentences must be able to stand alone as properly formed sentences. When combined, they simply come one after the other, joined by a conjunction. Common Conjunctions:
| | * '''kute''' /ˈku.te/ from FRE [[wiktionary:écouter|écouter]] |
| | : ''v'' - listen; hear |
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| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
| | * '''kono''' /ˈko.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]] |
| ! ''Kala''
| | : ''n'' - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition |
| ! ''meaning''
| | : ''v'' - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize |
| ! ''example''
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| |-align=center
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| | '''pa'''
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| | <small>although; even; despite</small>
| |
| | She is here ''despite'' my protest.
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| | '''po'''
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| | <small>so; thus</small>
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| | He seems nice ''so'' I ate with him.
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| | '''ku'''
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| | <small>and; also; too</small>
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| | I see it ''and'' I see you.
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| | '''ma'''
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| | <small>and; also; too</small>
| |
| | I see it ''and'' you.
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| | '''ua'''
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| | <small>and/or; either</small>
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| | You may eat ''and/or'' drink.
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| | '''ue'''
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| | <small>either X or Y</small>
| |
| | You may ''either'' eat ''or'' drink.
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| | '''uenke''' ('''uek''')
| |
| | <small>neither X or Y</small>
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| | You may ''neither'' eat ''nor'' drink.
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| | '''yema'''
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| | <small>both X and Y</small>
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| | I ate ''both'' soup ''and'' bread.
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| | '''yo'''
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| | <small>if X then Y; therefore</small>
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| | ''If'' she comes ''then'' we’ll eat.
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| | '''ehe''' ('''me''')
| |
| | <small>but ; however</small>
| |
| | I dislike him, ''but'' he is my brother.
| |
| |}
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| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''kome''' /ˈko.me/ from SPA [[wiktionary:comer#Spanish|comer]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''v'' - eat; consume; drink |
| * '''na ina ku ha moku''' | |
| : <small>1s eat and 3s sleep</small>
| |
| : ''I am eating and she is sleeping.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''na ina ehe ha moku'''
| |
| : <small>1s eat but 3s sleep</small> | |
| : ''I am eating but she is sleeping.'' | |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| <small>Note: '''ku''' is a clause level conjunction used to join to independent clauses.</small>
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| {{col-begin}}
| | = sa = |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ta ina ua inu'''
| |
| : <small>2s eat and/or drink</small>
| |
| : ''You are eating and/or you are drinking.''
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|
| * '''ntahi ke mita anya ma inamya''' | | * '''sa''' /sa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]] |
| : <small>child O dog see and eat-CAUS</small> | | : ''part'' - future tense particle [FUT] |
| : ''The child saw and fed the dog.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ta ina ue inu'''
| |
| : <small>2s eat or drink</small>
| |
| : ''You are either eating or else you are drinking.''
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|
| * '''ha tala yo na’am hinatlik''' | | * '''saka/na''' /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سخن|سخن]] |
| : <small>3s come therefore 1pl.EXCL be.here-FUT-NEG</small>
| | : ''v'' - be hot; be warm; burn |
| : ''If she comes we won’t be here.'' | | : ''n'' - heat; warmth / fire |
| {{col-end}}
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|
| Clause-level conjunctions such as '''ku''' (“''and; also; too''”), '''ua''' (“''or; either; otherwise''”), or '''ehe''' (“''but; however''”) are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions (except for '''ku''') can be used to connect noun phrases.
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| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''sana''' /ˈsa.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سنة|سنة]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''n'' - year; 365 days |
| * '''tahi tohyo ku nahi pina''' | |
| : <small>boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent</small>
| |
| : ''The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai'''
| |
| : <small>now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM</small> | |
| : ''Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.'' | |
| {{col-end}}
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|
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|
| Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction '''ma''' "''and''" (sometimes "''with''").
| | * '''sapa''' /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سبب|سبب]] |
| | : ''n'' - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive |
|
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|
| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''salama''' /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سلم#Arabic|سلم]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''n'' - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet |
| * '''yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya''' | | : ''v'' - be peaceful; be calm |
| : <small>day-PST 1s O eagle CONJ duck see</small> | | : ''intj'' - Peace! Hey! Hi! |
| : ''I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.'' | |
|
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|
| * '''kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya''' | | * '''sawa''' /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]] |
| : <small>squirrel O house 3pl.GEN with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make</small>
| | : ''n'' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate |
| : ''The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.'' | | : ''v'' - marry |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ona ma ota kyosanku'''
| |
| : <small>mother and father fornicate-RECP</small>
| |
| : ''Mother and father have sex.''
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|
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|
| * '''ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli''' | | * '''si''' /si/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:四#Definitions|四]] |
| : <small>2s with 1s O forest-LOC-MVT-FUT</small> | | : ''num'' - four; 4 |
| : ''You and I will go to the forest together.'' | |
| {{col-end}}
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|
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| Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction '''ua''' ("''or; other''"). This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction '''ue''' ("(exclusive) ''either X or Y''") is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.
| | * '''siya''' /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:下#Definitions|下]] |
| | : ''prep'' - below; under; beneath |
| | : ''v'' - be under; be lower |
|
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| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''su''' /su/ from TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''part'' - that; those (over there) |
| * '''ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo''' | |
| : <small>2s O pear or apple eat-PERM</small> | |
| : ''You may eat an apple or a pear.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsola ue otso itsikua mataye'''
| |
| : <small>fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST</small>
| |
| : ''It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.''
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| {{col-end}}
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| Contrastive coordination of noun phrases is achieved with '''ehe''' ("''but; however''") (or '''me''' more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.
| | * '''sunya''' /ˈsun.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:शून्य|शून्य]] |
| | : ''num'' - zero; 0 |
| | : ''n'' - nothing |
| | : ''v'' - be empty; be void |
|
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|
| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''se''' /se/ from SPA [[wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''pro'' - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun |
| * '''yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya''' | |
| : <small>day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive</small> | |
| : ''The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
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| * '''na itlaka mek inaka unya'''
| |
| : <small>1s PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know</small>
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| : ''I know this man, but not this woman.''
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| {{col-end}}
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|
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|
| ==Compliment Clauses==
| | * '''sosa''' /ˈso.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:salsa#Spanish|salsa]] |
| | : ''n'' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing |
|
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|
| Complement clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as a noun (most importantly as the subject or object of a sentence), and are formed exactly like ordinary main clauses, preceded by the particle '''ke''' (“topic particle”).
| | = ta = |
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|
| * '''nakkan ke eya tekim kamahi hyoka munaye''' | | * '''tanka''' /ˈtaŋ.ka/ from ENG/GER [[wiktionary:thank|thank]]/[[wiktionary:danke#German|danke]] |
| : <small>woman-chief O maybe enemy-PL city-DIM attack worry-PST</small> | | : ''v'' - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude |
| : ''The queen was worried that the enemies might attack the village.'' | | : ''part/intj'' - thank you; thanks |
|
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|
| * '''itomatle ke maliya noyamya''' | | * '''tapo''' /ˈta.po/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:打破|打破]] |
| : <small>wood-carve O Mary happy-CAUS</small> | | : ''v'' - damage; wreck; break; destroy |
| : ''Carving wood makes Mary happy.'' | | : ''n'' - destruction; damage |
|
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|
| Complement clauses can also act as the object of a motional/locational verb:
| | * '''tipa''' /ˈti.pa/ (or '''tupa''' /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA [[wiktionary:طيب|طيب]] (or [[wiktionary:טוב|טוב]]) |
| | : ''v'' - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK |
| | : ''intj'' - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay! |
|
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|
| * '''ta ke naha ka’elak yatli ke tlohi kuyepak''' | | * '''tiya''' /ˈti.ja/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tía#Spanish|tía]] |
| : <small>2s O river toward-MVT-NEG if.X.then.Y O salmon grab-ABIL-NEG</small>
| | : ''n'' - aunt/uncle; extended family |
| : ''You can't catch salmon if you don't go to the river.'' | |
|
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|
| * '''kam ka’e tsiua uahe moku ma ina yalayenko''' | | * '''te''' /te/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Etymology_2_10|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Definitions_2|的]] |
| : <small>3pl toward lake instead.of rest and eat walk-PST-CONT</small> | | : ''v'' - to move away from |
| : ''Instead of taking a rest and eating, they continued to walk towards the lake.'' | | : ''prep'' - of; from |
|
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|
| Since complement clauses behave like nouns syntactically, they may participate in existential constructions as well. Semantically, this indicates that the occurrence of the action described in the complement clause is emphatically affirmed.
| | * '''tenpo''' /ˈtem.po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]] |
| | : ''n'' - time; moment; period |
|
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|
| * '''uala ke yemua tlana masenko''' | | * '''tela''' or '''talo''' /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/ from ENG [[wiktionary:tell|tell]] |
| : <small>verily O DIST-place person dance-CONT</small> | | : ''n'' - language; talk; speech |
| : ''There is dancing over there.'' (lit. <tt>it's true that people are dancing there</tt>) | | : ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell |
|
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|
| In addition to the particle '''ke''', Kala possesses a few other words which may fill the same syntactic position under special circumstances. The most common of these appears in the context of reported speech. A couple of other specialized particles have a more limited distribution, appearing mainly in evidential constructions.
| | * '''tonpa''' /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:同胞#Mandarin|同胞]] |
| | : ''n'' - sibling; compatriot; friend |
|
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|
| ==Relative Clauses==
| | * '''tonye''' /ˈto.ɲe/ (or '''ton''' /ton/) from ZHO [[wiktionary:同一#Mandarin|同一]] |
| | : ''v'' - be identical; same; equivalent; equal |
|
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|
| Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -'''tle''' (or -'''le''' if the last syllable has '''tl'''). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:
| | = na = |
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| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''nai''' /naɪ/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:內#Japanese|內]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''v'' - be inside; within |
| * '''na ke naka amyatle pesoue''' | | : ''prep'' - inside; within; during; while |
| : <small>1s O woman liked-REL meet-VOL</small> | |
| : ''I want to meet a girl who is friendly.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
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| * '''kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli'''
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| : <small>3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT</small>
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| : ''They who fight well will defeat the enemy.'' | |
| {{col-end}}
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| * '''naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua''' | | * '''nano''' /ˈna.no/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:男#Definitions|男]] |
| : <small>sister 1s.GEN O strawberry-all 1s pick-PST-REL eat-PFV</small>
| | : ''n'' - man; male |
| : ''My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.'' | |
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|
| | * '''nama''' /ˈna.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:نام#Verb|نام]] |
| | : ''v'' - sleep; rest; relax |
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|
| If both subject and object of a transitive relative clause are represented by the same pronoun, the relativized noun will be assumed to be the subject of the subclause. In order to relativize the object in such a situation, the subject must be represented by one of the reflexive, or reciprocal pronouns instead, which explicitly refer back to the subject of the matrix clause:
| | * '''naya''' /ˈna.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:नया|नया]] |
| | : ''v'' - be new; fresh; young |
|
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|
| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''nalu''' /ˈna.lu/ from JPN [[wiktionary:なる|なる]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''v'' - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into |
| * '''aye tanako ke tlaka eha hyokatle mata''' | |
| : <small>past fight-AG O man P.3s attack-REL kill</small>
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| : ''The warrior killed the man who attacked him.''
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| {{col-break}}
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| * '''aye tanako ke ha tlaka hyokatle mata'''
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| : <small>past fight-AG O 3s man attack-REL kill</small> | |
| : ''The warrior killed the man whom he attacked.'' | |
| {{col-end}}
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|
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|
| Relativization of oblique participants works very much the same way as relativization of subjects and objects, but the repeated pronoun needs to appear inside a prepositional phrase or coverb phrase which shows the role of the relativized noun within the subclause.
| | * '''ni''' /ni/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:你#Definitions|你]] |
| | : ''pro'' - you [2sg] |
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| * '''ikamahi ena nasayetle''' | | * '''nun''' /nun/ from PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]] |
| : <small>PROX-city-DIM P.1s be.born-PST-REL</small> | | : ''num'' - nine; 9 |
| : ''This is the village in which I was born.'' | |
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| * '''ke taku tlakayo na tlayayetle nya teki matapua''' | | * '''ne''' /ne/ from ENG [[wiktionary:nay#Interjection|nay]] |
| : <small>O brother man-GEN 1s wed-PST-REL by enemy kill-PFV</small> | | : ''part'' - no; not; negative [NEG] |
| : ''The man whose brother I married has been killed by the enemy.'' | |
|
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|
| * '''iyoma ke yomatle ta’ena nya uapa talaue''' | | * '''nesi''' /ˈne.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]] |
| : <small>today O day-REL 2s-P.1s for visit come-VOL</small> | | : ''v'' - need; require; must |
| : ''Today is the day on which you want to come and visit me.'' | | : ''n'' - obligation; need |
|
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|
| | * '''nen/ka''' /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:能#Definitions|能]] |
| | : ''v'' - be able to; be capable; be possible |
| | : ''n'' - potential; possibility; capability |
|
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|
| In case a relative clause would contain only the subject and an intransitive verb phrase, speakers of Kala are likely to use an attributive construction instead. If the attributed verb phrase contains more than one verb, all of them need to appear in the attributive form.
| | * '''note''' /ˈno.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]] |
| | : ''n'' - night; darkness |
|
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|
| * '''na ke nahi amyan pesoue'''
| | = pa = |
| : <small>1s O girl like-ADV meet-VOL</small>
| |
| : ''I want to meet a girl who is friendly. (lit. <tt>a friendly girl</tt>)''
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| * '''kola sima ke ina kapyatli''' | | * '''pa''' /pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]] |
| : <small>AG-INDEF sit O food receive-FUT</small> | | : ''num'' - eight; 8 |
| : ''Anyone who is sitting quietly gets food.'' | |
|
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|
| | * '''pan''' /pan/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/[[wiktionary:飯|飯]] |
| | : ''n'' - bread; food; sustenance |
|
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|
| Note that both relative clauses and attributive constructions tend to be avoided when they refer to the subject of a sentence. Instead, the semantically ‘attributive’ verb describing the subject is treated syntactically as forming a sequential or simultaneous event together with the main verb of the sentence:
| | * '''pala''' /ˈpa.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:palabra#Spanish|palabra]] |
| | : ''n'' - word; morpheme; lexeme |
|
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|
| * '''tahi pina ke kema unya''' | | * '''pina''' /ˈpi.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]] |
| : <small>boy smart O task understand</small> | | : ''n'' - child; offspring; kid |
| : ''The smart boy understands the task.'' | |
|
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|
| ===Adverbial clauses===
| | * '''pu''' /pu/ from TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]] |
| | : ''part'' - this; these (here) |
|
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|
| Kala has several different ways to express adverbial elements – adverbial suffix, adpositional phrases, serial verb constructions, and full-scale adverbialized subclauses. For most types of adverbials, more than one of these methods can be used. Because an adequate description of this gets rather lengthy, and because it presupposes an understanding of how serial verb constructions work in Kala, it is described in a later section of this document. Adverbial constructions which are valid constituents typically appear near the beginning of a sentence, with adpositional phrases preceding subclauses, but they may be topic-fronted for emphasis. If several adverbial constituents of the same syntactic type are present, they are generally ordered place → manner → reason → purpose → result → time.
| | * '''pula''' /ˈpu.la/ from HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]] |
| | : ''n'' - evil |
| | : ''v'' - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil |
|
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|
| ==Copular Sentences==
| | * '''pen''' /pen/ from ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε#Greek|πέντε]] |
| | : ''num'' - five; 5 |
|
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|
| The copula '''a''' (''to be; exist; yes'') is not used as it is in English. It is primarily used to affirm Yes/No questions. '''ta inaye ka''' (''Did you eat?'') '''a''' (''Yes.'') However, it can be used to add emphasis or nuance to a descriptive phrase. In an adjectival predicate the verb [to be] is not normally used.
| | * '''po''' /po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]] |
| | : ''prep'' - by; for; [be] about |
| | : ''v'' - [go] through; [move] across |
|
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|
| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''poka''' /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''v'' - be small; little |
| * '''ha kiha''' | | : ''v'' - be few; less |
| : <small>3s tall</small> | |
| : ''She is tall.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tomua nya itsaka yasue'''
| |
| : <small>rent for PROX-house cheap</small>
| |
| : ''The rent for this house is cheap.'' | |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ==Questions==
| |
| There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
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| ===Polar questions===
| |
| Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
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|
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| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''ponte''' /ˈpon.te/ from ENG [[wiktionary:ponder|ponder]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''v'' - think; ponder; consider; weigh |
| * '''mita ina''' | | : ''n'' - thought; idea; consideration |
| : <small>dog eat</small> | |
| : ''The dog eats.'' | |
|
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|
| * '''ta ke tlo’o anyaye''' | | * '''pone''' /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poner|poner]] |
| : <small>2s O elephant see-PST</small>
| | : ''v'' - to put, to place, to set |
| : ''You saw the elephant.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''mita ina ka'''
| |
| : <small>dog eat Q</small> | |
| : ''Does the dog eat?'' | |
|
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|
| * '''ta ke tlo’o anyaye ka'''
| | = ma = |
| : <small>2s O elephant see-PST Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did you see the elephant?''
| |
| {{col-end}}
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| ===Content questions=== | |
| Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' (“or”) introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
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| * '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka''' | | * '''ma''' /ma/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]] |
| : <small>2s O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small> | | : ''part'' - interrogative particle [Q] |
| : ''Do you want to drink beer or water?'' | |
|
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|
| * '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka''' | | * '''maka''' /ˈma.ka/ from ENG [[wiktionary:make|make]] |
| : <small>truly 2s O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small> | | : ''n'' - cause; action; happening |
| : ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?'' | | : ''v'' - do; make; cause; happen |
|
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|
| Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' (“''person''”), '''mo''' (“''place''”), '''to''' (“''manner''”), etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
| | * '''maso''' /ˈma.so/ from SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]] |
| {{col-begin}}
| | : ''part'' - more; again |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''n'' - layer; repetition; addition |
| * '''ko ta ka'''
| | : ''v'' - add; repeat; layer |
| : <small>person 2s Q</small>
| |
| : ''Who are you?'' | |
|
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|
| * '''to kihu ka''' | | * '''mala''' /ˈma.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:امرأة|امرأة]] |
| : <small>manner weather Q</small> | | : ''n'' - woman; female; wife |
| : ''What's the weather like?'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''itla ka'''
| |
| : <small>this Q</small>
| |
| : ''What is this?''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''to taku tayo ka''' | | * '''mila''' /ˈmi.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]] |
| : <small>manner brother 2s.GEN Q</small>
| | : ''num'' - thousand; 1000 |
| : ''How’s your brother?'' | |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
|
| The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
| | * '''muki''' /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA [[wiktionary:مهم|مهم]] |
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
| | : ''n'' - importance; significance |
| ! ''kanyo''
| | : ''v'' - be important; matter |
| ! ''Kala''
| |
| ! ''gloss''
| |
| ! ''English''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''object''
| |
| | '''ke mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>O dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''What does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''person''
| |
| | '''ko ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>person eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Who eats?'' | |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''possession''
| |
| | '''koyo mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>person-GEN dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Whose dog eats?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''manner''
| |
| | '''to mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>manner dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''How does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''place''
| |
| | '''mo mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>place dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Where does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''reason''
| |
| | '''nye mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>reason dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Why does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''time''
| |
| | '''ama mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>time dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''When does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''amount''
| |
| | '''uku mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>amount dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
| |
| |-align=center
| |
| | ''which''
| |
| | '''ula mita ina ka'''
| |
| | <small>INDEF dog eat Q</small>
| |
| | ''Which dog eats?''
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| ==Comparison==
| | * '''muna''' /ˈmu.na/ from ENG [[wiktionary:moon#English|moon]] |
| In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
| | : ''n'' - moon; month |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka''' | |
| : <small>house 3s.GEN O 1s.GEN big-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''His house is bigger than mine.'' | |
|
| |
|
| * '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha''' | | * '''me''' /me/ from FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]] |
| : <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small> | | : ''part'' - but; however; although |
| : ''This building is newer than your home.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ke mauam tayo yanahu'''
| |
| : <small>O flower.PL 2s.GEN yellow-EXT</small>
| |
| : ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''mitala ke yetlam hikyahi''' | | * '''moto''' /ˈmo.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]] |
| : <small>dog-INDEF O DIST-4pl old-DIM</small> | | : ''n'' - mood; manner; way; method |
| : ''Some dogs are less old (younger) than others.'' | |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| When comparing the amount of involvement of several participants in a transitive verb, an appositional construction is used with competing subjects, and complement clauses are used with competing objects:
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''tsaneya ke ona pa’e naku hayo itsaha'''
| | = ya = |
| : <small>Jane O mother other.than sister 3s.GEN love-AUG</small>
| |
| : ''Jane loves her mother more than her sister does.''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''imukuhi ke asua uahe tleno telaniha''' | | * '''ya''' /ja/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]] |
| : <small>PROX-blade-DIM O leather instead.of timber cut-nice-AUG</small> | | : ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~ |
| : ''This knife cuts leather better than it cuts wood.'' | |
|
| |
|
| ==Indirect Objects==
| | * '''yati''' /ˈja.ti/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يد|يد]] |
| Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the recipient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of an adverbial preposition. The same strategy is also used to introduce other participants in oblique roles.
| | : ''n'' - hand; arm |
| | : ''v'' - give; transfer |
|
| |
|
| * '''ka’e''' – to; toward [Dative] | | * '''yapu''' /ˈja.pu/ from ARA [[wiktionary:عفا|عفا]] |
| * '''ma’a''' – with; using [Instrumental] / with; together [Comitative]
| | : ''n'' - pardon; excuse; forgiveness |
| * '''mue''' – without; lacking [Abessive]
| | : ''v'' - pardon; excuse; forgive |
| * '''nya''' – for (the benefit of) [Benefactive] / by [Passive]
| |
| * '''-hue''' – at; in; on [Locative]
| |
|
| |
|
| ===Dative===
| | * '''yame''' /ˈja.me/ from ARA [[wiktionary:جمع|جمع]] |
| Dative participants can be marked with '''ka’e''' (“''toward; to''”), '''nya''' (“''for; by''”), or be syntactically indicated.
| | : ''n'' - collection; gathering; group; set |
| | : ''v'' - gather; collect; assemble; unite |
|
| |
|
| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''yu''' /ju/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Definitions|于]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''v'' - be in; at; out of |
| * '''ntahi ke ina ka’e mita yeta''' | | : ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of |
| : <small>child O food toward dog give</small> | |
| : ''The child gives food to a dog.'' | |
|
| |
|
| * '''katiko nya ntakum tsani''' | | * '''yuma''' /ˈju.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]] |
| : <small>old-AG for sibling-PL tell.story</small>
| | : ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period |
| : ''The old man recites a story for the siblings.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ikema nya ena enke'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-task for P.1s easy</small>
| |
| : ''This task is easy for me.''
| |
|
| |
|
| * '''teki ke kama na’amyo tanyaye''' | | * '''ye''' /je/ from KOR [[wiktionary:열#Korean|열]] |
| : <small>enemy O village 1pl.EXCL.GEN destroy-PST</small> | | : ''num'' - ten; 10 |
| : ''The enemies destroyed our village.'' | |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ===Instrumental===
| |
| Instrumental participants can be marked with '''ma’a''' (“''with; using''”), '''nya''' (“''for; by''”), or be syntactically indicated.
| |
|
| |
|
| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''yeko''' /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以后]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''prep'' - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later |
| * '''ona ke ntahi ma’a tlimu nohya''' | | : ''adv'' - from now on; henceforth |
| : <small>mother O child with blanket wrap</small> | |
| : ''The mother wraps the child in a blanket.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''tsani nya ntaha moyapua'''
| |
| : <small>PROX-task for P.1s easy</small>
| |
| : ''The story has been written by the elder.'' | |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ===Comitative===
| |
| Comitative participants are marked with the preposition '''ma’a''' (“'''with; together'''”), and anticomitative (or abessive) participants are marked with the preposition '''mue''' (“''without''”).
| |
|
| |
|
| {{col-begin}}
| | * '''yo''' /jo/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]] |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''v'' - have; possess; carry; hold; keep |
| * '''na ma’a amyako nayo ke masa tasa''' | |
| : <small>1s with friend 1s.GEN O deer hunt</small>
| |
| : ''I'm hunting deer with my friend.'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ha ke naha mue ta ka’elaye ka'''
| |
| : <small>3s O river without 2s toward-MVT Q</small>
| |
| : ''Did she go to the river without you?'' | |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| ===Locative===
| |
| Locative participants can be marked with a variety of adverbial prepositions, most typically -'''hue''' (“''at; in; on''”). ''See also'': 5.1) [[Kala#Locative_Verbs|Locative verbs]].
| |
|
| |
|
| {{col-begin}}
| | = la = |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''taku nayo ke poti patlahue patsi'''
| |
| : <small>brother 1s.GEN O goat field-LOC herd</small>
| |
| : ''My brother is herding goats in the field.''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''nam tlatsahue masetli'''
| |
| : <small>1pl fire-LOC dance-FUT</small>
| |
| : ''We will dance near (at) the fire.''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
|
| =Semantic Fields and Pragmatics=
| | * '''laka''' /ˈla.ka/ from ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]] |
| '''Kala''', like all languages relies on the relationship of meanings instead of meanings in isolation. Additionally, morphemes tend to have a range of meanings that exist on a spectrum. A morpheme often can only be defined by its relationship to other morphemes within an utterance, or to other words of a similar semantic field. | | : ''n'' - number; digit; amount |
| | : ''v'' - count; enumerate |
|
| |
|
| One example would be in discussing temperature. Of course there is a system of degrees, but that is a quantitative statement, a qualitative statement would be more relative and open to interpretation.
| | * '''lata''' /ˈla.ta/ from SPA [[wiktionary:lata#Spanish|lata]] |
| | : ''n'' - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel |
| | : ''v'' - carry; tote; transport |
|
| |
|
| [[File:Tlolo.png|400px|How to express temperature]] | | * '''li''' /li/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:兩#Definitions|兩]] |
| | : ''num'' - two; double; duo |
| | : ''pro'' - some; a few |
|
| |
|
| English divides temperature into "hot, warm, cool, cold", while Kala has just '''sitsa, tlolo''', and '''manka'''. However, these can be expanded to be more specific;
| | * '''le''' /le/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:了|了]] |
| | : ''part'' - past tense marker [PST] |
|
| |
|
| * '''manka''' – cold | | * '''loka''' /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]] |
| * '''tlolo''' – cool; warm (mild)
| | : ''n'' - place; location; point; spot |
| * '''sitsa''' – hot; heat
| |
|
| |
|
| Using the augmentative -'''ha''' and the diminutive -'''hi''' adds even more nuance to expressing temperature. '''mankaha''' (or '''mankampa, mankahu''') being the coldest, and '''sitsaha''' (or '''sitsampa, sitsahu''') the hottest means that '''tloloha''' is closer to '''sitsahi''' and '''tlolohi''' is closer to '''mankahi'''. This means that '''tlolotso''' (mild-middle) is likely how someone would describe their ideal temperature.
| | = wa = |
|
| |
|
| * '''ya iyoma kihua tlolotso!''' | | * '''wa''' /wa/ from ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:واحد|واحد]]/[[wiktionary:我|我]] |
| : <small>VOC PROX-day fine.weather mild-middle</small> | | : ''pro'' - I; me [1sg] |
| : ''Oh, how today’s weather is so mild!'' | | : ''num'' - one; 1; single |
| | : ''v'' - be alone; be singular |
|
| |
|
| Of course, some meanings do exist in a binary state;
| | * '''waya''' /ˈwa.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]] |
| | : ''v'' - grow; mature; develop |
| | : ''n'' - adult; mature thing |
|
| |
|
| * '''asa''' - alive / '''kupa''' - dead
| |
|
| |
|
| Meanings may also be divided into non-linear semantic space — e.g. color, social classes, directions, parts of the body, time, geographical features.
| |
|
| |
|
| =Numbers=
| | * '''wino''' /ˈwi.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]] |
| '''Kala''' uses a base 10 number system. The basic numbers are as follows: | | : ''n'' - alcohol; beer; wine |
| | : ''v'' - drink ~ |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
| | * '''we''' /we/ from PIE [[wiktionary:econstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]] |
| |+
| | : ''num'' - six; 6 |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| ==== Forming Larger Numbers ====
| | * '''weko''' /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]] |
| | : ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port |
|
| |
|
| * '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11 | | * '''wento''' /ˈwen.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:viento|viento]] |
| * '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
| | : ''n'' - air; wind; void; essence; spirit |
| * '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
| |
| * '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
| |
| * '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024
| |
|
| |
|
| Long form numbers are used in formal situations, including financial transactions, especially involving large sums. Short form numbers are used in everyday speech and when calculating basic math.
| | * '''wela''' /ˈwe.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]] |
| | : ''prep'' - outside; exterior |
| | : ''v'' - leave; exit |
|
| |
|
| ==== Other Number Forms ==== | | = a = |
|
| |
|
| {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
| |
| |+
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Kala
| |
| ! number
| |
| ! English
| |
| ! ordinal
| |
| ! multiple
| |
| ! fractional
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth || '''tiueta'o'''<br>duodecuple || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
| |
| |-
| |
| | '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| === Math Operations ===
| |
|
| |
|
| '''Kala''' math is fairly basic and relies on particles and verbs to express functions. Notable is the use of the copular '''a''' to express the result of an equation. | | * '''alima''' /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:علم|علم]] |
| | : ''v'' - to discern, to find out, to learn |
| | : ''n'' - learning; education; knowledge |
|
| |
|
| Addition uses '''ma''' (''and; also''). There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation. Subtraction uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a negative form of the smaller integer. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
| | * '''amo''' /ˈa.mo/ from SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]] |
| {{col-begin}}
| | : ''n'' - love; affection; adoration |
| {{col-break}}
| | : ''v'' - love; adore; like |
| * '''ta’o ma ya’o ke ka’o a'''
| |
| : <small>two and five O seven COP</small> | |
| : ''2 + 5 = 7'' | |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ka’o ma ta’ok ke ya’o a'''
| |
| : <small>seven and two-NEG O five COP</small>
| |
| : ''7 - 2 = 5'' | |
| {{col-end}}
| |
| Multiplication uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a multiple form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation. Division uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a multiple-negative form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
| |
| {{col-begin}}
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''ka’o ma tita’o ke uema’o a'''
| |
| : <small>seven and multiple-two O fourteen COP</small>
| |
| : ''7 x 2 = 14''
| |
| {{col-break}}
| |
| * '''hata’o ma tisa’ok ke ma’o a'''
| |
| : <small>thrity-two and multiple-eight-NEG O four COP</small>
| |
| : ''32 ÷ 8 = 4''
| |
| {{col-end}}
| |
|
| |
|
| =Writing system=
| | * '''ante''' /ˈan.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]] |
| Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.
| | : ''n'' - front side; chest; fore area |
| == ''Han Moya'' ==
| | : ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead |
|
| |
|
| '''Han Moya''' is an adaptation of [[wp:Hangul|Hangul]] for writing '''Kala'''. It is written horizontally, in lines running from left to right. It can also be written vertically in columns. | | * '''asi''' /ˈa.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]] |
| | : ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so |
|
| |
|
| ==== consonants ====
| | * '''awa''' /ˈa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أو|أو]] |
| | : ''part'' - either; or; other |
|
| |
|
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㄱㄲㄴㄷㄸㄹㅁㅂㅃㅅㅆㅇㅈㅉㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ</b></big></big></font> | | * '''ayo''' /ˈa.jo/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أي|أي]] |
| : '''k nk n t nt l m p mp s ns a ts nts ts` k` tl p` h''' | | :''part'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF] |
| : /k~g ᵑk~ⁿg n t~d ⁿt~ⁿd l~ɾ m p~b ᵐp~ᵐb s~ʃ ⁿs~ⁿʃ - ts~t͡ʃ ⁿts~ⁿt͡ʃ tsʰ~t͡ʃʰ kʰ t͡ɬ~tl pʰ h~ɦ/
| |
|
| |
|
| The adaptations of doubled consonants are used word initially to indicate [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalization]]. Medial occurrences of nasalized syllables are written across syllables.
| | * '''e''' /e/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Etymology_2_17|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]] |
| | : ''part'' - and; also; too |
|
| |
|
| : Example: | | * '''ila''' /ˈi.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]] |
| | : ''prep'' - toward; at; in direction of |
| | : ''v'' - go (toward); walk; travel |
|
| |
|
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>까바</b></big></big></font> - '''nkapa''' - alcohol; liquor / <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>단가</b></big></big></font> - '''tanka''' - eagle; hawk; falcon | | * '''o''' /o/ from JPN [[wiktionary:を#Etymology_2|を]] |
| | : ''part'' - direct object particle |
|
| |
|
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>감바</b></big></big></font> - '''kampa''' - Cheers! / <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>쁘라</b></big></big></font> - '''mpula''' - lamp; lantern; light
| |
|
| |
|
| ==== vowels ====
| |
|
| |
|
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅏ ᅶ ㅐ ㅑ ᅸ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ</b></big></big></font> | | * wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook |
| : '''a ao ai ya yao e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i'''
| | * en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language |
| : /a~a: aʊ̯ aɪ̯ ja~ʲa: jaʊ̯~ʲaʊ̯ e~ɛ je~ʲɛ o~o: jo~ʲo: wa~ʷa: waɪ̯~ʷaɪ̯ we~ʷe: u~u: i~ɪ/ | |
|
| |
|
| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅘ</b></big></big></font> This is pronounced /wa/ in Korean because of the order of the vowels; however, because [[wp:List_of_Hangul_jamo|obsolete jamo]] are difficult to type and look junky as images, in Kala, this is used for /aʊ̯/ when typing. It is rarely seen due to the diphthong itself being uncommon.
| |
|
| |
|
| ===Examples===
| | A working phrasebook for [[Kalo]]. |
|
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| * <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>어하 거 거하 가먀터 하요 마아 타감 뱌사하먀여</b></big></big></font>
| | = Essentials = |
| : '''eha ke keha kamyatle hayo ma’a tlakam pyasahamyaye'''
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| : [eːɦa kɛ keːɦa kamʲaːt͡ɬe haːjo maːʔa t͡ɬaːkam pʲaʃahamʲaːjɛ]
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| : <tt>P.3s O body stun-REL 3s.POSS with man-PL be.popular-AUG-CAUS-PST</tt>
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| : ''Her bewitching body made her very popular with men.''
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| =Examples=
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| * '''seko saye puani nahayo yalaye ma ke tsa’eto omoye''' | | * '''ola''' - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to [[wiktionary:aloha#Hawaiian|aloha]]) |
| : <small>scorpion along bank river-GEN walk-PST and TOP across-way think-PST</small>
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| : ''A scorpion was walking along the bank of a river, wondering how to get to the other side.'' | |
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| * '''haye seko ke tsola anyaye''' | | * '''kan/a''' - "yes; it is" |
| : <small>sudden scorpion TOP fox see-PST</small>
| | * '''ne''' - "no; it is not" |
| : ''Suddenly, he saw a fox.''
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| * '''seko nya tsa’e naha amo ua’e muta tsolayo kanyoye''' | | * '''yapu wa''' - "Excuse me." |
| : <small>scorpion for across river carry on back fox-GEN ask-PST</small> | | * '''nenka ma''' - "Please." [''lit'': is (it) possible?] |
| : ''He asked the fox to take him on his back across the river.'' | | :: by extension "Do you mind?" |
| | * '''tanka (ta)''' - "Thank you (very much)." |
| | * '''tipa''' - "(That's) OK." |
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| * '''tsola kye ak na’eta amo yatli ta’ena kute nuesitli'''
| | = Greetings & Goodbyes = |
| : <small>fox IND.SP COP.NEG 1SG-P.2SG carry if.X.then.Y 2SG-P.1SG sting drown-FUT</small>
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| : ''The fox said, “No. If I do that, you’ll sting me, and I’ll drown.”''
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| * '''seko kye na’eta kute yatli nam nuesitli''' | | * '''ola yuma''' - "Good morning/day/afternoon" |
| : <small>scorpion IND.SP 1SG-P.2SG sting if.X.then.Y 1PL drown-FUT</small>
| | * '''ola note''' - "Good evening/night" |
| : ''The scorpion assured him, “If I do that, we’ll both drown.”''
| | * '''salama''' - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye" |
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| * '''tsola pue omo nkataye'''
| | == Civilities == |
| : <small>fox after think agree-PST</small>
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| : ''The fox thought about it and finally agreed.''
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| * '''ya seko ua’e muta tsolayo uayaye ma tsola yokomuye''' | | * '''moto (niyo) ma''' - <small>manner 2s.POSS Q</small> - ''How are you?'' |
| : <small>VOC scorpion on back fox-GEN climb and fox swim-begin-PST</small>
| | ** '''tipa''' - "Good/OK/Fine." |
| : ''So the scorpion climbed up on his back, and the fox began to swim.''
| | ** '''...''' - "Not bad." |
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| * '''me tsa’etsohue nahayo seko ke tsola kuteye'''
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| : <small>however across-half-LOC river-GEN scorpion TOP fox sting-PST</small>
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| : ''But halfway across the river, the scorpion stung him.''
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| * '''tsola ike sunu ke sila hayo yeno ka’e seko muka kye nye ta’ena kuteye ka ima ta nuesitli'''
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| : <small>fox while poison TOP vein 3SG.POSS fill toward scorpion face IND.SP reason 2SG-P.1SG sting-PST Q now 2SG drown-FUT</small>
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| : ''As poison filled his veins, the fox turned to the scorpion and said, “Why did you do that? Now you’ll drown, too.”''
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| * '''seko kye na’i ke to nayo tlinapayek'''
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| : <small>scorpion IND.SP 1SG.REFL TOP way 1SG.POSS stop-able-PST.NEG</small>
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| : ''“I couldn’t help it,” said the scorpion. “It’s my nature.”''
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| =Lexicon=
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| ''See also'': [[Kala/lexicon|Lexicon]], [[Kala/lexicon/theme|Kala thematic lexicon]], and [[Kala/etymology|Kala etymological lexicon]].
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| A small sampling of Kala lexemes.
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| * '''pa''' - although; even though; even if | | * '''tenpo ta ne wite''' - <small>time big no see</small> - ''Long time no see'' |
| * '''pa'a''' - be well-ordered; regular; organized
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| * '''pina''' - be clever; intelligent; wise
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| * '''punka''' - fruit; fruit tree
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| * '''mpana''' - wide; broad; extensive; vast; width
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| * '''tanko''' - group; organization; team
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| * '''tepe''' - conceal; cover; shield; shelter
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| * '''tiku''' - extract; withdraw; pick-up
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| * '''tona''' - tuna
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| * '''ntela''' - interact; interplay; interrelated
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| * '''kanyo''' - question; ask; raise a question
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| * '''kemu''' - experience; undergo
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| * '''kinyo''' - intervene; get involved
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| * '''kona''' - dress; skirt
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| * '''kunye''' - moon; lunar; satellite
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| * '''kuya''' - green; foliage; verdant
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| * '''nkanu''' - short [in height and from end edge]
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| * '''makua''' - iron; press; smooth out
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| * '''menka''' - cotton
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| * '''mosukua''' - Moscow
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| * '''mutla''' - be absolute; unconditional
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| * '''napo''' - turnip
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| * '''ne''' - indirect object particle
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| * '''nota''' - lie; be in horizontal position; horizon
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| * '''nyalo''' - call; number; telephone
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| * '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
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| * '''sipanya''' - Spain
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| * '''sokyo''' - helium
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| * '''suama''' - sew; seam; mend; stitch
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| * '''hasu''' - conjecture; guess; supposition; assumption
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| * '''hilo''' - plaza; public square
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| * '''hueta''' - testicle
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| * '''tsame''' - accumulate; collect; gather; cluster
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| * '''tsemu''' - jam; marmalade
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| * '''tsitli''' - farm; ranch
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| * '''tsuto''' - be curly-haired
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| * '''tlato''' - recite rhythmically; chant; intone
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| * '''tlehe''' - esteemed; honest; candid; sincere
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| * '''tlokua''' - everybody; everyone
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| * '''ato''' - that way [over there]
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| * '''atsa''' - disc; rotate; wheel
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| * '''esue''' - fail; lose
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| * '''ila''' - sail; fly; navigate
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| * '''otso''' - wolf; lupine
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| * '''ulo''' - crop rotation
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| * '''uatli''' - inferior; of lower quality
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| * '''uetsi''' - dispirited downcast [idiom]; in low spirits
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| * '''yatso''' - ferment; brew; make honey; liquor
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| * '''yopi''' - mail; post [office]
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