User:Masako/pataka: Difference between revisions

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= Introduction =


'''Kala''' is a personal artistic language, or constructed language (''conlang''). It is the culmination of my life-long appreciation and fascination with language and linguistics. This fascination began in my youth, c. 1988 when I received a book about ciphers and codes. I have studied multiple natural languages since that time, including several European languages, Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese (Mandarin), to name only a few. I have focused much of my interest in the subfield of writing systems, which will likely be apparent to anyone familiar with '''Kala''' and its many varied writing systems.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext


'''Kala''' draws on ''natlangs'' (natural language), other ''conlangs'', and of course imagination. '''Kala''' was started in late 2009. The phonemic inventory is based on Classical Nahuatl while the syllable structure and vowels are based on the strict (C)V structure of Japanese, and the presence of prenasalized stops is influenced by Bantu languages. '''Kala'''’s grammar was initially based on Japanese but has changed considerably based on influence from several natural and constructed languages. Many – if not most – of '''Kala''' lexemes are derived from or inspired by natural languages. A few have been taken from previous projects or constructed languages such as '''Ajara''' (a cipherlang from my youth) and '''[[Qatama]]''' (a conlang that I abandoned several years ago).
= Heading 1 =


== Characteristics ==
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} replaces {{IPA|[s]}}.
* In syllable codas, {{IPA|[ʒ]}} replaces {{IPA|[z]}}.
* {{IPA|[β]}} and {{IPA|[ʙ]}} are in free variation.
* {{IPA|[ʁ]}} and {{IPA|[ʀ]}} are in free variation.


'''Kala''' is a mostly agglutinative language that makes extensive use of compounding, incorporation and derivation. That is, it can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed, and a single word can sometimes constitute an entire sentence. The words of '''Kala''' can be divided into two basic functional classes: verbs and nouns as content words, and particles and others as functional. Adjectives do not exist, instead, stative verbs explain the state of the subject, i.e. ''“to be red”''. The few adverbs that exist fall into the class of particles or are derived from verbs. The most important element of '''Kala''' lexemes to keep in mind is that they may function as a verb, noun, adjective, or an adverb based on where they fall in the phrase, and any various endings that may be affixed. '''Kala''' has two basic parts of speech. In most cases, the more important elements of a phrase are clustered toward the end of the sentence (e.g. verbs and their modifiers). The less important an element is to the understanding of a sentence, the more likely it is to be dropped. Consequently, many Kala sentences end-up consisting solely of a verb (or adjectival verb); more so in conversation than in written '''Kala''', these short phrases are grammatically correct and natural. Here are some examples:
Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Miyu''' allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.


* '''muya ka''' - /muːja gaː/ - <small>do Q</small> - ''(What are you) doing?''
== Heading 2 ==
* '''ina''' - /iːna/ - <small>eat</small> - ''(I am) eating.''
=== Heading 3 ===
* '''tamatse''' - /tamaːˌt͡ʃɛ/ - <small>good-seem</small> - ''(That looks) good.''
==== Heading 4 ====
* '''ueha ka''' - /weːɦa kaː/ - <small>want Q</small> - ''(Do you) want (some)?''
* '''nyasak''' - /ɲaːʃak/ - <small>thank-NEG</small> - ''No, thank (you).''


Notice that none of the above contains any pronouns, or nouns. Any contextually understood elements may be omitted unless indispensable. There can be considerable divergence from what is grammatical, and what is acceptably idiomatic. The spectrum of formality and grammatical to idiomatic can be seen in the example below:
<nowiki>


* '''netla muyaye''' – <small>1sg-P.4sg do-PST</small> – ''I did it.'' > [grammatical, formal]
{{col-begin}}
* '''etla muyaye''' – <small>P.4sg do-PST</small> – ''(I) did it. >> It was done.'' > [grammatical, formal, passive]
{{col-break}}
* '''na muyaye''' – <small>1sg do-PST</small> – ''I did (it).'' > [grammatical, informal]
* '''muyaye''' – <small>do-PST</small> – ''(I) did (it).'' > [semi-grammatical, idiomatic]
* '''muyye''' – /muːɟɛ/ – <small>do-PST</small> – ''(I) did (it).'' > [ungrammatical, idiomatic]


=== Function Words ===
words


Function words are called '''mayatla''' (“water words”; flowing speech). In this case, the words are "empty" in that they don't do anything by themselves. They serve important grammatical functions by making clear relationships between words, logical connections, or modifications of meaning. Function words are the "grammar words" of Kala. There are subcategories of function words that include: prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, pragmatics, and particles.
{{col-break}}


=== Content Words ===
ety


Content words are called '''konotla''' (“stone words”; still/solid speech) Contrary to function words, content words refer to real objects in the real world, whether solid and palpable, or observable in some other way. These words refer to objects, actions, concepts, and emotions, which exist in some real way as more than just grammatical tools. Subcategories of content words are: nouns, pronouns, verbs (active and stative), adverbials, number words, and onomatopoeia. Many content words can be used as both nouns and verbs. The best and most common example would be '''ina''' /iːˈna/ ''"food; to eat"''. '''Kala''' is a context-oriented language. The English glosses are meant to give an idea of what the core meaning of the '''Kala''' word actually is, but which do not imply that the '''Kala''' word actually covers all the main senses of these English words. Conversely, many words with a meaning much narrower than their English gloss are not precisely specified.
{{col-break}}


== Borrowing ==
abbs


As can be seen [[Kala/etymology|here]], '''Kala''' borrows from many varied languages, including but not limited to: Arabic, Mandarin, Japanese, Korean, Spanish, Turkish, and several others. These borrowings are most often based on aesthetics and function of the word. When borrowing, often changes made to the word include dropping of one or more syllables, vowel changes, and occasionally metathesis. These changes frequently leave the word unrecognizable from its original form. However, with each borrowing, an attempt has been made to retain as much original phonological and semantic meaning as possible. Of the numerous examples of borrowing, here is a breakdown of a few that are commonly used;
{{col-end}}


::* '''niha''' – ''good; nice; cool; sweet; enjoyable'' (from Arabic [[wiktionary:منيح|'''منيح''']] /mnīḥ/, meaning “fine; good”). So, the /m/ was dropped and an /a/ was added, also the /ḥ/ becomes /ɦ/. These changes align the word with the CVCV structure that the majority of '''Kala''' lexemes adhere to, as well as the phonological and phonotactical rules. This has been further reduced to a derivational suffix, -'''ni''' denoting a quality of goodness.
</nowiki>


::* '''yohua''' – ''night(time); darkness'' (from Classical Nahuatl [[wiktionary:yohualli|'''yohualli''']] /jo(w)alli/, meaning “night; nighttime; darkness”). The absolutive suffix –'''''lli''''' was dropped, and the Spanish spelling used to inform pronunciation, making it /joːhʷa/. This word has been used in portmanteau to create new words such as '''huatso''' “''midnight''”.
===== Heading 5 =====
====== Heading 6 ======


::* '''tsoya''' – ''center; middle; mid-; half'' (from Mandarin [[wiktionary:中#Definitions|'''中''']] / ʈ͡ʂʊŋ/, meaning “middle; center”). So, the coda / ŋ/ was dropped and /ja/ was added, also the /ʈ͡ʂ/ becomes /ts~t͡ʃ/. This has been further reduced to a derivational suffix, -'''tso''' denoting half, or the middle of something. This word has been used in portmanteau to create new words such as '''huatso''' “''midnight''” and '''yotso''' “''midday; noon''”.


This is a very small sample of borrowings:  
: = indentation


:* '''pato''' – ''duck (Anatidae)''; from Spanish [[wiktionary:pato#Noun_9|''pato'']]
* Item1
:* '''kala''' – ''to speak, talk, converse''; from Arabic [[wiktionary:تكلم|''takallama'']]
* Item4
:* '''myonta''' – ''to allow, permit''; from Finnish [[wiktionary:myöntää|''myöntää'']]
** Sub-item 4 a)
:* '''na''' – ''I, me''; from Arabic  [[wiktionary:أنا|''ʾanā'']]
*** Sub-item 4 a) 1.
:* '''tsenka''' – ''orange''; from Chinese [[wiktionary:橙#Chinese|''chéng'']]
**** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
:* '''uasi''' – ''to take, get, acquire''; from Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]
** Sub-item 4 b)
:* '''a''' – ''to be, exist, yes''; from Japanese [[wiktionary:ある|''aru'']]
* Item5


So, some phrases can contain words from multiple natlangs:
# Item1
# Item4
## Sub-item 1
### Sub-sub-item
#### Sub-sub-sub-item
## Sub-item 2
# Item5


* '''ta (ke) inun uasiye ka'''
; Term : Definition1
: <small>2sg (O) drink-ACC take-PST Q</small>
: ''Did you take the drink?''


* '''ta''' - Arabic [[wiktionary:أنت|''ʾanta'']]; '''ke''' - Chinese [[wiktionary:個#Definitions|''gè'']]; '''inu''' - Hawaiian [[wiktionary:inu#Hawaiian|''inu'']]; '''uasi''' - Lakota [[wiktionary:wasicu|''wasichu'']]; '''ka''' - Japanese [[wiktionary:か#Particle|''か'']]
; Term
: Definition1
: Definition2
: Definition3


=Phonology=
To ''italicize text'', put two consecutive apostrophes on each side of it.


== Consonants ==
Three apostrophes each side will '''bold the text'''.


* Where '''~''' appears, it indicates [[wp:Free_variation|free variation]] between phonemes.
Five consecutive apostrophes on each side (two for italics plus three for bold) produces '''''bold italics'''''.


{|class=wikitable style="text-align: center; width:40%;"
'''''Italic and bold formatting''''' works correctly only within a single line.
|+Consonants
 
For text as {{smallcaps|small caps}}, use the template {{tl|smallcaps}}.
 
 
* [[WP:Lingua Franca Nova|LFN]]
 
* [[Wiktionary:亡|tokomo]]
 
= old / wrong =
 
'''Kalo''' is intended to be a minimalist [[wp:Artistic_language|artlang]], not an [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|auxlang]]. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; [[wp:List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers|Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic]] ('''Hindi''' is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.
 
'''Kalo''' is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any [[wp:International_auxiliary_language|IAL]]. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.
 
Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects.
[n] and [l] are in free variation.
[ɲ] is an allophone of /n/.
/x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.
 
 
 
=== writing ===
 
[[File:Kaloji.png|thumb|alt=All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Hangul]]
 
 
 
[[File:Kaloji2.png|thumb|alt=A katakana method for writing Kalo|right|upright=0.75|Kalo Katakana]]
 
== allophony ==
The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''kalo''' allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.
 
= Syntax =
 
 
* '''wa kome''' - <small>1S eat</small> - ''I eat.'' (SV)
:
* '''wa amo ko''' - <small>1S love 3S</small> - ''I love her.'' (SVO)
:
* '''o mala amo''' - <small>DO woman love</small> - ''The woman is loved.'' (OV)
 
= Nouns =
 
Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with '''-lo''' to show plurality, and possessiveness with '''-yo'''.
 
== pronouns ==
 
'''kalo''' has three basic pronouns; '''wa''' [1sg], '''ni''' [2sg], and '''ko''' [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "'''-lo'''", and possessive with "'''-yo'''".
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
!
!
!Labial
! singular
!colspan=2|Alveolar
! plural
!Palatal
! possessive
!Velar
|-align=center
!Glottal
! 1st person
| '''wa'''<br>I; me
| '''walo'''<br>we; us
| '''wayo'''<br>my; mine; our(s)
|-align=center
! 2nd person
| '''ni'''<br>you
| '''nilo'''<br>you (all)
| '''niyo'''<br>your(s)
|-align=center
! 3rd person
| '''ko'''<br>he; she; him; her; it
| '''kolo'''<br>they; them; those
| '''koyo'''<br>their(s)
|}
 
* '''walo wite ni''' - <small>1pl see 2s</small> - ''We see you.''
 
* '''kolo ne kono wa''' - <small>3pl NEG know 1s</small> - ''They don't know me.''
 
= Verbs =
 
Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.
 
* '''maka''' - do; make; cause (from [[wiktionary:make|make]])
* '''yo''' - possess; have; hold (from [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]])
 
== tense, aspect, and mood ==
 
Past tense is indicated by the particle '''le''' ([[wiktionary:了|了]]) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle '''sa''' ([[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]).
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|-−
!tense/mood !! particle !! example !! translation
|-
|-
! Nasal
|present || - || '''wa ila''' || ''I go''
| m ('''m''')
|colspan=2|n ('''n''')
| ɲ ('''ny''')
|
|
|-
|-
! Plosive
|past || '''le''' || '''wa ila le''' || ''I went''
| p~b ('''p''')
|colspan=2|t~d ('''t''')
|
| k~g ('''k''')
| ʔ (''' ' ''')
|-
|-
! Affricate
|future || '''sa''' || '''wa ila sa''' || ''I will go''
|
| ts~t͡ʃ ('''ts''') || t͡ɬ~tl ('''tl''')
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Continuant
|conditional || '''kisa''' || '''wa ila kisa''' || ''I would go''
|
| s~ʃ ('''s''') || l~ɾ ('''l''')
|
|
| h~ɦ ('''h''')
|-
! Semivowel
|
|colspan=2|
| j ('''y''')
| w ('''u''')
|
|}
|}


The [[wp:Glottal_stop|glottal stop]] is not phonemic but is included in the chart above for completeness. It is only ever intervocalic, meaning it is pronounced between two vowels and/or diphthongs.
* '''ko ne kome le''' - <small>3sg NEG eat PST</small> - ''He didn't eat.''
 
* '''walo wite sa ko''' - <small>1pl see FUT 3sg</small> - ''We will see her.''
 
== positional verbs ==
 
'''Kalo''' does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.
 
* '''yu''' - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from ([[wiktionary:于|于]])
* '''ila''' - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from ([[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]])
 
= Particles =
 
== determiners ==
 
Determiners in '''kalo''' precede the noun they modify.
 
=== deixis ===
 
* '''pu''' - this; these
* '''su''' - that; those
 
=== amount ===
 
* '''aku''' - many; much (one hundred)
* '''kula''' - all; every; each
* '''ne''' - no; none; zero
* '''poka''' - some; several; a few
::
* '''meno''' - less; fewer / few; a little
* '''maso''' - more
 
=== other-ness ===
 
* '''asi''' - such
* '''ayo''' - whichever; whatever
* '''oto''' - other
* '''tonye''' - same
 
= Number =
 
 
When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "'''ke'''" precedes the number.
 
* '''ko yo le o kasa ke li'''
: <small>3s have PST O house NUM two</small>
: ''She had two houses.''
 
* '''wa wite o nano ke si'''
: <small>1s see O man NUM four </small>
: ''I see four men.''
 
== Higher Numbers ==
 
* '''yewa''' - 11; eleven
* '''yeli''' - 12; twelve
* '''liye''' - 20; twenty
* '''liyesi''' - 24; twenty-four
* '''kuyeli''' - 112; one-hundred-twelve
* '''sankuweyepen''' - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five
 
 
 
__NOTOC__
 
 
 
<center>
[[#ka|ka]] [[#sa|sa]] [[#ta|ta]] [[#na|na]] [[#pa|pa]] [[#ma|ma]] [[#ya|ya]] [[#la|la]] [[#wa|wa]] [[#a|a i u e o]]
</center>
 
= ka =
 
* '''kisa''' /ˈki.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:quizá#Spanish|quizá]]
: ''part'' - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
 
* '''kute''' /ˈku.te/ from FRE [[wiktionary:écouter|écouter]]
: ''v'' - listen; hear
 
* '''kono''' /ˈko.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:conocer#Spanish|conocer]]
: ''n'' - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
: ''v'' - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
 
* '''kome''' /ˈko.me/ from SPA [[wiktionary:comer#Spanish|comer]]
: ''v'' - eat; consume; drink
 
= sa =
 
* '''sa''' /sa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:س#Etymology_2|سَـ]]
: ''part'' - future tense particle [FUT]
 
* '''saka/na''' /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سخن|سخن]]
: ''v'' - be hot; be warm; burn
: ''n'' - heat; warmth / fire
 
 
* '''sana''' /ˈsa.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سنة|سنة]]
: ''n'' - year; 365 days
 
* '''sapa''' /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سبب|سبب]]
: ''n'' - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
 
* '''salama''' /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:سلم#Arabic|سلم]]
: ''n'' - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
: ''v'' - be peaceful; be calm
: ''intj'' - Peace! Hey! Hi!
 
* '''sawa''' /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:زوج|زوج]]
: ''n'' - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
: ''v'' - marry
 
* '''si''' /si/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:四#Definitions|四]]
: ''num'' - four; 4
 
* '''siya''' /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:下#Definitions|下]]
: ''prep'' - below; under; beneath
: ''v'' - be under; be lower
 
* '''su''' /su/ from TUR [[wiktionary:şu#Turkish|şu]]
: ''part'' - that; those (over there)
 
* '''sunya''' /ˈsun.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:शून्य|शून्य]]
: ''num'' - zero; 0
: ''n'' - nothing
: ''v'' - be empty; be void
 
* '''se''' /se/ from SPA [[wiktionary:se#Spanish|se]]
: ''pro'' - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
 
* '''sosa''' /ˈso.sa/ from SPA [[wiktionary:salsa#Spanish|salsa]]
: ''n'' - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing
 
= ta =
 
* '''tanka''' /ˈtaŋ.ka/ from ENG/GER [[wiktionary:thank|thank]]/[[wiktionary:danke#German|danke]]
: ''v'' - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
: ''part/intj'' - thank you; thanks
 
* '''tapo''' /ˈta.po/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:打破|打破]]
: ''v'' - damage; wreck; break; destroy
: ''n'' - destruction; damage
 
* '''tipa''' /ˈti.pa/ (or '''tupa''' /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA [[wiktionary:طيب|طيب]] (or [[wiktionary:טוב|טוב]])
: ''v'' - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
: ''intj'' - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
 
* '''tiya''' /ˈti.ja/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tía#Spanish|tía]]
: ''n'' - aunt/uncle; extended family
 
* '''te''' /te/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:de#Etymology_2_10|de]]/[[wiktionary:的#Definitions_2|的]]
: ''v'' - to move away from
: ''prep'' - of; from
 
* '''tenpo''' /ˈtem.po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:tiempo#Spanish|tiempo]]
: ''n'' - time; moment; period
 
* '''tela''' or '''talo''' /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/  from ENG [[wiktionary:tell|tell]]
: ''n'' - language; talk; speech
: ''v'' - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
 
* '''tonpa''' /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:同胞#Mandarin|同胞]]
: ''n'' - sibling; compatriot; friend
 
* '''tonye''' /ˈto.ɲe/ (or '''ton''' /ton/) from ZHO [[wiktionary:同一#Mandarin|同一]]
: ''v'' - be identical; same; equivalent; equal
 
= na =
 
* '''nai''' /naɪ/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:內#Japanese|內]]
: ''v'' - be inside; within
: ''prep'' - inside; within; during; while
 
* '''nano''' /ˈna.no/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:男#Definitions|男]]
: ''n'' - man; male
 
* '''nama''' /ˈna.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:نام#Verb|نام]]
: ''v'' - sleep; rest; relax
 
* '''naya''' /ˈna.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:नया|नया]]
: ''v'' - be new; fresh; young
 
* '''nalu''' /ˈna.lu/ from JPN [[wiktionary:なる|なる]]
: ''v'' - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
 
* '''ni''' /ni/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:你#Definitions|你]]
: ''pro'' - you [2sg]
 
* '''nun''' /nun/ from PIE [[wiktionary:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁néwn̥|h₁néwn̥]]
: ''num'' - nine; 9
 
* '''ne''' /ne/ from ENG [[wiktionary:nay#Interjection|nay]]
: ''part'' - no; not; negative [NEG]
 
* '''nesi''' /ˈne.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:necesitar#Spanish|necesitar]]
: ''v'' - need; require; must
: ''n'' - obligation; need
 
* '''nen/ka''' /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:能#Definitions|能]]
: ''v'' - be able to; be capable; be possible
: ''n'' - potential; possibility; capability
 
* '''note''' /ˈno.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:noche#Spanish|noche]]
: ''n'' - night; darkness
 
= pa =
 
* '''pa''' /pa/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:八|八]]
: ''num'' - eight; 8
 
* '''pan''' /pan/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:pan#Spanish|pan]]/[[wiktionary:飯|飯]]
: ''n'' - bread; food; sustenance
 
* '''pala''' /ˈpa.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:palabra#Spanish|palabra]]
: ''n'' - word; morpheme; lexeme
 
* '''pina''' /ˈpi.na/ from ARA [[wiktionary:ابن|ابن]]
: ''n'' - child; offspring; kid
 
* '''pu''' /pu/ from TUR [[wiktionary:bu#Turkish|bu]]
: ''part'' - this; these (here)
 
* '''pula''' /ˈpu.la/ from HIN [[wiktionary:बुरा|बुरा]]
: ''n'' - evil
: ''v'' - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
 
* '''pen''' /pen/ from ELL [[wiktionary:πέντε#Greek|πέντε]]
: ''num'' - five; 5
 
* '''po''' /po/ from SPA [[wiktionary:por#Spanish|por]]
: ''prep'' - by; for; [be] about
: ''v'' - [go] through; [move] across
 
* '''poka''' /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poco#Spanish|poca]]
: ''v'' - be small; little
: ''v'' - be few; less
 
* '''ponte''' /ˈpon.te/ from ENG [[wiktionary:ponder|ponder]]
: ''v'' - think; ponder; consider; weigh
: ''n'' - thought; idea; consideration
 
* '''pone''' /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA [[wiktionary:poner|poner]]
: ''v'' - to put, to place, to set
 
= ma =
 
* '''ma''' /ma/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:嗎#Chinese|嗎]]
: ''part'' - interrogative particle [Q]
 
* '''maka''' /ˈma.ka/ from ENG [[wiktionary:make|make]]
: ''n'' - cause; action; happening
: ''v'' - do; make; cause; happen
 
* '''maso''' /ˈma.so/ from SPA [[wiktionary:más#Spanish|más]]
: ''part'' - more; again
: ''n'' - layer; repetition; addition
: ''v'' - add; repeat; layer
 
* '''mala''' /ˈma.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:امرأة|امرأة]]
: ''n'' - woman; female; wife
 
* '''mila''' /ˈmi.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:mil#Spanish|mil]]
: ''num'' - thousand; 1000
 
* '''muki''' /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA [[wiktionary:مهم|مهم]]
: ''n'' - importance; significance
: ''v'' - be important; matter


* '''Prenasalized''': /ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk/
* '''muna''' /ˈmu.na/ from ENG [[wiktionary:moon#English|moon]]
* '''Labialized''':/pʷ kʷ mʷ nʷ ʃʷ hʷ t͡ʃʷ/
: ''n'' - moon; month
* '''Palatalized''': /pʲ kʲ mʲ hʲ/


<small>Note: Because of its small phoneme inventory, '''Kala''' allows for quite a lot of [[wp:Free_variation|allophonic variation]]. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s l h/ as [ʃ ɾ ɦ], and /t͡s t͡ɬ/ as [t͡ʃ t͡l]; also, vowels may be either long or short.</small>
* '''me''' /me/ from FRE [[wiktionary:mais#French|mais]]
: ''part'' - but; however; although


=== Allophony ===
* '''moto''' /ˈmo.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:modo#Spanish|modo]]
: ''n'' - mood; manner; way; method


The phoneme /n/ undergoes an assimilatory process when followed by /p~b/ to become /m/. Words that are ostensibly “vowel-initial” tend to be pronounced with an initial glottal stop when occurring within phrases. Where ~ appears, it indicates free variation between phonemes. However, certain sounds change in a predictable way. For example, /h/ becomes [ɦ] when preceded or followed by a front vowel, including when labialized or palatalized. It is also sometimes realized as [x], or even [χ]. The alveolar affricates are most often /t͡ʃ/ and /t͡ɬ/.  The “s” is almost always /ʃ/ unless preceded or followed by a syllable with the onset /t͡ʃ/, in which case “s” becomes /s/. So, '''sama''' (''sun; star; solar'') is /ˈʃaːma/ where '''sitsa''' (''heat; hot'') is /ˈsiːt͡ʃa/ and '''tsisi''' (''embroider; embroidery'') is /t͡ʃiːsi/. /ts~t͡ʃ/ is typically realized as / t͡ʃ / when followed by front vowels, and /ts/ elsewhere. This is also the case with /s~ʃ/; /sa/ >> /ʃi/.
= ya =


== Vowels ==
* '''ya''' /ja/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يا#Arabic|يا]]
: ''part'' - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~


{| class="wikitable"
* '''yati''' /ˈja.ti/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يد|يد]]
|+Vowels
: ''n'' - hand; arm
!
: ''v'' - give; transfer
!'''Front'''
 
!'''Back'''
* '''yapu''' /ˈja.pu/ from ARA [[wiktionary:عفا|عفا]]
|-align=center
: ''n'' - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
!'''Close'''
: ''v'' - pardon; excuse; forgive
|{{IPA|i~ɪ}} '''(i)''' || {{IPA|u~u:}} '''(u)'''
 
|-align=center
* '''yame''' /ˈja.me/ from ARA [[wiktionary:جمع|جمع]]
!'''Mid'''
: ''n'' - collection; gathering; group; set
|{{IPA|e~ɛ}} '''(e)''' || {{IPA|o~o:}} '''(o)'''
: ''v'' - gather; collect; assemble; unite
|-align=center
 
!'''Open'''  
* '''yu''' /ju/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:於#Definitions|于]]
|colspan="2" align="center"|{{IPA|a~a:}} '''(a)'''
: ''v'' - be in; at; out of
|}
: ''prep'' - in; at; to; by; than; out of
 
* '''yuma''' /ˈju.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:يوم#Arabic|يوم]]
: ''n'' - day; daylight; 24 hour period


'''Kala''' has five vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/. Each occurs in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Phonetic nasalization occurs for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal, e.g. '''tsunka''' [ˈt͡ʃũᵑka] ('bug').
* '''ye''' /je/ from KOR [[wiktionary:열#Korean|열]]
: ''num'' - ten; 10


=== Diphthongs ===
* '''yeko''' /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:以後#Chinese|以后]]
: ''prep'' - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
: ''adv'' - from now on; henceforth


Phonetically, '''Kala''' has only two diphthongs, both falling; [aɪ̯] and [aʊ̯], but there are five syllables that can be analyzed as rising diphthongs; [wa], [we], [ja], [je], and [jo]. The two triphthongs [waɪ̯] and [jaʊ̯] are very rare but should be noted as possible.
* '''yo''' /jo/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:有#Definitions|有]]
: ''v'' - have; possess; carry; hold; keep


== Phonotactics ==
= la =


The maximal syllable structure is (strictly open syllables) '''(N)(C)(u, y)V(a, i)''' where '''(N)''' indicates nasalization, and '''u''' and '''y''' indicate labialization and palatalization respectively. Consonant clusters within a syllable typically only occur in place names or “foreign” words, so that the majority of syllables follow a simple (C)V(ː) pattern.
* '''laka''' /ˈla.ka/ from ARA [[wiktionary:رقم|رقم]]
: ''n'' - number; digit; amount
: ''v'' - count; enumerate


There is a limited set of syllables, of the type CV (consonant-vowel), allowed by '''Kala''' phonotactics, similar to Japanese or Chinese. Kala phonotactics does not typically allow the onsets of adjacent syllables to be identical, nor both to be labialized or palatalized. (There are a few exceptions to this, such as '''tata''' for the informal/familiar form of “father”, etc., as well as reduplication as a form of plurality.) Syllables beginning with /l/ do not occur as the first syllable of a headword (except in loanwords and toponyms).
* '''lata''' /ˈla.ta/ from SPA [[wiktionary:lata#Spanish|lata]]
: ''n'' - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
: ''v'' - carry; tote; transport


When an affix causes reduplication of a syllable it is replaced by '''–u''', which has no meaning. This is done to reduce duplicate syllables. An example might be '''tsuala’u''' meaning ''“to become prosperous”'', from '''tsuala''' ''“prosper; be prosperous”'' and the suffix '''–la''' meaning ''“become; change into”'', used to indicate the mutative.
* '''li''' /li/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:兩#Definitions|兩]]
: ''num'' - two; double; duo
: ''pro'' - some; a few


=== Gemination ===
* '''le''' /le/ from ZHO [[wiktionary:了|了]]
: ''part'' - past tense marker [PST]


Gemination is only found as a product of word compounding and not as a phonological process, however it affects the pronunciation as the phonemic variation is lost and all geminated consonants are voiceless. '''naka''' (''woman'') can be /ˈnaːka/ or /ˈnaːga/, whereas '''nakkan''' (''chieftess'') can only be /ˈnaːkkan/. All consonants except for semivowels can undergo gemination.
* '''loka''' /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA [[wiktionary:local#Spanish|local]]
: ''n'' - place; location; point; spot


=== Syllables ===
= wa =


Syllable structure in Kala is exclusively made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most lexemes having two syllables exclusively of this type. The exception to this rule are the word final endings '''–m''' (indicating general plural, deriving from '''ma''', meaning ''“and, also”''), '''-n''' (indicating accusative case, deriving from '''no''', meaning ''“thing, object”''), and '''–k''' (indicating negative mood, deriving from '''nke''', meaning ''“no, not”'').
* '''wa''' /wa/ from ARA/ZHO [[wiktionary:واحد|واحد]]/[[wiktionary:我|我]]
: ''pro'' - I; me [1sg]
: ''num'' - one; 1; single
: ''v'' - be alone; be singular


=== Syllable Chart ===
* '''waya''' /ˈwa.ja/ from HIN [[wiktionary:वयस्क|वयस्क]]
: ''v'' - grow; mature; develop
: ''n'' - adult; mature thing


{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
|+the 136 basic Kala syllables
|-
!
! a
! e
! i
! o
! u
! ua
! ue
! ya
! ye
! yo
! ai
! ao
! uai
! yao
|-
! p
| align="center"|''(m)pa''
| align="center"|''(m)pe''
| align="center"|''(m)pi''
| align="center"|''(m)po''
| align="center"|''(m)pu''
| align="center"|''pua''
| align="center"|''pue''
| align="center"|''pya''
| align="center"|''pye''
| align="center"|''pyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''puai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''pyao''</font>
|-
! t
| align="center"|''(n)ta''
| align="center"|''(n)te''
| align="center"|''(n)ti''
| align="center"|''(n)to''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! k
| align="center"|''(n)ka''
| align="center"|''(n)ke''
| align="center"|''(n)ki''
| align="center"|''(n)ko''
| align="center"|''(n)ku''
| align="center"|''kua''
| align="center"|''kue''
| align="center"|''kya''
| align="center"|''kye''
| align="center"|''kyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kuai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''kyao''</font>
|-
! m
| align="center"|''ma''
| align="center"|''me''
| align="center"|''mi''
| align="center"|''mo''
| align="center"|''mu''
| align="center"|''mua''
| align="center"|''mue''
| align="center"|''mya''
| align="center"|''mye''
| align="center"|''myo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''mao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''muai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''myao''</font>
|-
! n
| align="center"|''na''
| align="center"|''ne''
| align="center"|''ni''
| align="center"|''no''
| align="center"|''nu''
| align="center"|''nua''
| align="center"|''nue''
| align="center"|''nya''
| align="center"|''nye''
| align="center"|''nyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nuai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''nyao''</font>
|-
! s
| align="center"|''sa''
| align="center"|''se''
| align="center"|''si''
| align="center"|''so''
| align="center"|''su''
| align="center"|''sua''
| align="center"|''sue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''sao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''suai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! h
| align="center"|''ha''
| align="center"|''he''
| align="center"|''hi''
| align="center"|''ho''
| align="center"|''hu''
| align="center"|''hua''
| align="center"|''hue''
| align="center"|''hya''
| align="center"|''hye''
| align="center"|''hyo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''huai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''hyao''</font>
|-
! ts
| align="center"|''tsa''
| align="center"|''tse''
| align="center"|''tsi''
| align="center"|''tso''
| align="center"|''tsu''
| align="center"|''tsua''
| align="center"|''tsue''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tsuai''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! tl
| align="center"|''tla''
| align="center"|''tle''
| align="center"|''tli''
| align="center"|''tlo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''tlao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! l
| align="center"|''la''
| align="center"|''le''
| align="center"|''li''
| align="center"|''lo''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''lao''</font>
| align="center"|'' ''
| align="center"|'' ''
|-
! -
| align="center"|''a''
| align="center"|''e''
| align="center"|''i''
| align="center"|''o''
| align="center"|''u''
| align="center"|''ua''
| align="center"|''ue''
| align="center"|''ya''
| align="center"|''ye''
| align="center"|''yo''
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''ao''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''uai''</font>
| align="center"|<font color="red">''yao''</font>
|}


<small>Syllables such as '''nsa''', '''ntla''', or '''ntsa''' can occur but usually only in place names or loanwords. The '''A-O''' columns are called '''''mpalo''''' and are the most common, the '''U-YO''' are called '''''puhyo''''', the '''AI-YAO'''/red syllables above occur infrequently and most often as the final syllable of a word, are referred to as '''''paihyao'''''.</small>


=== Collating Order ===
* '''wino''' /ˈwi.no/ from SPA [[wiktionary:vino#Spanish|vino]]
: ''n'' - alcohol; beer; wine
: ''v'' - drink ~


The collating sequence (alphabetical order) is based on the order established in the [[Kala/writing#Naua|'''Naua''']] script.
* '''we''' /we/ from PIE [[wiktionary:econstruction:Proto-Indo-European/swéḱs|swéḱs]]
: ''num'' - six; 6


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
* '''weko''' /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA [[wiktionary:hueco|hueco]]
! Consonants
: ''n'' - door, hole, orifice, window; port
| '''p'''
| '''t'''
| '''k'''
| '''m'''
| '''n'''
| '''s'''
| '''h'''
| '''ts'''
| '''tl'''
| '''l'''
|-align=center
! Vowels
| '''a'''
| '''e'''
| '''i'''
| '''o'''
| '''u'''
| '''ua'''
| '''ue'''
| '''ya'''
| '''ye'''
| '''yo'''
|-align=center
|}


Based on this order, '''ma''' would come before '''ha''', etc. Prenasalized syllables are ordered after their non-prenasalized counterparts, i.e. '''mpa''' comes after '''pyo''' but before '''ta'''. To see the collating sequence in action, look through the [[Kala/lexicon|lexicon]]. This order can be vocalized as ''“pa, ta, ka, ma, na, nya, sa, ha, tsa, tla, ua, la, ya, a”'', this aides in memorization and organization.
* '''wento''' /ˈwen.to/ from SPA [[wiktionary:viento|viento]]
: ''n'' - air; wind; void; essence; spirit


== Stress ==
* '''wela''' /ˈwe.la/ from SPA [[wiktionary:fuera#Spanish|fuera]]
: ''prep'' - outside; exterior
: ''v'' - leave; exit


[[wp:Stress_(linguistics)|Stress]] generally falls on the penultimate syllable, which means that stress is ''de facto'' initial in most lemma given that stems are most often (CVCV). Monosyllabic words are not stressed. So;
= a =


* '''<u>ma</u>sa''' - /ˈmaːsa/ → '''ma<u>sa</u>ko''' - /maːˈsako/
* '''tli<u>ya</u>ma''' - /tɬiːˈjama/ → '''tliya<u>ma</u>lo''' - /tɬiːjaˈmalo/
* '''kam''' - /kaːm/ → '''<u>ka</u>myo''' - /ˈkaːmʲo/
* '''empa<u>ha</u>pak''' - /ɛᵐpaˈhaːpak/ → '''empaha<u>pa</u>yek''' - /ɛᵐpahaˈpaːjek/


= Nominal Morphology =


The morphology of '''Kala''' nouns can be complex enough to include number, gender, size, case, quality, etc. However, it should be noted that a few of these are also non-obligatory. That is, if the meaning or intended meaning can be deduced from context, certain nominal modifiers may be omitted. Due to the semantic range of '''Kala''' words, the declension of nouns is often used to convey both the lexical role, but also the semantic use, and grammatical importance of the word.
* '''alima''' /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA [[wiktionary:علم|علم]]
: ''v'' - to discern, to find out, to learn
: ''n'' - learning; education; knowledge


== Nouns ==
* '''amo''' /ˈa.mo/ from SPA [[wiktionary:amor#Spanish|amor]]
: ''n'' - love; affection; adoration
: ''v'' - love; adore; like


'''Kala''' nominals (which includes full nouns, pronouns, and determiners) inflect for number and several cases.  Other relevant distinctions are animacy and possession, but these are not always marked on the noun itself. Animacy plays a role both for pronoun choice and for the validity of some syntactic constructions.
* '''ante''' /ˈan.te/ from SPA [[wiktionary:ante#Spanish|ante]]
: ''n'' - front side; chest; fore area
: ''prep'' - before; in front; forward; ahead


=== Number ===
* '''asi''' /ˈa.si/ from SPA [[wiktionary:así#Spanish|así]]
: ''part'' - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so


In general the plural suffix is not used when the plurality of the noun is clear from context. For example, while the English sentence ''"there are three dogs"'' would use the plural "dogs" instead of the singular "dog", the '''Kala''' sentence '''mita ha'o a''' ''"dog three exist"'' keeps the word mita "dog" in its unmarked form, as the numeral makes the plural marker redundant. The collective plural is marked by '''tli-''', derived from '''tatli''', meaning ''"group; collection; gathering"''. It is mainly used to indicate collectives of animals, but can also indicate groups of flora, geographic features, and various other groupings. This is called the collective plural (COL). There are also markers for paucal (''a few of something''), distributive (''each of a countable group''), or inclusive, and an indefinite large number (''many, much'').
* '''awa''' /ˈa.wa/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أو|أو]]
: ''part'' - either; or; other


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
* '''ayo''' /ˈa.jo/ from ARA [[wiktionary:أي|أي]]
!
:''part'' - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
! ''Kala''
! ''gloss''
! ''English''
|-align=center
! Singular [SG]
| '''mita'''
| <small>dog</small>
| ''a/the dog''
|-align=center
! Plural [PL]
| '''mita-m'''
| <small>dog-PL</small>
| ''(the) dogs''
|-align=center
! Paucal [PAU]
| '''mita-mi'''
| <small>dog-PAU</small>
| ''(a) few dogs''
|-align=center
! Collective [COL]
| '''tli-mita'''
| <small>COL-dog</small>
| ''(a) dog pack''
|-align=center
! Distributive [DIS]
| '''mita-li''' [or '''-kua''']
| <small>dog-DIS/INCL</small>
| ''each/every dog''
|-align=center
! Indefinite Mass [IM]
| '''mita-mpa'''
| <small>dog-IM</small>
| ''many dogs''
|}


These endings can sometimes be combined to add nuance to the meaning, such as; '''tlimitam''' - <small>COL-dog-PL</small> - ''dog packs / packs of dogs''; '''imitalin malo''' - <small>PROX-dog-DIS-ACC</small> – ''each of these dogs is brown''
* '''e''' /e/ from SPA/ZHO [[wiktionary:e#Etymology_2_17|e]]/[[wiktionary:和#Definitions_2|和]]
: ''part'' - and; also; too


When the final syllable of a word contains a labial consonant, ‘'''m'''’, ‘'''mp'''’, and ‘'''p'''’ the plural marking changes to '''-lo'''. The '''–lo''' ending is also used when the word begins with a vowel, and when the '''–m''' ending conflicts phonotactically with a given case suffix. An example of this would be; '''yama''' - <small>mountain</small> - ''a mountain'' → '''yamalo''' - <small>mountain-PL</small> – ''mountains'' → '''tliyama''' - <small>COL-mountain</small> - ''a mountain range / range of mountains'' → '''tliyamalo''' - <small>COL-mountain-PL</small> - ''mountain ranges / ranges of mountains''.
* '''ila''' /ˈi.la/ from ARA [[wiktionary:إلى|إلى]]
: ''prep'' - toward; at; in direction of
: ''v'' - go (toward); walk; travel


==== Reduplication ====
* '''o''' /o/ from JPN [[wiktionary:を#Etymology_2|を]]
: ''part'' - direct object particle


Nominal reduplication in Kala indicates a plurality and that the items are scattered about in a disorderly manner. It can also indicate uncountable version of a countable noun. Occasionally, it reflects a juvenile or informal register; in this respect, it can be compared to the English diminutive ending "-y" or "-ie" (kitty, “doggie", etc.) Verb reduplication is also common in '''Kala''' as it marks adverbs. Often, this adverb is an informal and/or temporary character of the action. It may also indicate a nominal form of the verb.


* '''kya o’unkonke''' - <small>IMP be.loud-NEG</small> - ''Don’t speak loudly!''


The morphological process of reduplication is irregular in Kala and is based primarily on the initial syllable of the word. The nasals ('''N'''), plosives ('''P'''), affricates ('''A'''), continuants ('''C'''), and semivowels and vowels ('''S''') each undergo various changes during reduplication.
* wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
* en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


* N → N/(y/u)
* P → nP/(y/u) or nP → P/(y/u)
* A → C/(y/u)
* C → ~/(y/u) [mostly '''s''' → '''ts''' and '''h''' → '''k''']
* S → '''‘u''' or '''~'''


:* '''muku''' - ''knife'' → '''mumuku''' – ''knives scattered around''
A working phrasebook for [[Kalo]].
:* '''muela''' - ''raspberry'' → '''memuela''' – ''raspberries scattered around'' / ''a bunch of raspberries''
:* '''nyahi''' - ''snow'' → '''nanyahi''' – ''snow all around''
:* '''pana''' - ''rain'' → '''pampana''' – ''rain all around'' (“It’s raining all over.”)
:* '''ntasi''' – ''excitement'' → '''ntatasi''' – ''chaotic fits''
:* '''kano''' – ''dear; darling'' → '''kankano''' – ''“sweetie; lovey”''
:* '''kyo’a''' – ''be quiet'' → '''konko’a''' – ''quietly''
:* '''tloso''' – ''annoy; bother'' → '''tloloso''' – ''bothersome''
:* '''tsima''' – ''hour'' → '''tsisima''' – ''hourly; regularly''
:* '''tsuama''' – ''sandwich'' → '''tsasuama''' – ''sandwiches scattered about'' / ''a sandwich tray''
:* '''sama''' - ''sun'' → '''satsama''' – ''sunny; sunshine all around''
:* '''suku''' - ''shop'' → '''sutsuku''' – ''marketplace; bazaar''
:* '''hama''' – ''protect; defend'' → '''hakama''' – ''protective''
:* '''ima''' – ''now; yet'' → '''i’uma''' – ''immediately'' [sounds like /ˈjuːma/]
:* '''etsa''' – ''degree; extent'' → '''e’utsa''' – ''extensive''


=== Gender ===
= Essentials =


Gender is not normally marked but can be with the endings <b>-na</b> and <b>-ta</b> to mark the feminine and masculine, respectively or nouns such as '''naka''', '''tlaka''', '''nahi''', or '''tahi''' (''the woman, the man, the girl, the boy''), etc. A gender neutral suffix, '''-nta''' may be used when the gender is unknown or ambiguous.


* <b>kuma</b> - <small>bear</small> - <i>a bear</i> → <b>kumana</b> - <small>bear-FEM</small> - <i>sow</i> → <b>kumata</b> - <small>bear-MASC</small> - <i>boar</i>
* '''ola''' - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to [[wiktionary:aloha#Hawaiian|aloha]])
* <b>masa</b> - <small>deer</small> - <i>a deer</i> → <b>masana</b> - <small>deer-FEM</small> - <i>doe</i> → <b>masata</b> - <small>deer-MASC</small> - <i>stag</i>
* <b>uma</b> - <small>horse</small> - <i>a horse</i> → <b>umana</b> - <small>horse-FEM</small> - <i>mare</i> → <b>umata</b> - <small>horse-MASC</small> - <i>stallion</i>


=== Abilitative ===
* '''kan/a''' - "yes; it is"
* '''ne''' - "no; it is not"


* '''-ta''' from '''tlaka''' meaning ''"man; male; masculine"''
* '''yapu wa''' - "Excuse me."
* '''nenka ma''' - "Please." [''lit'': is (it) possible?]
:: by extension "Do you mind?"
* '''tanka (ta)''' - "Thank you (very much)."
* '''tipa''' - "(That's) OK."


= Verbs =
= Greetings & Goodbyes =


* '''ola yuma''' - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
* '''ola note''' - "Good evening/night"
* '''salama''' - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"


== Mood ==
== Civilities ==


* '''moto (niyo) ma''' - <small>manner 2s.POSS Q</small> - ''How are you?''
** '''tipa''' - "Good/OK/Fine."
** '''...''' - "Not bad."


=== Abilitative ===


* '''-pa''' from '''pala''' meaning ''"able (to); can; possible; potential"''


= Particles =


* '''ka''' - interrogative particle


= References =


* en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quechuan_languages#Grammar /
* '''tenpo ta ne wite''' - <small>time big no see</small> - ''Long time no see''
* en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_grammar /
* en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_grammar /
* akana.conlang.org/wiki/Gezoro /
* akana.conlang.org/wiki/Lotoka

Latest revision as of 10:48, 8 April 2025

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Wikitext

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  • In syllable codas, [ʃ] replaces [s].
  • In syllable codas, [ʒ] replaces [z].
  • [β] and [ʙ] are in free variation.
  • [ʁ] and [ʀ] are in free variation.

Because of its small phoneme inventory, Miyu allows for extensive allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short.

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old / wrong

Kalo is intended to be a minimalist artlang, not an auxlang. It draws primarily on vocabulary from the five most spoken languages in the world; Mandarin, Spanish, English, and Arabic (Hindi is used sparingly although it is spoken by more speakers than Arabic). The grammar is mostly isolating with very few elements of inflection, mostly to show plurality or possession.

Kalo is NOT meant to mimic, replace, or be inspired by Toki Pona or any IAL. Any similarities are based on design aesthetic coincidences and the minimalist nature of the language.

Voiced plosives and affricates, and /f/ occur only in the Southern Tujia dialects. [n] and [l] are in free variation. [ɲ] is an allophone of /n/. /x/ has allophones [ç] before /i/ and [ɸ] before /u/.


writing

All of the Kalo syllables in Hangul
Kalo Hangul


A katakana method for writing Kalo
Kalo Katakana

allophony

The nasal at the end of a syllable can be pronounced as any nasal stop, though it is normally assimilated to the following consonant. That is, it typically occurs as an [n] before /t/ or /s/, as an [m] before /p/, as an [ŋ] before /k/, and as an [ɲ] before /j/. Because of its small phoneme inventory, kalo allows for quite a lot of allophonic variation. For example, /p t k/ may be pronounced [b d ɡ] as well as [p t k], /s/ as [z] or [ʃ] as well as [s], /l/ as [ɾ] as well as [l], and vowels may be either long or short. Both its sound inventory and phonotactics (patterns of possible sound combinations) are found in the majority of human languages and are therefore readily accessible.

Syntax

  • wa kome - 1S eat - I eat. (SV)
  • wa amo ko - 1S love 3S - I love her. (SVO)
  • o mala amo - DO woman love - The woman is loved. (OV)

Nouns

Nouns only decline for number and possession. They are altered with -lo to show plurality, and possessiveness with -yo.

pronouns

kalo has three basic pronouns; wa [1sg], ni [2sg], and ko [3sg]. These do not indicate gender. These can be made plural using the suffix "-lo", and possessive with "-yo".

singular plural possessive
1st person wa
I; me 		walo
we; us 		wayo
my; mine; our(s)
2nd person ni
you 		nilo
you (all) 		niyo
your(s)
3rd person ko
he; she; him; her; it 		kolo
they; them; those 		koyo
their(s)
  • walo wite ni - 1pl see 2s - We see you.
  • kolo ne kono wa - 3pl NEG know 1s - They don't know me.

Verbs

Verbs do not change and are only ever modified by particles.

  • maka - do; make; cause (from make)
  • yo - possess; have; hold (from 有)

tense, aspect, and mood

Past tense is indicated by the particle le (了) following the verb. Future tense is indicated by the particle sa (سَـ).

tense/mood particle example translation
present - wa ila I go
past le wa ila le I went
future sa wa ila sa I will go
conditional kisa wa ila kisa I would go
  • ko ne kome le - 3sg NEG eat PST - He didn't eat.
  • walo wite sa ko - 1pl see FUT 3sg - We will see her.

positional verbs

Kalo does not use prepositions, but instead uses positional verbs as auxiliaries. These are also used as temporal adverbs in certain situations.

  • yu - in; at; within; inside; during; between | from (于)
  • ila - be toward; at; in the direction of; go; walk; travel | from (إلى)

Particles

determiners

Determiners in kalo precede the noun they modify.

deixis

  • pu - this; these
  • su - that; those

amount

  • aku - many; much (one hundred)
  • kula - all; every; each
  • ne - no; none; zero
  • poka - some; several; a few
  • meno - less; fewer / few; a little
  • maso - more

other-ness

  • asi - such
  • ayo - whichever; whatever
  • oto - other
  • tonye - same

Number

When numbers one through ten occur independently, the indicator "ke" precedes the number.

  • ko yo le o kasa ke li
3s have PST O house NUM two
She had two houses.
  • wa wite o nano ke si
1s see O man NUM four
I see four men.

Higher Numbers

  • yewa - 11; eleven
  • yeli - 12; twelve
  • liye - 20; twenty
  • liyesi - 24; twenty-four
  • kuyeli - 112; one-hundred-twelve
  • sankuweyepen - 365; three-hundred-sixty-five




ka sa ta na pa ma ya la wa a i u e o

ka

  • kisa /ˈki.sa/ from SPA quizá
part - perhaps; maybe; if; conditional particle [COND]
v - listen; hear
n - knowledge; awareness; understanding; recognition
v - know; understand; be aware (of); recognize
  • kome /ˈko.me/ from SPA comer
v - eat; consume; drink

sa

part - future tense particle [FUT]
  • saka/na /ˈsa.ka.na/ from ARA سخن
v - be hot; be warm; burn
n - heat; warmth / fire


  • sana /ˈsa.na/ from ARA سنة
n - year; 365 days
  • sapa /ˈsa.pa/ from ARA سبب
n - cause; reason; purpose; rationale; motive
  • salama /sa.ˈla.ma/ from ARA سلم
n - peace; calm; tranquility; quiet
v - be peaceful; be calm
intj - Peace! Hey! Hi!
  • sawa /ˈsa.wa/ from ARA زوج
n - spouse; husband; wife; sweetheart; mate
v - marry
  • si /si/ from ZHO 四
num - four; 4
  • siya /ˈsi.ja/ from ZHO 下
prep - below; under; beneath
v - be under; be lower
  • su /su/ from TUR şu
part - that; those (over there)
num - zero; 0
n - nothing
v - be empty; be void
  • se /se/ from SPA se
pro - reflexive / reciprocal pronoun
  • sosa /ˈso.sa/ from SPA salsa
n - juice; sauce; gravy; dressing

ta

v - to thank; show appreciation; express gratitude
part/intj - thank you; thanks
  • tapo /ˈta.po/ from ZHO 打破
v - damage; wreck; break; destroy
n - destruction; damage
  • tipa /ˈti.pa/ (or tupa /ˈtu.pa/) from ARA طيب (or טוב)
v - be good; pleasant; agreeable; nice; sweet; OK
intj - great! good! thanks! OK! cool! yay!
  • tiya /ˈti.ja/ from SPA tía
n - aunt/uncle; extended family
  • te /te/ from SPA/ZHO de/的
v - to move away from
prep - of; from
  • tenpo /ˈtem.po/ from SPA tiempo
n - time; moment; period
  • tela or talo /ˈte.la/ or /ˈta.lo/ from ENG tell
n - language; talk; speech
v - talk; speak; discuss; say; tell
  • tonpa /ˈtom.pa/ from ZHO 同胞
n - sibling; compatriot; friend
  • tonye /ˈto.ɲe/ (or ton /ton/) from ZHO 同一
v - be identical; same; equivalent; equal

na

  • nai /naɪ/ from ZHO 內
v - be inside; within
prep - inside; within; during; while
  • nano /ˈna.no/ from ZHO 男
n - man; male
  • nama /ˈna.ma/ from ARA نام
v - sleep; rest; relax
v - be new; fresh; young
  • nalu /ˈna.lu/ from JPN なる
v - succeed; finish; complete; accomplish; become; turn into
  • ni /ni/ from ZHO 你
pro - you [2sg]
num - nine; 9
  • ne /ne/ from ENG nay
part - no; not; negative [NEG]
v - need; require; must
n - obligation; need
  • nen/ka /ˈnen.ka/ from ZHO 能
v - be able to; be capable; be possible
n - potential; possibility; capability
  • note /ˈno.te/ from SPA noche
n - night; darkness

pa

  • pa /pa/ from ZHO 八
num - eight; 8
  • pan /pan/ from SPA/ZHO pan/飯
n - bread; food; sustenance
n - word; morpheme; lexeme
  • pina /ˈpi.na/ from ARA ابن
n - child; offspring; kid
  • pu /pu/ from TUR bu
part - this; these (here)
n - evil
v - be bad; spoiled; be broken; to break down; be wicked; be evil
num - five; 5
  • po /po/ from SPA por
prep - by; for; [be] about
v - [go] through; [move] across
  • poka /ˈpo.ka/ from SPA poca
v - be small; little
v - be few; less
  • ponte /ˈpon.te/ from ENG ponder
v - think; ponder; consider; weigh
n - thought; idea; consideration
  • pone /ˈpo.ne/ from SPA poner
v - to put, to place, to set

ma

  • ma /ma/ from ZHO 嗎
part - interrogative particle [Q]
  • maka /ˈma.ka/ from ENG make
n - cause; action; happening
v - do; make; cause; happen
  • maso /ˈma.so/ from SPA más
part - more; again
n - layer; repetition; addition
v - add; repeat; layer
n - woman; female; wife
  • mila /ˈmi.la/ from SPA mil
num - thousand; 1000
  • muki /ˈmu.ki/ from ARA مهم
n - importance; significance
v - be important; matter
  • muna /ˈmu.na/ from ENG moon
n - moon; month
  • me /me/ from FRE mais
part - but; however; although
  • moto /ˈmo.to/ from SPA modo
n - mood; manner; way; method

ya

  • ya /ja/ from ARA يا
part - vocative marker [VOC]; hey; let's ~
  • yati /ˈja.ti/ from ARA يد
n - hand; arm
v - give; transfer
  • yapu /ˈja.pu/ from ARA عفا
n - pardon; excuse; forgiveness
v - pardon; excuse; forgive
  • yame /ˈja.me/ from ARA جمع
n - collection; gathering; group; set
v - gather; collect; assemble; unite
  • yu /ju/ from ZHO 于
v - be in; at; out of
prep - in; at; to; by; than; out of
  • yuma /ˈju.ma/ from ARA يوم
n - day; daylight; 24 hour period
  • ye /je/ from KOR 열
num - ten; 10
  • yeko /ˈje.ko/ from ZHO 以后
prep - back; behind; rear; afterwards; after; later
adv - from now on; henceforth
  • yo /jo/ from ZHO 有
v - have; possess; carry; hold; keep

la

  • laka /ˈla.ka/ from ARA رقم
n - number; digit; amount
v - count; enumerate
  • lata /ˈla.ta/ from SPA lata
n - box; bucket; basket; container; vessel
v - carry; tote; transport
  • li /li/ from ZHO 兩
num - two; double; duo
pro - some; a few
  • le /le/ from ZHO 了
part - past tense marker [PST]
  • loka /ˈlo.ka/ from SPA local
n - place; location; point; spot

wa

pro - I; me [1sg]
num - one; 1; single
v - be alone; be singular
v - grow; mature; develop
n - adult; mature thing


  • wino /ˈwi.no/ from SPA vino
n - alcohol; beer; wine
v - drink ~
num - six; 6
  • weko /ˈwe.ko/ from SPA hueco
n - door, hole, orifice, window; port
  • wento /ˈwen.to/ from SPA viento
n - air; wind; void; essence; spirit
  • wela /ˈwe.la/ from SPA fuera
prep - outside; exterior
v - leave; exit

a

  • alima /a.ˈli.ma/ from ARA علم
v - to discern, to find out, to learn
n - learning; education; knowledge
  • amo /ˈa.mo/ from SPA amor
n - love; affection; adoration
v - love; adore; like
  • ante /ˈan.te/ from SPA ante
n - front side; chest; fore area
prep - before; in front; forward; ahead
  • asi /ˈa.si/ from SPA así
part - like this/that; as [such]; thus; so
  • awa /ˈa.wa/ from ARA أو
part - either; or; other
  • ayo /ˈa.jo/ from ARA أي
part - whichever; whatever; something [INDEF]
  • e /e/ from SPA/ZHO e/和
part - and; also; too
prep - toward; at; in direction of
v - go (toward); walk; travel
  • o /o/ from JPN を
part - direct object particle


  • wikitravel.org/en/Spanish_phrasebook
  • en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Phrasebooks_by_language


A working phrasebook for Kalo.

Essentials

  • ola - Used for "hello; goodbye; farewell; welcome" (analogous to aloha)
  • kan/a - "yes; it is"
  • ne - "no; it is not"
  • yapu wa - "Excuse me."
  • nenka ma - "Please." [lit: is (it) possible?]
by extension "Do you mind?"
  • tanka (ta) - "Thank you (very much)."
  • tipa - "(That's) OK."

Greetings & Goodbyes

  • ola yuma - "Good morning/day/afternoon"
  • ola note - "Good evening/night"
  • salama - "Hey/Hi/Hello/Bye"

Civilities

  • moto (niyo) ma - manner 2s.POSS Q - How are you?
    • tipa - "Good/OK/Fine."
    • ... - "Not bad."




  • tenpo ta ne wite - time big no see - Long time no see
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