User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

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= Introduction =


'''Kala''' is a personal artistic language, or constructed language (''conlang''). It is the culmination of my life-long appreciation and fascination with language and linguistics. This fascination began in my youth, c. 1988 when I received a book about ciphers and codes. I have studied multiple natural languages since that time, including several European languages, Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese (Mandarin), to name only a few. I have focused much of my interest in the subfield of writing systems, which will likely be apparent to anyone familiar with '''Kala''' and its many varied writing systems.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext


'''Kala''' draws on ''natlangs'' (natural language), other ''conlangs'', and of course imagination. '''Kala''' was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. '''Kala'''’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed considerably based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of '''Kala''' lexemes are derived from or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a cipherlang from my youth) and '''[[Qatama]]''' (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
= Heading 1 =


== Borrowing ==
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} replaces {{IPA|[s]}}.
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} replaces {{IPA|[z]}}.
* {{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʙ]}} are in free variation.
* {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[ʀ]}} are in free variation.


As can be seen [[Kala/etymology|here]], '''Kala''' borrows from many varied languages, including but not limited to: Arabic, Mandarin, Japanese, Korean, Spanish, Turkish, and several others. These borrowings are most often based on aesthetics and function of the word. When borrowing, often changes made to the word include dropping of one or more syllables, vowel changes, and occasionally metathesis. These changes frequently leave the word unrecognizable from its original form. However, with each borrowing, an attempt has been made to retain as much original phonological and semantic meaning as possible. Of the numerous examples of borrowing, here is a breakdown of a few that are commonly used;
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Miyu''' allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.


::* '''niha''' – ''good; nice; cool; sweet; enjoyable'' (from Arabic [[wiktionary:منيح|'''منيح''']] /mnīḥ/, meaning “fine; good”). So, the /m/ was dropped and an /a/ was added, also the /ḥ/ becomes /ɦ/. These changes align the word with the CVCV structure that the majority of '''Kala''' lexemes adhere to, as well as the phonological and phonotactical rules. This has been further reduced to a derivational suffix, -'''ni''' denoting a quality of goodness.
== Heading 2 ==
=== Heading 3 ===
==== Heading 4 ====


::* '''yohua''' – ''night(time); darkness'' (from Classical Nahuatl [[wiktionary:yohualli|'''yohualli''']] /jo(w)alli/, meaning “night; nighttime; darkness”). The absolutive suffix –'''''lli''''' was dropped, and the Spanish spelling used to inform pronunciation, making it /joːhʷa/. This word has been used in portmanteau to create new words such as '''huatso''' “''midnight''”.
<nowiki>


::* '''tsoya''' – ''center; middle; mid-; half'' (from Mandarin [[wiktionary:中#Definitions|'''中''']] / ʈ͡ʂʊŋ/, meaning “middle; center”). So, the coda / ŋ/ was dropped and /ja/ was added, also the /ʈ͡ʂ/ becomes /ts~t͡ʃ/. This has been further reduced to a derivational suffix, -'''tso''' denoting half, or the middle of something. This word has been used in portmanteau to create new words such as '''huatso''' “''midnight''” and '''yotso''' “''midday; noon''”.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}


This is a very small sample of borrowings:
words


:* '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[wiktionary:pato#Noun_9|''pato'']]
{{col-break}}
:* '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
:* '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
:* '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic  [[wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
:* '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[wiktionary:橙#Chinese|''chéng'']]
:* '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]
:* '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]


So, some phrases can contain words from multiple natlangs:
ety


* '''ta (ke) inun uasiye ka'''
{{col-break}}
: <small>2sg (O) drink-ACC take-PST Q</small>
: ''Did you take the drink?''


* '''ta''' - Arabic [[wiktionary:أنت|''ʾanta'']]; '''ke''' - Chinese [[wiktionary:個#Definitions|''gè'']]; '''inu''' - Hawaiian [[wiktionary:inu#Hawaiian|''inu'']]; '''uasi''' - Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]; '''ka''' - Japanese [[wiktionary:か#Particle|''か'']]
abbs


=Phonology=
{{col-end}}


= Nominal Morphology =
</nowiki>


The morphology of '''Kala''' nouns can be complex enough to include number, gender, size, case, quality, etc. However, it should be noted that a few of these are also non-obligatory. That is, if the meaning or intended meaning can be deduced from context, certain nominal modifiers may be omitted. Due to the semantic range of '''Kala''' words, the declension of nouns is often used to convey both the lexical role, but also the semantic use, and grammatical importance of the word.
===== Heading 5 =====
====== Heading 6 ======


== Nouns ==


'''Kala''' nominals (which includes full nouns, pronouns, and determiners) inflect for number and several cases.  Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not always marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
: = indentation


=== Number ===
* Item1
* Item4
** Sub-item 4 a)
*** Sub-item 4 a) 1.
**** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
** Sub-item 4 b)
* Item5


In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence ''"there are three dogs"'' would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' ''"dog three exist"'' keeps the word mita "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant. The collective plural is marked by '''tli-''', derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''"group; collection; gathering"''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural (COL). There are also markers for paucal (''a few of something''), distributive (''each of a countable group''), or inclusive, and an indefinite large number (''many, much'').
# Item1
# Item4
## Sub-item 1
### Sub-sub-item
#### Sub-sub-sub-item
## Sub-item 2
# Item5


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
; Term : Definition1
!
! ''Kala''
! ''gloss''
! ''English''
|-align=center
! Singular [SG]
| '''mita'''
| <small>dog</small>
| ''a/the dog''
|-align=center
! Plural [PL]
| '''mita-m'''
| <small>dog-PL</small>
| ''(the) dogs''
|-align=center
! Paucal [PAU]
| '''mita-mi'''
| <small>dog-PAU</small>
| ''(a) few dogs''
|-align=center
! Collective [COL]
| '''tli-mita'''
| <small>COL-dog</small>
| ''(a) dog pack''
|-align=center
! Distributive [DIS]
| '''mita-li''' [or '''-kua''']
| <small>dog-DIS/INCL</small>
| ''each/every dog''
|-align=center
! Indefinite Mass [IM]
| '''mita-mpa'''
| <small>dog-IM</small>
| ''many dogs''
|}


These endings can sometimes be combined to add nuance to the meaning, such as; '''tlimitam''' - <small>COL-dog-PL</small> - ''dog packs / packs of dogs''; '''imitalin malo''' - <small>PROX-dog-DIS-ACC be.brown</small> – ''each of these dogs is brown''
; Term
: Definition1
: Definition2
: Definition3


When the final syllable of a word contains a labial consonant, ‘'''m'''’, ‘'''mp'''’, and ‘'''p'''’ the plural marking changes to '''-lo'''. The '''–lo''' ending is also used when the word begins with a vowel, and when the '''–m''' ending conflicts phonotactically with a given case suffix. An example of this would be; '''yama''' - <small>mountain</small> - ''a mountain'' → '''yamalo''' - <small>mountain-PL</small> – ''mountains'' → '''tliyama''' - <small>COL-mountain</small> - ''a mountain range / range of mountains'' → '''tliyamalo''' - <small>COL-mountain-PL</small> - ''mountain ranges / ranges of mountains''.
To ''italicize text'', put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.


==== Reduplication ====
Three apostrophes each side will '''bold the text'''.


Nominal reduplication in Kala indicates a plurality and that the items are scattered about in a disorderly manner. It can also indicate uncountable version of a countable noun. Occasionally, it reflects a juvenile or informal register; in this respect, it can be compared to the English diminutive ending "-y" or "-ie" (kitty, “doggie", etc.) Verb reduplication is also common in '''Kala''' as it marks adverbs. Often, this adverb is an informal and/or temporary character of the action. It may also indicate a nominal form of the verb.
Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces '''''bold italics'''''.


* '''kya o’unkonke''' - <small>IMP be.loud-NEG</small> - ''Don’t speak loudly!''
'''''Italic and bold formatting''''' works correctly only within a single line.


The morphological process of reduplication is irregular in Kala and is based primarily on the initial syllable of the word. The nasals ('''N'''), plosives ('''P'''), affricates ('''A'''), continuants ('''C'''), and semivowels and vowels ('''S''') each undergo various changes during reduplication.
For text as {{smallcaps|small caps}}, use the template {{tl|smallcaps}}.


* N → N/(y/u)
::* '''muku''' - ''knife'' → '''mumuku''' – ''knives scattered around''
::* '''muela''' - ''raspberry'' → '''memuela''' – ''raspberries scattered around'' / ''a bunch of raspberries''
::* '''nyahi''' - ''snow'' → '''nanyahi''' – ''snow all around''
* P → nP/(y/u) or nP → P/(y/u)
::* '''pana''' - ''rain'' → '''pampana''' – ''rain all around'' (“It’s raining all over.”)
::* '''ntasi''' – ''excitement'' → '''ntatasi''' – ''chaotic fits''
::* '''kano''' – ''dear; darling'' → '''kankano''' – ''“sweetie; lovey”''
::* '''kyo’a''' – ''be quiet'' → '''konko’a''' – ''quietly''
* A → C/(y/u)
::* '''tloso''' – ''annoy; bother'' → '''tloloso''' – ''bothersome''
::* '''tsima''' – ''hour'' → '''tsisima''' – ''hourly; regularly''
::* '''tsuama''' – ''sandwich'' → '''tsasuama''' – ''sandwiches scattered about'' / ''a sandwich tray''
* C → ~/(y/u) [mostly '''s''' → '''ts''' and '''h''' → '''k''']
::* '''sama''' - ''sun'' → '''satsama''' – ''sunny; sunshine all around''
::* '''suku''' - ''shop'' → '''sutsuku''' – ''marketplace; bazaar''
::* '''hama''' – ''protect; defend'' → '''hakama''' – ''protective''
* S → '''‘u''' or '''~'''
::* '''ima''' – ''now; yet'' → '''i’uma''' – ''immediately'' [sounds like /ˈjuːma/]
::* '''etsa''' – ''degree; extent'' → '''e’utsa''' – ''extensive''


=== Gender ===
* [[WP:Lingua Franca Nova|LFN]]


Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.
* [[Wiktionary:亡|tokomo]]


* <b>kuma</b> - <small>bear</small> - <i>a bear</i> → <b>kumana</b> - <small>bear-FEM</small> - <i>sow</i> → <b>kumata</b> - <small>bear-MASC</small> - <i>boar</i>
= old / wrong =
* <b>masa</b> - <small>deer</small> - <i>a deer</i> → <b>masana</b> - <small>deer-FEM</small> - <i>doe</i> → <b>masata</b> - <small>deer-MASC</small> - <i>stag</i>
* <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i> → <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i> → <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>


=== Case ===
'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.


Case is marked with suffixes. The regular forms of the case markers are given in the list below. Case is marked on noun phrases using null marking for agents, and '''-n''' for patients. The clitic '''-n''' can appear on multiple noun phrases in a single sentence at once, such as the direct object, indirect object, and adverbial nouns.
'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 750px;"
Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects.
! Case
[n] and [l] are in free variation.
! Suffix
[ɲ] is an allophone of /n/.
! Use
/x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.
|-align=center
| Nominative<br>[NOM]
| '''-Ø'''
| ''indicates a syntactic core participant of the action, agent, force, or experiencer''
|-align=center
| Accusative<br>[ACC]
| '''-n'''
| ''indicates a patient, theme or goal (used as '''''Oblique''''' occasionally), instrument, or experiencer''
|-align=center
| Genitive<br>[GEN]
| '''-yo'''
| ''indicates alienable association or possession (see also '''te''')''
|-align=center
| Dative<br>[DAT]
| '''-la'''
| ''indicates the recipient/beneficiary of an action, or movement towards object''
|-align=center
| Locative<br>[LOC]
| '''-hue'''
| ''indicates location or circumstance''
|-align=center
| Ablative<br>[ABL]
| '''-nte / -uai'''
| ''indicates origin, source, or movement away from a location''
|-align=center
| Comitative<br>[COM]
| '''-mua'''
| ''indicates instrument, or in company of something''
|-align=center
| Abessive<br>[ABE]
| '''-mue'''
| ''indicates the lack or absence of something''
|-align=center
| Terminative<br>[TERM]
| '''-mpe'''
| ''indicates the extent, finality, or limit (also '''Limitative''')''
|}
 
==== Nominative ====
 
The nominative [NOM] is not marked [-Ø] and is in the absolutive form. It indicates a syntactic core participant of the action, agent, force, or experiencer.
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''na kanyo'''
: <small>1sg-NOM ask</small>
: ''I ask.''
{{col-break}}
* '''mita ina'''
: <small>dog-NOM eat</small>
: ''A/the dog eats.''
{{col-end}}


==== Accusative ====


The accusative [ACC] is marked with the clitic '''-n''' and indicates a patient, theme or goal (used as '''''Oblique''''' occasionally), instrument, or experiencer.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''tlaka mitan anya'''
: <small>man-NOM dog-ACC see</small>
: ''A/The man sees a/the dog.''
{{col-break}}
* '''mita kutsun ina'''
: <small>dog-NOM meat-ACC eat</small>
: ''A/the dog eats (the) meat.''
{{col-end}}


==== Genitive ====
=== writing ===


Genitive [GEN] -yo indicates alienable association or possession (see also te)
[[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]]


==== Dative ====


Dative/Lative [DAT] -tle / -le indicates the recipient/beneficiary of an action, or movement towards object


==== Locative ====
[[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]]


Locative [LOC] -hue indicates location or circumstance
== allophony ==
The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.


==== Ablative ====
= Syntax =


Ablative [ABL] -nte / -uai indicates origin, source, or movement away from a location


==== Comitative ====
* '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
* '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)


Comitative [COM] -mua indicates instrument, or in company of something
= Nouns =


==== Abessive ====
Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.


Abessive [ABE] -mue indicates the lack or absence of something
== pronouns ==


==== Terminative ====
'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".


Terminative [TERM] -mpe indicates the extent, finality, or limit (also Limitative)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
 
!
== Pronouns ==
! singular
 
! plural
'''Kala''' agent pronouns are often omitted when the person is obvious from context. There are four persons in Kala. The 4th being inanimate, or indefinite. The pronoun '''na'am''' is used as the 1st person plural exclusive, meaning "We, but not you." The 3rd person plural is irregular, all other pronoun decline regularly. Pronouns do not inflect for gender; if gender is significant, one can use words like '''naka, tlaka, nahi, tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc.
! possessive
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
Personal pronouns:
 
* '''na''' - 1st person
* '''ta''' - 2nd person
* '''ha''' - 3rd person
* '''tla''' - 4th person ("it", "one") (used for [[wp:Animacy|inanimate]] nouns)
{{col-break}}
Modifiers:
 
* '''-m''' - plural
* '''-nku''' - [[wp:Reciprocal_pronoun|reciprocal]] (only attaches to plural pronouns)
* '''e-''' - patient
* '''-i''' - reflexive
* '''-yo''' - possessive
{{col-break}}
Other pronouns include:
 
* '''tlokua''' - everyone, everybody
* '''kola''' - someone, somebody; whomever, anyone, anybody
* '''tlok''' - no one, nobody
* '''nokua''' - everything
* '''nola''' - something; whatever, anything
* '''nok''' - nothing
{{col-end}}
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
|+ nkalo
|-
!  
! Agent
! Patient
! Reflexive
! Possessive
! Reciprocal
|-
! 1sg
| '''na''' || '''ena''' || '''na'i''' || '''nayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 2sg
| '''ta''' || '''eta''' || '''ta'i''' || '''tayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 3sg
| '''ha''' || '''eha''' || '''ha'i''' || '''hayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 4sg
| '''tla''' || '''etla''' || '''tla'i''' || '''tlayo''' || '''-'''
|-
! 1pl<br>1pl exclusive
| '''nam'''<br>'''na'am''' || '''enam'''<br>'''ena'am''' || '''nami'''<br>'''na'ami''' || '''namyo'''<br>'''na'amyo''' || '''nanku'''<br>'''na'anku'''
|-
! 2pl
| '''tam''' || '''etam''' || '''tami''' || '''tamyo''' || '''tanku'''
|-
! 3pl
| '''kam''' || '''ekam''' || '''kami''' || '''kamyo''' || '''kanku'''
|-
! 4pl
| '''tlam''' || '''etlam''' || '''tlami''' || '''tlamyo''' || '''tlanku'''
|}
 
===Pronominal constructions===
 
The agent and patient pronouns are linked in most constructions. That means that the agent and the patient form one word. This is done with the pronominal patient marking affix -'''e'''-.
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''neha anya'''
: <small>1s-P.3s see</small>
: ''I see her.''
 
* '''kameta motoyek'''
: <small>3pl-P.2s remember-PST-NEG</small>
: ''They didn’t remember you.''
{{col-break}}
* '''tametla yohauek'''
: <small>2pl-P.4s have-DES-NEG</small>
: ''You (all) don’t want to have it.''
 
* '''nya tena tapya ka'''
: <small>for 2s-P.1s follow Q</small>
: ''Why are you following me?''
{{col-end}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
! A/P
! ''1sg''
! ''2sg''
! ''3sg''
! ''4sg''
! ''1pl''
! ''1pl.EXCL''
! ''2pl''
! ''3pl''
! ''4pl''
|-align=center
|-align=center
! ''1sg''
! 1st person
| '''-'''
| '''wa'''<br>I; me
| '''neta'''
| '''walo'''<br>we; us
| '''neha'''
| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
| '''netla'''
| '''-'''
| '''-'''
| '''netam'''
| '''nekam'''
| '''netlam'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
! ''2sg''
! 2nd person
| '''tena'''
| '''ni'''<br>you
| '''-'''
| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
| '''teha'''
| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
| '''tetla'''
| '''tenam'''
| '''tena'am'''
| '''-'''
| '''tekam'''
| '''tetlam'''
|-align=center
|-align=center
! ''3sg''
! 3rd person
| '''hena'''
| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
| '''heta'''
| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
| '''-'''
| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
| '''hetla'''
| '''henam'''
| '''hena'am'''
| '''hetam'''
| '''-'''
| '''hetlam'''
|-align=center
! ''4sg''
| '''tlena'''
| '''tleta'''
| '''tleha'''
| '''-'''
| '''tlenam'''
| '''tlena'am'''
| '''tletam'''
| '''tlekam'''
| '''-'''
|-align=center
! ''1pl''
| '''-'''
| '''nameta'''
| '''nameha'''
| '''nametla'''
| '''-'''
| '''-'''
| '''nametam'''
| '''namekam'''
| '''nametlam'''
|-align=center
! ''1pl.EXCL''
| '''-'''
| '''na'ameta'''
| '''na'ameha'''
| '''na'ametla'''
| '''-'''
| '''-'''
| '''na'ametam'''
| '''na'amekam'''
| '''na'ametlam'''
|-align=center
! ''2pl''
| '''tamena'''
| '''-'''
| '''tameha'''
| '''tametla'''
| '''tamenam'''
| '''tamena'am'''
| '''-'''
| '''tamekam'''
| '''tametlam'''
|-align=center
! ''3pl''
| '''kamena'''
| '''kameta'''
| '''-'''
| '''kametla'''
| '''kamenam'''
| '''kamena'am'''
| '''kametam'''
| '''-'''
| '''kametlam'''
|-align=center
! ''4pl''
| '''tlamena'''
| '''tlameta'''
| '''tlameha'''
| '''-'''
| '''tlamenam'''
| '''tlamena'am'''
| '''tlametam'''
| '''tlamekam'''
| '''-'''
|}
|}


=== Reflexives and Reciprocals ===
* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
Kala handles reflexives and reciprocals using suffixes that can be added to either the pronoun or the verb. The reflexive suffix added to pronouns is –'''i''', when added to verbs it is –'''ki''', from '''ki''' meaning “''self; essence''”. The reciprocal suffix added to pronouns and verbs is –'''nku''', , from '''anku''' meaning “''reciprocate; [in] return''”.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''na'i sepaye'''
: <small>1s.REFL injure-PST</small>
: ''I hurt myself.''
 
* '''ha'i tlela'''
: <small>3s.REFL bathe</small>
: ''She bathes herself.''
{{col-break}}
* '''kanku ke onta nayo itsa'''
: <small>3pl.RECP O parent 1s.GEN love</small>
: ''My parents love each other.''
 
* '''na'anku amyapak'''
: <small>1pl.EXCL.RECP like-ABIL-NEG</small>
: ''We (but not you) are not able to like each other.''
{{col-end}}
 
In order to differentiate non-singular reflexives from reciprocals, -'''li''' (“''each; every''”) can be added – to the subject for reflexives, and to the object for reciprocals. Note however that this construction usually implies that all members of the subject group were actually affected by the action.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''tanakoli matakiye'''
: <small>fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
: ''Each one of the warriors killed himself.''
{{col-break}}
* '''kanku ke tanakoli matakiye'''
: <small>3pl.RECP O fight-AG-each kill-REFL-PST</small>
: ''The warriors killed each other ['''and nobody survived'''].''
{{col-end}}


=== Determiners & Demostratives ===
* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''


The demonstratives can be prefixed to any noun to show [[Wikipedia:Deixis|deixis]]. Kala makes a three-way distinction. Typically there is a distinction between [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|proximal]] or first person (objects near to the speaker), [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|medial]] or second person (objects near to the addressee), and [[Wikipedia:Demonstrative#Distal_and_proximal_demonstratives|distal]] or third person (objects far from both).
= Verbs =


{{col-begin}}
Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.
{{col-break}}
* '''itla''' ('''i-''') - this (near me)
* '''uatla''' ('''ua-''') - that (near you)
* '''yetla''' ('''ye-''') - that (over there)


Examples:
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]])
* '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]])


* '''imitami''' - <small>PROX-dog-few</small> - ''These few dogs''
== tense, aspect, and mood ==
* '''yemitampa''' - <small>DIST-dog-many</small> - ''Those many dogs (over there)''
* '''uamitali''' - <small>MED-dog-each</small> - ''Each dog (each of those dogs) (near you)''
{{col-break}}
Quantifiers follow the noun that modify.


* '''kua''' ('''-kua''') - all; every; whole
Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).
* '''oli''' ('''-li''') - each; every
* '''ula''' ('''-la''') - whatever; any; some
* '''mi''' ('''-mi''') - few; little
* '''nke''' ('''-k''') - none
* '''mpa''' ('''-mpa''') - many; much; a lot
* '''maha''' - more; plus
* '''ohi''' - less; fewer
{{col-end}}
=== Correlatives ===


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|+ uatse
|-−
|-
!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
!  
! Proximal<br>'''i-'''
! Medial<br>'''ua-'''
! Distal<br>'''ye-'''
! Inclusive<br>'''-kua'''
! Negative<br>'''-k'''
! Indefinite<br>'''-la'''
|-
! mo<br>''(place)''
| '''hina'''<br>here || '''uana'''<br>there || '''yemua'''<br>over there || '''mokua'''<br>everywhere || '''mok'''<br>nowhere || '''mola'''<br>somewhere; anywhere
|-
! ko<br>''(person)''
| '''iko'''<br>this person || '''uako'''<br>that person || '''yeko'''<br>that person<br>(over there) || '''tlokua'''<br>everyone || '''tlok'''<br>no one || '''kola'''<br>someone; anyone
|-
! uku<br>''(amount)''
| '''iku'''<br>this much || '''uaku'''<br>that much || '''-''' || '''kua'''<br>all; every|| '''ok'''<br>none || '''ula'''<br>some; any
|-
|-
! ama<br>''(time)''
|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
| '''ima'''<br>now, at present || '''uama'''<br>then; at that time || '''-''' || '''kuama'''<br>always || '''amak'''<br>never || '''tlama'''<br>sometime; anytime
|-
|-
! so<br>''(kind, type)''
|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
| '''iso'''<br>this kind || '''so'o'''<br>that kind || '''yeso'''<br>that kind<br>(over there) || '''sokua'''<br>all kinds || '''sok'''<br>no kind (at all) || '''sola'''<br>some/any kind
|-
|-
! no<br>''(thing)''
|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
| '''itla'''<br>this || '''uatla'''<br>that || '''yetla'''<br>that<br>(over there) || '''nokua'''<br>everything || '''nok'''<br>nothing; none || '''nola'''<br>something; anything
|-
|-
! to<br>''(manner, way)''
|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
| '''yoto'''<br>thus; like this; this way|| '''uato'''<br>that way || '''ato'''<br>that way<br>(over there) || '''tokua'''<br>every way || '''tok'''<br>no way || '''tola'''<br>somehow; anyway
|}
|}


=Derivational morphology=
* '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.''


Because '''Kala''' has only two main parts of speech ([[wp:Content_word|content]] and [[wp:function_word|functional words]]), new words formed by derivation should be analyzed based on context. [[wp:Function_word|Functional]] words can rarely be used to form new words, but this is typically to form extensions of functions, or new functions.
* '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.''


== Compounding ==
== positional verbs ==


New nouns are usually created through head-initial compounding, using both nominal and verbal stems as the second, dependent element of the compound. The resulting lexical entries usually behave as single phonological words, which, however, have four full syllables: '''kuatlatloha''' "grass snake". Compounding of more than two elements is not common.
'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.


* '''kayapusu''' - "earthquake" → '''kaya''' - earth + '''pusu''' - vibrate
* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
* '''asuaseka''' - "leather" → '''asua''' - skin + '''seka''' - dry
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])


Clipped compounding does occur and is distinctive. This clipping occurs consistently in content words, but is usually blocked in functional words and auxiliaries.  Syllables are clipped based on euphonic choices but must remain recognizable and retain grammatical functionality.
= Particles =


* '''naka''' – woman & '''kana''' – leader → '''nakkan''' – chieftess; queen
== determiners ==
* '''naua''' – to tie & '''ualo''' – bring → '''naualo''' – get someone involved in one's trouble
* '''uaso''' – cup; jug; vessel & '''sitsa''' – hot; heat → '''uassitsa''' – flask; thermos; bottle
* '''yasa''' – wind & '''sitsa''' – hot; heat → '''yassitsa''' – warm breeze
* '''yasa''' – wind & '''yesa''' – peace → '''yassa''' – peaceful-wind


There are also numerous [[Kala/affixes|'''affixes''']] used to form new meanings. A few examples are;
Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.


* '''tiyasu''' - "bakery" → '''tiya''' - bread + '''-su''' - market; shop
=== deixis ===
* '''onyomo''' - "school" → '''onyo''' - learn + '''-mo''' - place; location
* '''kuhasa''' - "kitchen" → '''kuha''' - cook + '''-sa''' - room; chamber
* '''pyetampu''' - "egg-shaped" → '''pyeta''' - egg + '''-mpu''' - shape; form


== Derivation ==
* '''pu''' - this; these
* '''su''' - that; those


In Kala, new words can be formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to existing words, or by combining two existing words as a compound noun. It's also possible to reuse adjectives as nouns, and verbs as nouns, without adding an affix.
=== amount ===


The most common ending (other than tense, aspect, and modals) is the adverbial ending –'''n'''. It is used to mean ''"similar to ...", "-like", "-ish", "full of ..." or "made of ..."'', and ''"pertaining to ..."'' or ''"to do with ..."''.
* '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
* '''kula''' - all; every; each
* '''ne''' - no; none; zero
* '''poka''' - some; several; a few
::
* '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little
* '''maso''' - more


Here are some common examples:
=== other-ness ===


* '''kyo’a''' - "quiet" → '''kyo’an''' – ''quietly''
* '''asi''' - such
* '''enke''' - "simple" → '''enken''' – ''simply''
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
* '''ntahi''' - "child" → '''ntahin''' – ''childish; childlike''
* '''oto''' - other
* '''putsu''' - "monster" → '''putsun''' – ''monstrous''
* '''tonye''' - same
* '''yoti''' - "game" → '''yotin''' – ''playful''
* '''hanya''' - "nation" → '''hanyan''' – ''national''
* '''kuaha''' - "science" → '''kuahan''' – ''scientific''
* '''olo''' - "gold" → '''olon''' – ''made of gold''


=== Verbalization ===
= Number =


Causative verbs (as well as achievement verbs) can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mya|-'''mya''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''muya''']] - ''"do, make, cause"'') or [[Kala/affixes#la|-'''la''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ela''']] - ''"become; change into; turn into"''). This type of derivation is fairly common; however, verbs created in this way are syntactically defective and tend to appear only in serial verb constructions.


* '''tinamya''' - "bend" ← '''tina''' - be bent
When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
* '''pitamya''' - "hollow out" ← '''pita''' - be hollow; void
* '''enomya''' - "annoy, bother" ← '''eno''' - be angry
* '''tsipuela''' - "slow down" ← '''tsipue''' - be slow
* '''kyolola''' - "speed up" ← '''kyolo''' - be quick


Intensive verbs can be formed from other verbs by adding [[Kala/affixes#mpa|-'''mpa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#mpa|'''mpa''']] - ''"many; much; very"''), or more commonly [[Kala/affixes#hu|-'''hu''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''kyohu''']] - ''"be drastic; extreme; aggressive"'').
* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
: ''She had two houses.''


* '''ketsahu''' - "dismiss, reject, repudiate" ← '''ketsa''' - doubt
* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
* '''amyampa''' - "fall in love with" ← '''amya''' - be fond of; like; prefer (of people)
: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
: ''I see four men.''


Adjective-like stative verbs which name an associated quality may be formed from nouns by [[Kala/affixes#n|-'''n''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#na|'''no''']] - ''"thing" (-ish, -ly, -ous)'').
== Higher Numbers ==


* '''timan''' - "be cruel, be bloody" ← '''tima''' - blood
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
* '''amyan''' - "be welcoming, be hospitable" ← '''amya''' - be fond of
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five


=== Nominalization ===


==== Agentive ====


Nouns referring to a human subject of a verb (''usually in a habitual sense'') can be formed with the agentive suffix [[Kala/affixes#ko|-'''ko''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ka|'''ko''']] - ''"individual; person"''). This suffix changes to '''-tlo''' when a [[wp:Velar_stop|velar stop]] is present in the preceding syllable.
__NOTOC__


* '''kitlako''' - "craftsman" ← '''kitla''' - create; invent; make-up
* '''sutako''' - "inhabitant (of)" ← '''suta''' - live; reside; dwell; inhabit; settle
* '''yekatlo''' - "unmarried young adult" ← '''yeka''' - be separate, be on one's own
* '''makatlo''' - "musician" ← '''maka''' - music; play ~; tune
* '''tsaniko''' - "storyteller" ← '''tsani''' - recite, tell (a story)


==== Instrumental ====


Instrument nouns and names for tools and other inanimates can be derived from verbs or from other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#nyo|-'''nyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mayo''']] - ''"device; equipment; tool"'').
<center>
[[#ka|ka]] [[#sa|sa]] [[#ta|ta]] [[#na|na]] [[#pa|pa]] [[#ma|ma]] [[#ya|ya]] [[#la|la]] [[#wa|wa]] [[#a|a i u e o]]
</center>


* '''hitanyo''' - "atlatl (spear-thrower)" ← '''hita''' - throw; cast; expel
= ka =
* '''amonyo''' - "handle (for carrying)" ← '''amo''' - transport; carry
* '''kusunyo''' - "clasp, brooch, fibula" ← '''kusu''' - squeeze
* '''toponyo''' - "lock" ← '''topo''' - door; gate


==== Locative ====
* '''kisa''' /ˈki.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]
: ''part'' - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]


Location nouns can be formed from both nouns and verbs by several suffixes. These indicate specific places where either something happens, or something resides there are a few affixes which modify both verbs and nouns.
* '''kute''' /ˈku.te/ from FRE [[wiktionary:écouter|écouter]]
: ''v'' - listen; hear


[[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ma|'''mo''']] - ''"location; place; site"''). This suffix is used to form the general idea of where something happens or resides.
* '''kono''' /ˈko.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]
: ''n'' - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
: ''v'' - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize


* '''tanamo''' - "battlefield; boxing ring; wrestling mat, etc." ← '''tana''' - fight; combat
* '''kome''' /ˈko.me/ from SPA [[wiktionary:comer#Spanish|comer]]
* '''uelomo''' - "bicycle-place; bike path; bike rack, etc." ← '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike
: ''v'' - eat; consume; drink
* '''inamo''' - "eat-place; dining room; restaurant" [This can also mean food-place; pantry, etc.] ← '''ina''' - food; eat
* '''onyomo''' - "learn-place; school" ← '''onyo''' - learn; study


[[Kala/affixes#su|-'''su''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''suku''']] - ''"market; shop; store"''). This suffix is used to specify a business where items are produced and/or sold.
= sa =


* '''tiyasu''' - "bread-shop; bakery" ← '''tiya''' - bread
* '''sa''' /sa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]
* '''inasu''' - "food-market; grocery store; restaurant" ← '''ina''' - food; eat
: ''part'' - future tense particle [FUT]
* '''uelosu''' - "bicycle-shop" ← '''uelo''' - bicycle; bike


[[Kala/affixes#kyo|-'''kyo''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ha|'''hakyo''']] - ''"college; school; university"''). This suffix is used to specify a location where students learn. This can also be used to indicate a school of thought, or ideology.
* '''saka/na''' /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سخن|سخن]]
: ''v'' - be hot; be warm; burn
: ''n'' - heat; warmth / fire


* '''tanakyo''' - "dojo; martial arts training academy; etc." ← '''tana''' - fight; combat
* '''kuhakyo''' - "culinary-school; chef’s academy" ← '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
* '''tsiyakyo''' - "liberalism" ← '''tsiya''' - freedom; liberty
* '''ya'akyo''' - "medical-school" ← '''ya'a''' - medicine; drug; cure


[[Kala/affixes#sa|-'''sa''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#sa|'''sala''']] - ''"chamber; room; section"''). This is more specific than
* '''sana''' /ˈsa.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سنة|سنة]]
[[Kala/affixes#mo|-'''mo''']] and used primarily for spaces inside buildings.
: ''n'' - year; 365 days


* '''kuhasa''' - "cook-room; kitchen" ← '''kuha''' - cook; prepare food
* '''sapa''' /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سبب|سبب]]
* '''mokusa''' - "sleep-room; bedroom" ← '''moku''' - sleep; rest
: ''n'' - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
* '''inasa''' - "eat-room; dining room" ← '''ina''' - food; eat
* '''onyosa''' - "learn-room; classroom" ← '''onyo''' - learn; study


==== Diminutive ====
* '''salama''' /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سلم#Arabic|سلم]]
: ''n'' - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
: ''v'' - be peaceful; be calm
: ''intj'' - Peace! Hey! Hi!


Diminutive nouns and endearment terms can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#hi|-'''hi''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#a|'''ahi''']] - ''"few; small"''). This becomes '''-ki''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
* '''sawa''' /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]]
: ''n'' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
: ''v'' - marry


* '''mukuhi''' - "blade" ← '''muku''' - knife
* '''si''' /si/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:四#Definitions|四]]
* '''umahi''' - "foal" ← '''uma''' - horse; equine
: ''num'' - four; 4
* '''mitahi''' - "puppy" ← '''mita''' - dog; canine
* '''ohuaki''' - "indulgence" ← '''ohua''' - luxurious; extravagant


==== Augmentative ====
* '''siya''' /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:下#Definitions|下]]
: ''prep'' - below; under; beneath
: ''v'' - be under; be lower


Augmentative nouns can be formed from verbs and other nouns by adding the suffix [[Kala/affixes#ha|-'''ha''']] (from [[Kala/lexicon#ta|'''taha''']] - ''"big; large; grand"''). This becomes '''-ka''' after a syllable that contains a [[wp:Glottal_fricative|glottal fricative]].
* '''su''' /su/ from TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]
: ''part'' - that; those (over there)


* '''kamaha''' - "city" ← '''kama''' - village; town
* '''sunya''' /ˈsun.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:शून्य|शून्य]]
* '''ohaka''' - "dislocate one's jaw" ← '''oha''' - yawn; open one's mouth
: ''num'' - zero; 0
* '''mosaha''' - "epic; novel" ← '''mosa''' - book; letter; scroll
: ''n'' - nothing
* '''tiniha''' - "hurricane" ← '''tini''' - spiral; whorl
: ''v'' - be empty; be void


==== Honorific ====
* '''se''' /se/ from SPA [[wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]]
: ''pro'' - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun


Honorific nouns can be formed from other nouns by prefixing [[Kala/affixes#o|'''o'''-]].
* '''sosa''' /ˈso.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:salsa#Spanish|salsa]]
: ''n'' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing


* '''omasa''' - "stag" ← '''masa''' - deer; cervine
= ta =
* '''okama''' - "capital" ← '''kama''' - town; village


=Particles=
* '''tanka''' /ˈtaŋ.ka/ from ENG/GER [[wiktionary:thank|thank]]/[[wiktionary:danke#German|danke]]
: ''v'' - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
: ''part/intj'' - thank you; thanks


Particles in Kala cover a broad spectrum of what are more accurately called function words. These include adverbs, prepositions (more accurately locative or relative verbs), conjunctions, interjections, onomatopes, and structural particles.  
* '''tapo''' /ˈta.po/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:打破|打破]]
: ''v'' - damage; wreck; break; destroy
: ''n'' - destruction; damage


==Interjections==
* '''tipa''' /ˈti.pa/ (or '''tupa''' /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA [[wiktionary:طيب|طيب]] (or [[wiktionary:טוב|טוב]])
: ''v'' - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
: ''intj'' - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!


The term “interjection” is used to cover a range of pragmatic, or discourse markers that do not fit well into any other category.  This is because many words and expressions have a pragmatic rather than a semantic meaning.  
* '''tiya''' /ˈti.ja/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tía#Spanish|tía]]
: ''n'' - aunt/uncle; extended family


* '''a''' – expresses acknowledgement, agreement, or simply that one is listening
* '''te''' /te/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Etymology_2_10|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Definitions_2|的]]
* '''e''' – marks dispreferreds, ends a digression,
: ''v'' - to move away from
* '''po''' – marks a sudden change of topic
: ''prep'' - of; from
* '''ya''' – vocative marker, polite imperative, expresses commiseration
* '''yali''' – excuses jostling or interruptions


These can occur either at the beginning or the end of a sentence.
* '''tenpo''' /ˈtem.po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]]
: ''n'' - time; moment; period


{{col-begin}}
* '''tela''' or '''talo''' /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/  from ENG [[wiktionary:tell|tell]]
{{col-break}}
: ''n'' - language; talk; speech
* '''e…nakkan ke ameyo yohatsek'''  
: ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
: <small>well queen O America have-seem-NEG</small>
: ''Well... America doesn’t really have a queen.''


* '''ke motsa ya’o…a'''  
* '''tonpa''' /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:同胞#Mandarin|同胞]]
: <small>O banana five yes</small>
: ''n'' - sibling; compatriot; friend
: ''Mm hmm, (you want) five bananas.''
{{col-break}}
* '''po…taye katso ka'''
: <small>so about meal Q</small>
: ''Anyway, what about dinner?''


* '''ya kyo’a…nam tsipue'''  
* '''tonye''' /ˈto.ɲe/ (or '''ton''' /ton/) from ZHO [[wiktionary:同一#Mandarin|同一]]
: <small>VOC quiet 1pl late</small>
: ''v'' - be identical; same; equivalent; equal
: ''Hey, shut up, we’re late!''
{{col-end}}
===Cursing===


Other common interjections – of course – include curses, vulgarities, obscenities, etc.
= na =


* '''kotsa''' – a spiteful person (“bitch; bastard”)
* '''nai''' /naɪ/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:內#Japanese|內]]
* '''kuna''' – excrete; expel; defecate (“shit”)
: ''v'' - be inside; within
* '''kyosa''' – sex; copulation; fornicate (“fuck”)
: ''prep'' - inside; within; during; while
* '''nanka''' – emphasizing disgust; [interj. of contempt]; (“damn; darn”)
* '''tsaya''' – damn [general invective]


==Locative Verbs==
* '''nano''' /ˈna.no/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:男#Definitions|男]]
: ''n'' - man; male


Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-'''hue''') which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of ''“at; in; on”''. Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:
* '''nama''' /ˈna.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:نام#Verb|نام]]
: ''v'' - sleep; rest; relax


* -'''hue''' – in; at; on (general locative)
* '''naya''' /ˈna.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:नया|नया]]
* '''nahe''' – within; inside
: ''v'' - be new; fresh; young
* '''nyaue''' – out; outside of; exterior
* '''ma’e''' – before; in front of
* '''pue''' – behind; after; in back of
* '''ua’e''' – above; over; on
* '''tahe''' – below; under; beneath; bottom
* '''ya’e''' – near; close to
* '''uaye''' – away (from)
* '''maye''' – between; among


The above are used as prepositions, but can also function strictly as verbs.
* '''nalu''' /ˈna.lu/ from JPN [[wiktionary:なる|なる]]
: ''v'' - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into


{{col-begin}}
* '''ni''' /ni/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:你#Definitions|你]]
{{col-break}}
: ''pro'' - you [2sg]
* '''mita tahe yempa ina'''
: <small>dog under table eat</small>
: ''The dog is eating under the table.''
{{col-break}}
* '''mita ke yempa tahe'''
: <small>dog table be.under</small>
: ''The dog is under the table.''
{{col-end}}


The suffix -'''la''' (from '''yala''' ''“go; walk; travel”'') forms an allative (or motive) preposition, expressing movement in the indicated direction, stopping at the position indicated by the locative:
* '''nun''' /nun/ from PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]]
: ''num'' - nine; 9


* '''nahela  topu''' – ''into bed''
* '''ne''' /ne/ from ENG [[wiktionary:nay#Interjection|nay]]
* '''pahela ke ana tayo''' – ''onto your head''
: ''part'' - no; not; negative [NEG]
* '''tsayela tsaka''' – ''up to the house''


The locative/allative pair works like English on/onto, in/into, but in Kala this distinction is made for all locatives: you must distinguish between them:
* '''nesi''' /ˈne.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]
: ''v'' - need; require; must
: ''n'' - obligation; need


* '''pue’ela  kuanu''' – ''go behind a bush'' - (motion implied → allative)
* '''nen/ka''' /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:能#Definitions|能]]
* '''pue kuanu koma''' – ''hide behind a bush'' - (no motion → locative)
: ''v'' - be able to; be capable; be possible
: ''n'' - potential; possibility; capability


=Syntax=
* '''note''' /ˈno.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]]
: ''n'' - night; darkness


Kala has an extremely regular grammar, with very few exceptions to its rules. Sentences are made up of one or more phrases. Each phrase consists of a verb (optionally followed by modifying particles) and a subject (optionally followed by modifying particles). The subject, if understood, can be omitted at the end of an utterance: '''pana''' ("''It is raining.''") '''pana!''' ("''Rain!''") An utterance can be anything from an interjection to a story.
= pa =


==Basic Sentences==
* '''pa''' /pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]]
: ''num'' - eight; 8


The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:  
* '''pan''' /pan/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/[[wiktionary:飯|飯]]
: ''n'' - bread; food; sustenance


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* '''pala''' /ˈpa.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:palabra#Spanish|palabra]]
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: ''n'' - word; morpheme; lexeme
* '''mita tlaka anya'''
: <small>dog man see</small>
: ''The dog sees the man.''
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* '''tlaka mita anya'''
: <small>man dog see</small>
: ''The man sees the dog.''
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In both sentences, the words are identical: '''mita''' – “''dog''”, '''tlaka''' – “''man''”, '''anya'''  - “''eye; see''”. The only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence. Intransitive (including those of the existential type) clauses in Kala minimally consist of a subject followed by an intransitive verb, giving SV word order.
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* '''nta’i moku'''
: <small>baby sleep</small>
: ''The baby sleeps.''
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* '''sama nala'''
: <small>sun shine</small>
: ''The sun shines.''
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Transitive clauses follow a SOV pattern and grammatically require the object particle '''ke'''.
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* '''ona ke matla kuha'''
: <small>mother O stew cook</small>
: ''(The) mother is cooking (the) stew.''
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* '''tasako ke masami yake'''
: <small>hunt-AG O deer-PAU pursue</small>
: ''The hunters are chasing some deer.''
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==Predicates==
* '''pina''' /ˈpi.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]]
: ''n'' - child; offspring; kid


In the simplest form, the adjective simply appears after the noun, in verbal position. Many statements that would be phrased as adjectival predicates in English are preferably expressed with stative intransitive verbs in Kala, requiring no copula. (For simplicity, such verbs are glossed without “be” in interlinears.)
* '''pu''' /pu/ from TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]
: ''part'' - this; these (here)


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* '''pula''' /ˈpu.la/ from HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]]
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: ''n'' - evil
* '''mita hikya'''
: ''v'' - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
: <small>dog old</small>
: ''The dog is old.''
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* '''nahi tayo aya'''
: <small>daughter 2s.GEN beautiful</small>
: ''Your daughter is beautiful.''
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The same phrases can be formed using the copula '''a''', this is grammatical but bulky and jarring.


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* '''pen''' /pen/ from ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε#Greek|πέντε]]
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: ''num'' - five; 5
* '''mita hikya a'''
: <small>dog old COP</small>
: ''The dog is old.''
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* '''nahi tayo aya a'''
: <small>daughter 2s.GEN beautiful COP</small>
: ''Your daughter is beautiful.''
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===Negation===


The negative mood [NEG] (always marked finally on the primary verb) is indicated by the suffix –'''k''' or –'''nke''' (when the last syllable contains /k/).  ''See also: 3.2.3) Mood''
* '''po''' /po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]
: ''prep'' - by; for; [be] about
: ''v'' - [go] through; [move] across


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* '''poka''' /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]]
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: ''v'' - be small; little
* '''tahi inyak'''
: ''v'' - be few; less
: <small>boy hunger-NEG</small>
: ''The boy is not hungry.''
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* '''yohuaye ha ke samalo anyak'''
: <small>night-PST 3s O star-PL watch-NEG</small>
: ''She did not watch the stars last night.''
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In general, contiguous serial verb constructions can only be negated as a whole. Negating one or more of the verbs in the construction separately is ungrammatical.
* '''ponte''' /ˈpon.te/ from ENG [[wiktionary:ponder|ponder]]
: ''v'' - think; ponder; consider; weigh
: ''n'' - thought; idea; consideration


* '''na ke tsakahue nya ina ka’elatlik'''
* '''pone''' /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poner|poner]]
: <small>1s O home-LOC for eat toward-MVT-FUT-NEG</small>
: ''v'' - to put, to place, to set
: ''I'm not coming home for dinner.''


However, if there is a modal auxiliary, negation may either take scope over the modal (and thus over the whole clause), or alternatively only over the non-modal part of the serial verb construction:
= ma =


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* '''ma''' /ma/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]
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: ''part'' - interrogative particle [Q]
* '''eta tlahapok'''
: <small>P.2s leave-compel-NEG</small>
: ''You don't have to leave.''
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* '''eta tlahamyok'''
: <small>P.2s leave-PERM-NEG</small>
: ''You're not allowed to leave.''
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In some serial verb constructions, where the middle noun phrase acts both as the object of the first verb and as the subject of the second verb, each verb phrase can be negated separately.
* '''maka''' /ˈma.ka/ from ENG [[wiktionary:make|make]]
: ''n'' - cause; action; happening
: ''v'' - do; make; cause; happen


===Voice===
* '''maso''' /ˈma.so/ from SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]]
: ''part'' - more; again
: ''n'' - layer; repetition; addition
: ''v'' - add; repeat; layer


Passive voice emphasizes the process rather than who is performing the action. In Kala this form is called '''kemi'''. There are few patterns to help distinguish between active and passive voices in Kala verbs. Using the passive voice is not common in Kala. It can sometimes be used to emphasize what would normally have been the object of the sentence. In order to shift emphasis away from the agent and towards the patient or theme, a transitive sentence can be passivized simply by word order, or using the particle '''ni''' (“''by''”) ['''PASS'''].
* '''mala''' /ˈma.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:امرأة|امرأة]]
: ''n'' - woman; female; wife


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* '''mila''' /ˈmi.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]]
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: ''num'' - thousand; 1000
'''''ACTIVE'''''
* '''na ke tanum yempahue moheye'''
: <small>1s O plate-PL table-LOC place-PST</small>
: ''I put dishes on the table.''


* '''na ke topa muntaye'''
* '''muki''' /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA [[wiktionary:مهم|مهم]]
: <small>1s O bed rearrange-PST</small>
: ''n'' - importance; significance
: ''I changed the bed.''
: ''v'' - be important; matter


* '''ha ke yona yomutli'''
* '''muna''' /ˈmu.na/ from ENG [[wiktionary:moon#English|moon]]
: <small>3s O book read-FUT</small>
: ''n'' - moon; month
: ''She will read the book.''
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'''''PASSIVE'''''
* '''ke tanum yempahue moheye'''
: <small>O plate-PL table-LOC place-PST</small>
: ''Dishes were put on the table.''


* '''ke topa ni naku nayo muntaye'''
* '''me''' /me/ from FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]
: <small>O bed PASS sister 1s.GEN rearrange-PST</small>
: ''part'' - but; however; although
: ''The bed was changed by my sister.''


* '''ke yona ni kola yomutli'''
* '''moto''' /ˈmo.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]]
: <small>O book PASS AG.INDEF read-FUT</small>
: ''n'' - mood; manner; way; method
: ''The book will be read by someone.''
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==Compound Sentences==
= ya =


Two sentences may be joined together to form a longer compound sentence. Both sentences must be able to stand alone as properly formed sentences. When combined, they simply come one after the other, joined by a conjunction. Common Conjunctions:
* '''ya''' /ja/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]]
: ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
* '''yati''' /ˈja.ti/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يد|يد]]
! ''Kala''
: ''n'' - hand; arm
! ''meaning''
: ''v'' - give; transfer
! ''example''
|-align=center
| '''pa'''
| <small>although; even; despite</small>
| She is here ''despite'' my protest.
|-align=center
| '''po'''
| <small>so; thus</small>
| He seems nice ''so'' I ate with him.
|-align=center
| '''ku'''
| <small>and; also; too</small>
| I see it ''and'' I see you.
|-align=center
| '''ma'''
| <small>and; also; too</small>
| I see it ''and'' you.
|-align=center
| '''ua'''
| <small>and/or; either</small>
| You may eat ''and/or'' drink.
|-align=center
| '''ue'''
| <small>either X or Y</small>
| You may ''either'' eat ''or'' drink.
|-align=center
| '''uenke''' ('''uek''')
| <small>neither X or Y</small>
| You may ''neither'' eat ''nor'' drink.
|-align=center
| '''yema'''
| <small>both X and Y</small>
| I ate ''both'' soup ''and'' bread.
|-align=center
| '''yo'''
| <small>if X then Y; therefore</small>
| ''If'' she comes ''then'' we’ll eat.
|-align=center
| '''ehe''' ('''me''')
| <small>but ; however</small>
| I dislike him, ''but'' he is my brother.
|}


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* '''yapu''' /ˈja.pu/ from ARA [[wiktionary:عفا|عفا]]
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: ''n'' - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
* '''na ina ku ha moku'''
: ''v'' - pardon; excuse; forgive
: <small>1s eat and 3s sleep</small>
: ''I am eating and she is sleeping.''
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* '''na ina ehe ha moku'''
: <small>1s eat but 3s sleep</small>
: ''I am eating but she is sleeping.''
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<small>Note: '''ku''' is a clause level conjunction used to join to independent clauses.</small>


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* '''yame''' /ˈja.me/ from ARA [[wiktionary:جمع|جمع]]
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: ''n'' - collection; gathering; group; set
* '''ta ina ua inu'''
: ''v'' - gather; collect; assemble; unite
: <small>2s eat and/or drink</small>
: ''You are eating and/or you are drinking.''


* '''ntahi ke mita anya ma inamya'''
* '''yu''' /ju/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Definitions|于]]
: <small>child O dog see and eat-CAUS</small>
: ''v'' - be in; at; out of
: ''The child saw and fed the dog.''
: ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of
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* '''ta ina ue inu'''
: <small>2s eat or drink</small>
: ''You are either eating or else you are drinking.''


* '''ha tala yo na’am hinatlik'''
* '''yuma''' /ˈju.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]]
: <small>3s come therefore 1pl.EXCL be.here-FUT-NEG</small>
: ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period
: ''If she comes we won’t be here.''
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Clause-level conjunctions such as '''ku''' (“''and; also; too''”), '''ua''' (“''or; either; otherwise''”), or '''ehe''' (“''but; however''”) are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions (except for '''ku''') can be used to connect noun phrases.
* '''ye''' /je/ from KOR [[wiktionary:열#Korean|열]]
: ''num'' - ten; 10


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* '''yeko''' /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以后]]
{{col-break}}
: ''prep'' - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
* '''tahi tohyo ku nahi pina'''
: ''adv'' - from now on; henceforth
: <small>boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent</small>
: ''The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.''
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* '''ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai'''
: <small>now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM</small>
: ''Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.''
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Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction '''ma''' "''and''" (sometimes "''with''").
 
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* '''yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya'''
: <small>day-PST 1s O eagle CONJ duck see</small>
: ''I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.''
 
* '''kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya'''
: <small>squirrel O house 3pl.GEN with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make</small>
: ''The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.''
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* '''ona ma ota kyosanku'''
: <small>mother and father fornicate-RECP</small>
: ''Mother and father have sex.''
 
* '''ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli'''
: <small>2s with 1s O forest-LOC-MVT-FUT</small>
: ''You and I will go to the forest together.''
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Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction '''ua''' ("''or; other''"). This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction '''ue''' ("(exclusive) ''either X or Y''") is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.
 
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* '''ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo'''
: <small>2s O pear or apple eat-PERM</small>
: ''You may eat an apple or a pear.''
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* '''tsola ue otso itsikua mataye'''
: <small>fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST</small>
: ''It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.''
{{col-end}}
 
Contrastive coordination of noun phrases is achieved with '''ehe''' ("''but; however''") (or '''me''' more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.
 
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* '''yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya'''
: <small>day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive</small>
: ''The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.''
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* '''na itlaka mek inaka unya'''
: <small>1s PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know</small>
: ''I know this man, but not this woman.''
{{col-end}}
 
==Compliment Clauses==
 
Complement clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as a noun (most importantly as the subject or object of a sentence), and are formed exactly like ordinary main clauses, preceded by the particle '''ke''' (“topic particle”).
 
* '''nakkan ke eya tekim kamahi hyoka munaye'''
: <small>woman-chief O maybe enemy-PL city-DIM attack worry-PST</small>
: ''The queen was worried that the enemies might attack the village.''
 
* '''itomatle ke maliya noyamya'''
: <small>wood-carve O Mary happy-CAUS</small>
: ''Carving wood makes Mary happy.''
 
Complement clauses can also act as the object of a motional/locational verb:
 
* '''ta ke naha ka’elak yatli ke tlohi kuyepak'''
: <small>2s O river toward-MVT-NEG if.X.then.Y O salmon grab-ABIL-NEG</small>
: ''You can't catch salmon if you don't go to the river.''
 
* '''kam ka’e tsiua uahe moku ma ina yalayenko'''
: <small>3pl toward lake instead.of rest and eat walk-PST-CONT</small>
: ''Instead of taking a rest and eating, they continued to walk towards the lake.''
 
Since complement clauses behave like nouns syntactically, they may participate in existential constructions as well. Semantically, this indicates that the occurrence of the action described in the complement clause is emphatically affirmed.
 
* '''uala ke yemua tlana masenko'''
: <small>verily O DIST-place person dance-CONT</small>
: ''There is dancing over there.'' (lit. <tt>it's true that people are dancing there</tt>)
 
In addition to the particle '''ke''', Kala possesses a few other words which may fill the same syntactic position under special circumstances. The most common of these appears in the context of reported speech. A couple of other specialized particles have a more limited distribution, appearing mainly in evidential constructions.
 
==Relative Clauses==
 
Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -'''tle''' (or -'''le''' if the last syllable has '''tl'''). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:
 
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* '''na ke naka amyatle pesoue'''
: <small>1s O woman liked-REL meet-VOL</small>
: ''I want to meet a girl who is friendly.''
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* '''kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli'''
: <small>3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT</small>
: ''They who fight well will defeat the enemy.''
{{col-end}}
 
* '''naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua'''
: <small>sister 1s.GEN O strawberry-all 1s pick-PST-REL eat-PFV</small>
: ''My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.''
 
 
If both subject and object of a transitive relative clause are represented by the same pronoun, the relativized noun will be assumed to be the subject of the subclause. In order to relativize the object in such a situation, the subject must be represented by one of the reflexive, or reciprocal pronouns instead, which explicitly refer back to the subject of the matrix clause:
 
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{{col-break}}
* '''aye tanako ke tlaka eha hyokatle mata'''
: <small>past fight-AG O man P.3s attack-REL kill</small>
: ''The warrior killed the man who attacked him.''
{{col-break}}
* '''aye tanako ke ha tlaka hyokatle mata'''
: <small>past fight-AG O 3s man attack-REL kill</small>
: ''The warrior killed the man whom he attacked.''
{{col-end}}
 
Relativization of oblique participants works very much the same way as relativization of subjects and objects, but the repeated pronoun needs to appear inside a prepositional phrase or coverb phrase which shows the role of the relativized noun within the subclause.
 
* '''ikamahi ena nasayetle'''
: <small>PROX-city-DIM P.1s be.born-PST-REL</small>
: ''This is the village in which I was born.''
 
* '''ke taku tlakayo na tlayayetle nya teki matapua'''
: <small>O brother man-GEN 1s wed-PST-REL by enemy kill-PFV</small>
: ''The man whose brother I married has been killed by the enemy.''
 
* '''iyoma ke yomatle ta’ena nya uapa talaue'''
: <small>today O day-REL 2s-P.1s for visit come-VOL</small>
: ''Today is the day on which you want to come and visit me.''
 
 
In case a relative clause would contain only the subject and an intransitive verb phrase, speakers of Kala are likely to use an attributive construction instead. If the attributed verb phrase contains more than one verb, all of them need to appear in the attributive form.
 
* '''na ke nahi amyan pesoue'''
: <small>1s O girl like-ADV meet-VOL</small>
: ''I want to meet a girl who is friendly. (lit. <tt>a friendly girl</tt>)''
 
* '''kola sima ke ina kapyatli'''
: <small>AG-INDEF sit O food receive-FUT</small>
: ''Anyone who is sitting quietly gets food.''
 
 
Note that both relative clauses and attributive constructions tend to be avoided when they refer to the subject of a sentence. Instead, the semantically ‘attributive’ verb describing the subject is treated syntactically as forming a sequential or simultaneous event together with the main verb of the sentence:
 
* '''tahi pina ke kema unya'''
: <small>boy smart O task understand</small>
: ''The smart boy understands the task.''
 
===Adverbial clauses===
 
Kala has several different ways to express adverbial elements – adverbial suffix, adpositional phrases, serial verb constructions, and full-scale adverbialized subclauses. For most types of adverbials, more than one of these methods can be used. Because an adequate description of this gets rather lengthy, and because it presupposes an understanding of how serial verb constructions work in Kala, it is described in a later section of this document. Adverbial constructions which are valid constituents typically appear near the beginning of a sentence, with adpositional phrases preceding subclauses, but they may be topic-fronted for emphasis. If several adverbial constituents of the same syntactic type are present, they are generally ordered place → manner → reason → purpose → result → time.
 
==Copular Sentences==
 
The copula '''a''' (''to be; exist; yes'') is not used as it is in English. It is primarily used to affirm Yes/No questions. '''ta inaye ka''' (''Did you eat?'') '''a''' (''Yes.'') However, it can be used to add emphasis or nuance to a descriptive phrase. In an adjectival predicate the verb [to be] is not normally used.
 
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{{col-break}}
* '''ha kiha'''
: <small>3s tall</small>
: ''She is tall.''
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* '''tomua nya itsaka yasue'''
: <small>rent for PROX-house cheap</small>
: ''The rent for this house is cheap.''
{{col-end}}
==Questions==
There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.
===Polar questions===
Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle '''ka''' at the end of the sentence.
 
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* '''mita ina'''
: <small>dog eat</small>
: ''The dog eats.''
 
* '''ta ke tlo’o anyaye'''
: <small>2s O elephant see-PST</small>
: ''You saw the elephant.''
{{col-break}}
* '''mita ina ka'''
: <small>dog eat Q</small>
: ''Does the dog eat?''
 
* '''ta ke tlo’o anyaye ka'''
: <small>2s O elephant see-PST Q</small>
: ''Did you see the elephant?''
{{col-end}}
===Content questions===
Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction '''ue''' (“or”) introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).
 
* '''ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka'''
: <small>2s O beer or.EXCL water drink-VOL Q</small>
: ''Do you want to drink beer or water?''
 
* '''uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka'''
: <small>truly 2s O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q</small>
: ''Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?''
 
Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as '''ko''' (“''person''”), '''mo''' (“''place''”), '''to''' (“''manner''”), etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:
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{{col-break}}
* '''ko ta ka'''
: <small>person 2s Q</small>
: ''Who are you?''
 
* '''to kihu ka'''
: <small>manner weather Q</small>
: ''What's the weather like?''
{{col-break}}
* '''itla ka'''
: <small>this Q</small>
: ''What is this?''
 
* '''to taku tayo ka'''
: <small>manner brother 2s.GEN Q</small>
: ''How’s your brother?''
{{col-end}}
 
The other type contains a question word and is followed by '''ka''':
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 700px;"
! ''kanyo''
! ''Kala''
! ''gloss''
! ''English''
|-align=center
| ''object''
| '''ke mita ina ka'''
| <small>O dog eat Q</small>
| ''What does the dog eat?''
|-align=center
| ''person''
| '''ko ina ka'''
| <small>person eat Q</small>
| ''Who eats?''
|-align=center
| ''possession''
| '''koyo mita ina ka'''
| <small>person-GEN dog eat Q</small>
| ''Whose dog eats?''
|-align=center
| ''manner''
| '''to mita ina ka'''
| <small>manner dog eat Q</small>
| ''How does the dog eat?''
|-align=center
| ''place''
| '''mo mita ina ka'''
| <small>place dog eat Q</small>
| ''Where does the dog eat?''
|-align=center
| ''reason''
| '''nye mita ina ka'''
| <small>reason dog eat Q</small>
| ''Why does the dog eat?''
|-align=center
| ''time''
| '''ama mita ina ka'''
| <small>time dog eat Q</small>
| ''When does the dog eat?''
|-align=center
| ''amount''
| '''uku mita ina ka'''
| <small>amount dog eat Q</small>
| ''How much/many does the dog eat?''
|-align=center
| ''which''
| '''ula mita ina ka'''
| <small>INDEF dog eat Q</small>
| ''Which dog eats?''
|}
 
==Comparison==
In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka'''
: <small>house 3s.GEN O 1s.GEN big-AUG</small>
: ''His house is bigger than mine.''
 
* '''iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha'''
: <small>PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG</small>
: ''This building is newer than your home.''
{{col-break}}
* '''ke mauam tayo yanahu'''
: <small>O flower.PL 2s.GEN yellow-EXT</small>
: ''Your flowers are the most yellow.''
 
* '''mitala ke yetlam hikyahi'''
: <small>dog-INDEF O DIST-4pl old-DIM</small>
: ''Some dogs are less old (younger) than others.''
{{col-end}}
When comparing the amount of involvement of several participants in a transitive verb, an appositional construction is used with competing subjects, and complement clauses are used with competing objects:
 
* '''tsaneya ke ona pa’e naku hayo itsaha'''
: <small>Jane O mother other.than sister 3s.GEN love-AUG</small>
: ''Jane loves her mother more than her sister does.''
 
* '''imukuhi ke asua uahe tleno telaniha'''
: <small>PROX-blade-DIM O leather instead.of timber cut-nice-AUG</small>
: ''This knife cuts leather better than it cuts wood.''
 
==Indirect Objects==
Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the recipient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of an adverbial preposition. The same strategy is also used to introduce other participants in oblique roles.
 
* '''ka’e''' – to; toward [Dative]
* '''ma’a''' – with; using [Instrumental] / with; together [Comitative]
* '''mue''' – without; lacking [Abessive]
* '''nya''' – for (the benefit of) [Benefactive] / by [Passive]
* '''-hue''' – at; in; on [Locative]
 
===Dative===
Dative participants can be marked with '''ka’e''' (“''toward; to''”), '''nya''' (“''for; by''”), or be syntactically indicated.
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''ntahi ke ina ka’e mita yeta'''
: <small>child O food toward dog give</small>
: ''The child gives food to a dog.''
 
* '''katiko nya ntakum tsani'''
: <small>old-AG for sibling-PL tell.story</small>
: ''The old man recites a story for the siblings.''
{{col-break}}
* '''ikema nya ena enke'''
: <small>PROX-task for P.1s easy</small>
: ''This task is easy for me.''
 
* '''teki ke kama na’amyo tanyaye'''
: <small>enemy O village 1pl.EXCL.GEN destroy-PST</small>
: ''The enemies destroyed our village.''
{{col-end}}
===Instrumental===
Instrumental participants can be marked with '''ma’a''' (“''with; using''”), '''nya''' (“''for; by''”), or be syntactically indicated.


{{col-begin}}
* '''yo''' /jo/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]]
{{col-break}}
: ''v'' - have; possess; carry; hold; keep
* '''ona ke ntahi ma’a tlimu nohya'''
: <small>mother O child with blanket wrap</small>
: ''The mother wraps the child in a blanket.''
{{col-break}}
* '''tsani nya ntaha moyapua'''
: <small>PROX-task for P.1s easy</small>
: ''The story has been written by the elder.''
{{col-end}}
===Comitative===
Comitative participants are marked with the preposition '''ma’a''' (“'''with; together'''”), and anticomitative (or abessive) participants are marked with the preposition '''mue''' (“''without''”).
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''na ma’a amyako nayo ke masa tasa'''
: <small>1s with friend 1s.GEN O deer hunt</small>
: ''I'm hunting deer with my friend.''
{{col-break}}
* '''ha ke naha mue ta ka’elaye ka'''
: <small>3s O river without 2s toward-MVT Q</small>
: ''Did she go to the river without you?''
{{col-end}}
===Locative===
Locative participants can be marked with a variety of adverbial prepositions, most typically -'''hue''' (“''at; in; on''”). ''See also'': 5.1) [[Kala#Locative_Verbs|Locative verbs]].


{{col-begin}}
= la =
{{col-break}}
* '''taku nayo ke poti patlahue patsi'''
: <small>brother 1s.GEN O goat field-LOC herd</small>
: ''My brother is herding goats in the field.''
{{col-break}}
* '''nam tlatsahue masetli'''
: <small>1pl fire-LOC dance-FUT</small>
: ''We will dance near (at) the fire.''
{{col-end}}


=Semantic Fields and Pragmatics=
* '''laka''' /ˈla.ka/ from ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]]
'''Kala''', like all languages relies on the relationship of meanings instead of meanings in isolation. Additionally, morphemes tend to have a range of meanings that exist on a spectrum. A morpheme often can only be defined by its relationship to other morphemes within an utterance, or to other words of a similar semantic field.
: ''n'' - number; digit; amount
: ''v'' - count; enumerate


One example would be in discussing temperature. Of course there is a system of degrees, but that is a quantitative statement, a qualitative statement would be more relative and open to interpretation.
* '''lata''' /ˈla.ta/ from SPA [[wiktionary:lata#Spanish|lata]]
: ''n'' - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
: ''v'' - carry; tote; transport


[[File:Tlolo.png|400px|How to express temperature]]
* '''li''' /li/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:兩#Definitions|兩]]
: ''num'' - two; double; duo
: ''pro'' - some; a few


English divides temperature into "hot, warm, cool, cold", while Kala has just '''sitsa, tlolo''', and '''manka'''. However, these can be expanded to be more specific;
* '''le''' /le/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:了|了]]
: ''part'' - past tense marker [PST]


* '''manka''' – cold
* '''loka''' /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]]
* '''tlolo''' – cool; warm (mild)
: ''n'' - place; location; point; spot
* '''sitsa''' – hot; heat


Using the augmentative -'''ha''' and the diminutive -'''hi''' adds even more nuance to expressing temperature. '''mankaha''' (or '''mankampa, mankahu''') being the coldest, and '''sitsaha''' (or '''sitsampa, sitsahu''') the hottest means that '''tloloha''' is closer to '''sitsahi''' and '''tlolohi''' is closer to '''mankahi'''. This means that '''tlolotso''' (mild-middle) is likely how someone would describe their ideal temperature.
= wa =


* '''ya iyoma kihua tlolotso!'''
* '''wa''' /wa/ from ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:واحد|واحد]]/[[wiktionary:我|我]]
: <small>VOC PROX-day fine.weather mild-middle</small>
: ''pro'' - I; me [1sg]
: ''Oh, how today’s weather is so mild!''
: ''num'' - one; 1; single
: ''v'' - be alone; be singular


Of course, some meanings do exist in a binary state;
* '''waya''' /ˈwa.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]]
: ''v'' - grow; mature; develop
: ''n'' - adult; mature thing


* '''asa''' - alive / '''kupa''' - dead


Meanings may also be divided into non-linear semantic space — e.g. color, social classes, directions, parts of the body, time, geographical features.


=Numbers=
* '''wino''' /ˈwi.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]]
'''Kala''' uses a base 10 number system. The basic numbers are as follows:
: ''n'' - alcohol; beer; wine
: ''v'' - drink ~


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 800px;"
* '''we''' /we/ from PIE [[wiktionary:econstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]]
|+
: ''num'' - six; 6
|-
! Kala
! number
! English
! Kala
! number
! English
! Kala
! number
! English
|-
| '''ye'o''' || 0 || zero || '''tsa'o''' || 6 || six || '''nya'o''' || 500 || five hundred
|-
| '''na'o''' || 1 || one || '''ka'o''' || 7 || seven || '''tle'o''' || 10<sup>3</sup> || (one) thousand
|-
| '''ta'o''' || 2 || two || '''pa'o''' || 8 || eight || '''mue'o''' || 10<sup>4</sup> || ten thousand
|-
| '''ha'o''' || 3 || three || '''sa'o''' || 9 || nine || '''kye'o''' || 10<sup>5</sup> || (one) hundred thousand
|-
| '''ma'o''' || 4 || four || '''ue'o''' || 10 || ten || '''nte'o''' || 10<sup>6</sup> || (one) million
|-
| '''ya'o''' || 5 || five || '''nye'o''' || 100 || (one) hundred || '''hue'o''' || 10<sup>9</sup> || (one) billion
|}


==== Forming Larger Numbers ====
* '''weko''' /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]]
: ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port


* '''uena'o''' - eleven / 11
* '''wento''' /ˈwen.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:viento|viento]]
* '''taue'o''' - twenty / 20
: ''n'' - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
* '''nyeka'o''' - one hundred seven / 107
* '''hanyetauetsa'o''' (''long form'') / '''hatatsa'o''' (''short form'') - three hundred twenty six / 326
* '''tsatletauema'o''' - six thousand and twenty four / 6024


Long form numbers are used in formal situations, including financial transactions, especially involving large sums. Short form numbers are used in everyday speech and when calculating basic math.
* '''wela''' /ˈwe.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]]
: ''prep'' - outside; exterior
: ''v'' - leave; exit


==== Other Number Forms ====
= a =


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 600px;"
|+
|-
! Kala
! number
! English
! ordinal
! multiple
! fractional
|-
| '''na'o''' || 1 || one  || '''kina'o'''<br>first || '''tina'o'''<br>once || -
|-
| '''ueta'o''' || 12 || twelve || '''kiueta'o'''<br>twelfth  || '''tiueta'o'''<br>duodecuple || '''iueta'o'''<br>a twelfth
|-
| '''yauema'o'''<br>'''(yama'o)''' || 54 || fifty four  || '''kiyama'o'''<br>fifty fourth || '''tiyama'o'''<br>54 times || '''iyama'o'''<br>a fifty fourth
|-
| '''nyetsa'o''' || 106 || one hundred (and) six || '''kinyetsa'o'''<br>106<sup>th</sup> || '''tinyetsa'o'''<br>106 times || '''inyetsa'o'''<br>a 106<sup>th</sup>
|-
| '''katle'o''' || 7000 || seven thousand  || '''kikatle'o'''<br>seven thousandth || '''tikatle'o'''<br>7000 times || '''ikatle'o'''<br>1/7000
|}


=== Math Operations ===


'''Kala''' math is fairly basic and relies on particles and verbs to express functions. Notable is the use of the copular '''a''' to express the result of an equation.
* '''alima''' /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:علم|علم]]
: ''v'' - to discern, to find out, to learn
: ''n'' - learning; education; knowledge


Addition uses '''ma''' (''and; also''). There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation. Subtraction uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a negative form of the smaller integer. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
* '''amo''' /ˈa.mo/ from SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]
{{col-begin}}
: ''n'' - love; affection; adoration
{{col-break}}
: ''v'' - love; adore; like
* '''ta’o ma ya’o ke ka’o a'''
: <small>two and five O seven COP</small>
: ''2 + 5 = 7''
{{col-break}}
* '''ka’o ma ta’ok ke ya’o a'''
: <small>seven and two-NEG O five COP</small>
: ''7 - 2 = 5''
{{col-end}}
Multiplication uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a multiple form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation. Division uses '''ma''' (''and; also'') and a multiple-negative form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* '''ka’o ma tita’o ke uema’o a'''
: <small>seven and multiple-two O fourteen COP</small>
: ''7 x 2 = 14''
{{col-break}}
* '''hata’o ma tisa’ok ke ma’o a'''
: <small>thrity-two and multiple-eight-NEG O four COP</small>
: ''32 ÷ 8 = 4''
{{col-end}}


=Writing system=
* '''ante''' /ˈan.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]]
Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, [[Kala/writing|'''this''']] page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.
: ''n'' - front side; chest; fore area
== ''Han Moya'' ==
: ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead


'''Han Moya''' is an adaptation of [[wp:Hangul|Hangul]] for writing '''Kala'''. It is written horizontally, in lines running from left to right. It can also be written vertically in columns.
* '''asi''' /ˈa.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]
: ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so


==== consonants ====
* '''awa''' /ˈa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أو|أو]]
: ''part'' - either; or; other


* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㄱㄲㄴㄷㄸㄹㅁㅂㅃㅅㅆㅇㅈㅉㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ</b></big></big></font>
* '''ayo''' /ˈa.jo/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أي|أي]]
: '''k nk n t nt l m p mp s ns a ts nts ts` k` tl p` h'''
:''part'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
: /k~g ᵑk~ⁿg n t~d ⁿt~ⁿd l~ɾ m p~b ᵐp~ᵐb s~ʃ ⁿs~ⁿʃ - ts~t͡ʃ ⁿts~ⁿt͡ʃ tsʰ~t͡ʃʰ kʰ t͡ɬ~tl pʰ h~ɦ/


The adaptations of doubled consonants are used word initially to indicate [[wp:Prenasalized_consonant|prenasalization]]. Medial occurrences of nasalized syllables are written across syllables.
* '''e''' /e/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Etymology_2_17|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]]
: ''part'' - and; also; too


: Example:
* '''ila''' /ˈi.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]
: ''prep'' - toward; at; in direction of
: ''v'' - go (toward); walk; travel


* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>까바</b></big></big></font> - '''nkapa''' - alcohol; liquor / <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>단가</b></big></big></font> - '''tanka''' - eagle; hawk; falcon
* '''o''' /o/ from JPN [[wiktionary:を#Etymology_2|を]]
: ''part'' - direct object particle


* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>감바</b></big></big></font> - '''kampa''' - Cheers! / <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>쁘라</b></big></big></font> - '''mpula''' - lamp; lantern; light


==== vowels ====


* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅏ ᅶ ㅐ ㅑ ᅸ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ</b></big></big></font>
* wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
: '''a ao ai ya yao e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i'''
* en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language
: /a~a: aʊ̯ aɪ̯ ja~ʲa: jaʊ̯~ʲaʊ̯ e~ɛ je~ʲɛ o~o: jo~ʲo: wa~ʷa: waɪ̯~ʷaɪ̯ we~ʷe: u~u: i~ɪ/


* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>ㅘ</b></big></big></font> This is pronounced /wa/ in Korean because of the order of the vowels; however, because [[wp:List_of_Hangul_jamo|obsolete jamo]] are difficult to type and look junky as images, in Kala, this is used for /aʊ̯/ when typing. It is rarely seen due to the diphthong itself being uncommon.


===Examples===
A working phrasebook for [[Kalo]].


* <font face="gungsuh"><big><big><b>어하 거 거하 가먀터 하요 마아 타감 뱌사하먀여</b></big></big></font>
= Essentials =
: '''eha ke keha kamyatle hayo ma’a tlakam pyasahamyaye'''
: [eːɦa kɛ keːɦa kamʲaːt͡ɬe haːjo maːʔa t͡ɬaːkam pʲaʃahamʲaːjɛ]
: <tt>P.3s O body stun-REL 3s.POSS with man-PL be.popular-AUG-CAUS-PST</tt>
: ''Her bewitching body made her very popular with men.''


=Examples=


* '''seko saye puani nahayo yalaye ma ke tsa’eto omoye'''  
* '''ola''' - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to [[wiktionary:aloha#Hawaiian|aloha]])
: <small>scorpion along bank river-GEN walk-PST and TOP across-way think-PST</small>
: ''A scorpion was walking along the bank of a river, wondering how to get to the other side.''


* '''haye seko ke tsola anyaye'''
* '''kan/a''' - "yes; it is"
: <small>sudden scorpion TOP fox see-PST</small>
* '''ne''' - "no; it is not"
: ''Suddenly, he saw a fox.''


* '''seko nya tsa’e naha amo ua’e muta tsolayo kanyoye'''
* '''yapu wa''' - "Excuse me."
: <small>scorpion for across river carry on back fox-GEN ask-PST</small>
* '''nenka ma''' - "Please." [''lit'': is (it) possible?]
: ''He asked the fox to take him on his back across the river.''
:: by extension "Do you mind?"
* '''tanka (ta)''' - "Thank you (very much)."
* '''tipa''' - "(That's) OK."


* '''tsola kye ak na’eta amo yatli ta’ena kute nuesitli'''
= Greetings & Goodbyes =
: <small>fox IND.SP COP.NEG 1SG-P.2SG carry if.X.then.Y 2SG-P.1SG sting drown-FUT</small>
: ''The fox said, “No. If I do that, you’ll sting me, and I’ll drown.”''


* '''seko kye na’eta kute yatli nam nuesitli'''
* '''ola yuma''' - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
: <small>scorpion IND.SP 1SG-P.2SG sting if.X.then.Y 1PL drown-FUT</small>
* '''ola note''' - "Good evening/night"
: ''The scorpion assured him, “If I do that, we’ll both drown.”''
* '''salama''' - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"


* '''tsola pue omo nkataye'''
== Civilities ==
: <small>fox after think agree-PST</small>
: ''The fox thought about it and finally agreed.''


* '''ya seko ua’e muta tsolayo uayaye ma tsola yokomuye'''
* '''moto (niyo) ma''' - <small>manner 2s.POSS Q</small> - ''How are you?''
: <small>VOC scorpion on back fox-GEN climb and fox swim-begin-PST</small>
** '''tipa''' - "Good/OK/Fine."
: ''So the scorpion climbed up on his back, and the fox began to swim.''
** '''...''' - "Not bad."


* '''me tsa’etsohue nahayo seko ke tsola kuteye'''
: <small>however across-half-LOC river-GEN scorpion TOP fox sting-PST</small>
: ''But halfway across the river, the scorpion stung him.''


* '''tsola ike sunu ke sila hayo yeno ka’e seko muka kye nye ta’ena kuteye ka ima ta nuesitli'''
: <small>fox while poison TOP vein 3SG.POSS fill toward scorpion face IND.SP reason 2SG-P.1SG sting-PST Q now 2SG drown-FUT</small>
: ''As poison filled his veins, the fox turned to the scorpion and said, “Why did you do that? Now you’ll drown, too.”''


* '''seko kye na’i ke to nayo tlinapayek'''
: <small>scorpion IND.SP 1SG.REFL TOP way 1SG.POSS stop-able-PST.NEG</small>
: ''“I couldn’t help it,” said the scorpion. “It’s my nature.”''


=Lexicon=
''See also'': [[Kala/lexicon|Lexicon]], [[Kala/lexicon/theme|Kala thematic lexicon]], and [[Kala/etymology|Kala etymological lexicon]].


A small sampling of Kala lexemes.


* '''pa''' - although; even though; even if
* '''tenpo ta ne wite''' - <small>time big no see</small> - ''Long time no see''
* '''pa'a''' - be well-ordered; regular; organized
* '''pina''' - be clever; intelligent; wise
* '''punka''' - fruit; fruit tree
* '''mpana''' - wide; broad; extensive; vast; width
* '''tanko''' - group; organization; team
* '''tepe''' - conceal; cover; shield; shelter
* '''tiku''' - extract; withdraw; pick-up
* '''tona''' - tuna
* '''ntela''' - interact; interplay; interrelated
* '''kanyo''' - question; ask; raise a question
* '''kemu''' - experience; undergo
* '''kinyo''' - intervene; get involved
* '''kona''' - dress; skirt
* '''kunye''' - moon; lunar; satellite
* '''kuya''' - green; foliage; verdant
* '''nkanu''' - short [in height and from end edge]
* '''makua''' - iron; press; smooth out
* '''menka''' - cotton
* '''mosukua''' - Moscow
* '''mutla''' - be absolute; unconditional
* '''napo''' - turnip
* '''ne''' - indirect object particle
* '''nota''' - lie; be in horizontal position; horizon
* '''nyalo''' - call; number; telephone
* '''sahe''' - across; opposite; other side
* '''sipanya''' - Spain
* '''sokyo''' - helium
* '''suama''' - sew; seam; mend; stitch
* '''hasu''' - conjecture; guess; supposition; assumption
* '''hilo''' - plaza; public square
* '''hueta''' - testicle
* '''tsame''' - accumulate; collect; gather; cluster
* '''tsemu''' - jam; marmalade
* '''tsitli''' - farm; ranch
* '''tsuto''' - be curly-haired
* '''tlato''' - recite rhythmically; chant; intone
* '''tlehe''' - esteemed; honest; candid; sincere
* '''tlokua''' - everybody; everyone
* '''ato''' - that way [over there]
* '''atsa''' - disc; rotate; wheel
* '''esue''' - fail; lose
* '''ila''' - sail; fly; navigate
* '''otso''' - wolf; lupine
* '''ulo''' - crop rotation
* '''uatli''' - inferior; of lower quality
* '''uetsi''' - dispirited downcast [idiom]; in low spirits
* '''yatso''' - ferment; brew; make honey; liquor
* '''yopi''' - mail; post [office]

Latest revision as of 10:48, 8 April 2025

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext

Heading 1

  • In syllable codas, [ʃ] replaces [s].
  • In syllable codas, [ʒ] replaces [z].
  • [β] and [ʙ] are in free variation.
  • [ʁ] and [ʀ] are in free variation.

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Miyu allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.

Heading 2

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{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} words {{col-break}} ety {{col-break}} abbs {{col-end}}

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= indentation
  • Item1
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    • Sub-item 4 a)
      • Sub-item 4 a) 1.
        • Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
    • Sub-item 4 b)
  • Item5
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  3. Item5
Term
Definition1
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To italicize text, put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.

Three apostrophes each side will bold the text.

Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces bold italics.

Italic and bold formatting works correctly only within a single line.

For text as Template:Smallcaps, use the template {{smallcaps}}.


old / wrong

Kalo is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.

Kalo is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any IAL. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.

Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects. [n] and [l] are in free variation. [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/. /x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.


writing

All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul
Kalo Hangul


A katakana method for writing Kalo
Kalo Katakana

allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, kalo allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Syntax

  • wa kome - 1S eat - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o mala amo - DO woman love - The woman is loved. (OV)

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

pronouns

kalo has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "-lo", and possessive with "-yo".

singular plural possessive
1st person wa
I; me 		walo
we; us 		wayo
my; mine; our(s)
2nd person ni
you 		nilo
you (all) 		niyo
your(s)
3rd person ko
he; she; him; her; it 		kolo
they; them; those 		koyo
their(s)
  • walo wite ni - 1pl see 2s - We see you.
  • kolo ne kono wa - 3pl NEG know 1s - They don't know me.

Verbs

Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.

  • maka - do; make; cause (from make)
  • yo - possess; have; hold (from 有)

tense, aspect, and mood

Past tense is indicated by the particle le (了) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle sa (سَـ).

tense/mood particle example translation
present - wa ila I go
past le wa ila le I went
future sa wa ila sa I will go
conditional kisa wa ila kisa I would go
  • ko ne kome le - 3sg NEG eat PST - He didn't eat.
  • walo wite sa ko - 1pl see FUT 3sg - We will see her.

positional verbs

Kalo does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.

  • yu - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from (于)
  • ila - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from (إلى)

Particles

determiners

Determiners in kalo precede the noun they modify.

deixis

  • pu - this; these
  • su - that; those

amount

  • aku - many; much (one hundred)
  • kula - all; every; each
  • ne - no; none; zero
  • poka - some; several; a few
  • meno - less; fewer / few; a little
  • maso - more

other-ness

  • asi - such
  • ayo - whichever; whatever
  • oto - other
  • tonye - same

Number

When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "ke" precedes the number.

  • ko yo le o kasa ke li
3s have PST O house NUM two
She had two houses.
  • wa wite o nano ke si
1s see O man NUM four
I see four men.

Higher Numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five




ka sa ta na pa ma ya la wa a i u e o

ka

  • kisa /ˈki.sa/ from SPA quizá
part - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
v - listen; hear
n - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
v - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
  • kome /ˈko.me/ from SPA comer
v - eat; consume; drink

sa

part - future tense particle [FUT]
  • saka/na /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA سخن
v - be hot; be warm; burn
n - heat; warmth / fire


  • sana /ˈsa.na/ from ARA سنة
n - year; 365 days
  • sapa /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA سبب
n - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
  • salama /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA سلم
n - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
v - be peaceful; be calm
intj - Peace! Hey! Hi!
  • sawa /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA زوج
n - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
v - marry
  • si /si/ from ZHO 四
num - four; 4
  • siya /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO 下
prep - below; under; beneath
v - be under; be lower
  • su /su/ from TUR şu
part - that; those (over there)
num - zero; 0
n - nothing
v - be empty; be void
  • se /se/ from SPA se
pro - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
  • sosa /ˈso.sa/ from SPA salsa
n - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing

ta

v - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
part/intj - thank you; thanks
  • tapo /ˈta.po/ from ZHO 打破
v - damage; wreck; break; destroy
n - destruction; damage
  • tipa /ˈti.pa/ (or tupa /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA طيب (or טוב)
v - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
intj - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
  • tiya /ˈti.ja/ from SPA tía
n - aunt/uncle; extended family
  • te /te/ from SPA/ZHO de/的
v - to move away from
prep - of; from
  • tenpo /ˈtem.po/ from SPA tiempo
n - time; moment; period
  • tela or talo /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/ from ENG tell
n - language; talk; speech
v - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
  • tonpa /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO 同胞
n - sibling; compatriot; friend
  • tonye /ˈto.ɲe/ (or ton /ton/) from ZHO 同一
v - be identical; same; equivalent; equal

na

  • nai /naɪ/ from ZHO 內
v - be inside; within
prep - inside; within; during; while
  • nano /ˈna.no/ from ZHO 男
n - man; male
  • nama /ˈna.ma/ from ARA نام
v - sleep; rest; relax
v - be new; fresh; young
  • nalu /ˈna.lu/ from JPN なる
v - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
  • ni /ni/ from ZHO 你
pro - you [2sg]
num - nine; 9
  • ne /ne/ from ENG nay
part - no; not; negative [NEG]
v - need; require; must
n - obligation; need
  • nen/ka /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO 能
v - be able to; be capable; be possible
n - potential; possibility; capability
  • note /ˈno.te/ from SPA noche
n - night; darkness

pa

  • pa /pa/ from ZHO 八
num - eight; 8
  • pan /pan/ from SPA/ZHO pan/飯
n - bread; food; sustenance
n - word; morpheme; lexeme
  • pina /ˈpi.na/ from ARA ابن
n - child; offspring; kid
  • pu /pu/ from TUR bu
part - this; these (here)
n - evil
v - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
num - five; 5
  • po /po/ from SPA por
prep - by; for; [be] about
v - [go] through; [move] across
  • poka /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA poca
v - be small; little
v - be few; less
  • ponte /ˈpon.te/ from ENG ponder
v - think; ponder; consider; weigh
n - thought; idea; consideration
  • pone /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA poner
v - to put, to place, to set

ma

  • ma /ma/ from ZHO 嗎
part - interrogative particle [Q]
  • maka /ˈma.ka/ from ENG make
n - cause; action; happening
v - do; make; cause; happen
  • maso /ˈma.so/ from SPA más
part - more; again
n - layer; repetition; addition
v - add; repeat; layer
n - woman; female; wife
  • mila /ˈmi.la/ from SPA mil
num - thousand; 1000
  • muki /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA مهم
n - importance; significance
v - be important; matter
  • muna /ˈmu.na/ from ENG moon
n - moon; month
  • me /me/ from FRE mais
part - but; however; although
  • moto /ˈmo.to/ from SPA modo
n - mood; manner; way; method

ya

  • ya /ja/ from ARA يا
part - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
  • yati /ˈja.ti/ from ARA يد
n - hand; arm
v - give; transfer
  • yapu /ˈja.pu/ from ARA عفا
n - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
v - pardon; excuse; forgive
  • yame /ˈja.me/ from ARA جمع
n - collection; gathering; group; set
v - gather; collect; assemble; unite
  • yu /ju/ from ZHO 于
v - be in; at; out of
prep - in; at; to; by; than; out of
  • yuma /ˈju.ma/ from ARA يوم
n - day; daylight; 24 hour period
  • ye /je/ from KOR 열
num - ten; 10
  • yeko /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO 以后
prep - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
adv - from now on; henceforth
  • yo /jo/ from ZHO 有
v - have; possess; carry; hold; keep

la

  • laka /ˈla.ka/ from ARA رقم
n - number; digit; amount
v - count; enumerate
  • lata /ˈla.ta/ from SPA lata
n - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
v - carry; tote; transport
  • li /li/ from ZHO 兩
num - two; double; duo
pro - some; a few
  • le /le/ from ZHO 了
part - past tense marker [PST]
  • loka /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA local
n - place; location; point; spot

wa

pro - I; me [1sg]
num - one; 1; single
v - be alone; be singular
v - grow; mature; develop
n - adult; mature thing


  • wino /ˈwi.no/ from SPA vino
n - alcohol; beer; wine
v - drink ~
num - six; 6
  • weko /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA hueco
n - door, hole, orifice, window; port
  • wento /ˈwen.to/ from SPA viento
n - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
  • wela /ˈwe.la/ from SPA fuera
prep - outside; exterior
v - leave; exit

a

  • alima /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA علم
v - to discern, to find out, to learn
n - learning; education; knowledge
  • amo /ˈa.mo/ from SPA amor
n - love; affection; adoration
v - love; adore; like
  • ante /ˈan.te/ from SPA ante
n - front side; chest; fore area
prep - before; in front; forward; ahead
  • asi /ˈa.si/ from SPA así
part - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
  • awa /ˈa.wa/ from ARA أو
part - either; or; other
  • ayo /ˈa.jo/ from ARA أي
part - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
  • e /e/ from SPA/ZHO e/和
part - and; also; too
prep - toward; at; in direction of
v - go (toward); walk; travel
  • o /o/ from JPN を
part - direct object particle


  • wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
  • en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


A working phrasebook for Kalo.

Essentials

  • ola - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to aloha)
  • kan/a - "yes; it is"
  • ne - "no; it is not"
  • yapu wa - "Excuse me."
  • nenka ma - "Please." [lit: is (it) possible?]
by extension "Do you mind?"
  • tanka (ta) - "Thank you (very much)."
  • tipa - "(That's) OK."

Greetings & Goodbyes

  • ola yuma - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
  • ola note - "Good evening/night"
  • salama - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"

Civilities

  • moto (niyo) ma - manner 2s.POSS Q - How are you?
    • tipa - "Good/OK/Fine."
    • ... - "Not bad."




  • tenpo ta ne wite - time big no see - Long time no see
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