FrathWiki - User contributions [en]

User:Nortaneous

2016-03-03T20:29:28Z

Nortaneous: Blanked the page

Conlang comparison

2013-09-18T22:38:02Z

Nortaneous: /* Conlang comparison table */

Because ''a posteriori'' languages borrow vocabulary from real spoken languages, it is often found that conlangs of this type relate to one another. On this page, it is possible to make comparisons between natlangs of the main branches and also of conlangs influenced by them. If you have an ''a posteriori'' conlang, please contribute to this page.

==Germanic conlangs==
===Natlang comparison table===
{|border=1
! English
! Scots
! West Frisian
! Dutch
! Low Saxon
! German
! Gothic
! Icelandic
! Faroese
! Swedish
! Danish
! Norwegian (Nynorsk)
|-
|Apple || Aiple || Apel || Appel || Appel || Apfel || Aplus || Epli || Epl(i) || Äpple || Æble || Eple
|-
|Board || Buird || Board || Bord || Boord || Brett / Bord || Baúrd || Borð || Borð || Bord || Bord || Bord
|-
|Beech ||Beech || Boeke/ Boekebeam || Beuk || Böke || Buche || Bōka || Bók || Bók || Bok || Bøg || Bøk, Bok
|-
|Book || Beuk || Boek || Boek || Book || Buch || Bōka || Bók || Bók || Bok || Bog || Bok
|-
|Breast || Breest || Boarst || Borst || Bost || Brust || Brusts || Brjóst || Bróst || Bröst || Bryst || Bryst
|-
|Brown ||Broun || Brún || Bruin || Bruun || Braun || Bruns || Brúnn || Brúnur || Brun || Brun || Brun
|-
|Day || Day || Dei || Dag || Dag || Tag || Dags || Dagur || Dagur || Dag || Dag || Dag
|-
|Dead ||Deid || Dea || Dood || Dood || Tot || Dauþs || Dauður || Deyður || Död || Død || Daud
|-
|Die (Starve) || Dee || Stjerre || Sterven || Döen/ Starven || Sterben ||Diwan ||Deyja || Doyggja || Dö || Dø || Døy
|-
|Enough || Eneuch || Genôch || Genoeg || Noog || Genug || Ganōhs || Nóg || Nóg/ Nógmikið || Nog || Nok || Nok
|-
|Finger || Finger || Finger || Vinger || Finger || Finger || Figgrs || Fingur || Fingur || Finger || Finger || Finger
|-
|Give || Gie || Jaan || Geven || Geven || Geben || Giban || Gefa || Geva || Giva / Ge || Give || Gje(va)
|-
|Glass || Gless || Glês || Glas || Glas || Glas || || Gler || Glas || Glas || Glas || Glas
|-
|Gold || Gowd || Goud || Goud || Gold || Gold || Gulþ || Gull || Gull || Guld/ Gull || Guld || Gull
|-
|Hand || Haund || Hân || Hand || Hand || Hand || Handus || Hönd || Hond || Hand || Hånd || Hand
|-
|Head || Heid || Holle || Hoofd/ Kop || Kopp || Haupt/ Kopf || Háubiþ || Höfuð || Høvd/ Høvur || Huvud || Hoved || Hovud
|-
|High || Heich || Heech || Hoog || Hoog || Hoch || Háuh || Hár || Høg/ur || Hög || Høj || Høg
|-
|Home || Hame || Hiem || Heim || Heim || Heim || Háimōþ || Heim || Heim || Hem || Hjem || Heim
|-
|Hook || Heuk || Hoek || Haak || Haak || Haken || Krappa/ Krampa || Krókur || Krókur/ Ongul || Hake/ Krok || Hage/ Krog || Hake/ Krok
|-
|House || Hoose || Hûs || Huis || Huus || Haus || Hūs || Hús || Hús || Hus || Hus || Hus
|-
|Many || Mony || Mannich/Mennich || Menig || Mennig || Manch || Manags || Margir || Mangir/ Nógvir || Många || Mange || Mange
|-
|Moon || Muin || Moanne || Maan || Maan || Mond || Mēna || Tungl/ Máni || Máni/ Tungl || Måne || Måne || Måne
|-
|Night || Nicht || Nacht || Nacht || Natt/ Nacht || Nacht || Nótt || Nótt || Natt || Natt || Nat || Natt
|-
|No || Nae || Nee || Nee(n) || Nee || Nein (Nö, Nee) || Nē || Nei || Nei || Nej || Nej || Nei
|-
|Old || Auld || Âld || Oud, Gammel || Oll || Alt || Sineigs || Gamall (but: eldri, elstur)|| Gamal (but: eldri, elstur)|| Gammal (but: äldre, äldst)|| Gammel (but: ældre, ældst) || Gam(m)al (but: eldre, eldst)
|-
|One || Ane || Ien || Een || Een || Eins || Áins || Einn || Ein || En || En || Ein
|-
|Ounce || Unce || Ûns || Ons || Ons || Unze || Unkja || Únsa || Únsa || Uns || Unse || Unse
|-
|Snow || Snaw || Snie || Sneeuw || Snee || Schnee || Snáiws || Snjór || Kavi/ Snjógvur || Snö || Sne || Snø
|-
|Stone || Stane || Stien || Steen || Steen || Stein || Stáins || Steinn || Steinur || Sten || Sten || Stein
|-
|That || That || Dat || Dat, Die || Dat (Dit) || Das || Þata || Það || Tað || Det || Det || Det
|-
|Two/Twain || Twa || Twa || Twee || Twee || Zwei (Zwo) || Twái || Tveir/ Tvær/ Tvö || Tveir (/Tvá) || Två || To || To
|-
|Who || Wha || Wa || Wie || Wokeen || Wer || Ƕas (Hwas) || Hver || Hvør || Vem || Hvem || Kven
|-
|Worm ||Wirm || Wjirm || Wurm/ Worm || Worm || Wurm || Maþa || Maðkur, Ormur || Maðkur/ Ormur || Mask/ Orm || Orm || Mark/ Makk/ Orm
|}

===Conlang comparison table===
{|border=1
! ''English''
! Tauro-Piscean (original)
! Koolesh/Koulesh
! Vityng
! Folkendetonge
! Thorsutian
! Nyenglisk
! Intrekomi
! Hellingijø
! Pembrish
|-
| ''Apple'' || Epeêl || Afel || æpla || äpel || mollu || Apel ||áplo || aplaz || apel
|-
| ''Board'' || Bëd || Bord || þælja || häle || bjerd || bórd || bórdo || apahiz || bord
|-
| ''Book'' || Bok || Buu(k)h || bøkk || búk || cingarta || búk || líbro || biblaz || book
|-
| ''Beech'' || Bok || Buu(k)he || træ || trää || blёzsa || bých || bísso || boka || beich
|-
| ''Breast'' || Breost || Brust || breost || breyst || gloçine || brest || briésto || mazitiz || bryoost
|-
| ''Brown'' || Brun || Braun || brúnur || brónd || kifo || brán || bróno || brunaz || brwn
|-
| ''Day'' || De || Tag/Dag || dagg || dag || ord || da || di || hemeri || day
|-
| ''Dead'' || Däd || Tout || deyð || deggðe || vimordёd || ded || móro || ofoþeziðiz || diaad
|-
| ''Die (Starve)'' || Steëfan || Sterben || deyja || degga || vishmordur || dæa || moróno || ofoþezan || dye
|-
| ''Enough'' || Jenü || Genuuk || gnogg || genog || mjalzsi || enuf ||enófo || ganogaz || ynoo
|-
| ''Finger'' || Finjä || Finger || fyngur || finger || cisti || fingur || fínkro || fingaraz || vinger
|-
| ''Give'' || Jefan || Geben || gefa || gefe || jatur || giva || áddi || gebenan || yw
|-
| ''Glass'' || Öles || Glas || glass || glass || clёc || glas || gláso || jalaz || glas
|-
| ''Gold'' || Jöld || Gold || gold(metal)/gul(colour) ||gold(metal)/gul(colour) || voziţa || góld || goltí || gulþaz || goud
|-
| ''Hand'' || Hand || Hand || hønd || hend || ruuca || hand || ''h''ánto || hira || hond
|-
| ''Head'' || Häfod || Kof/Houbet || hǿfuð || heyfuð || korrd || hed || éto || hefa || schaud
|-
| ''High'' || Hä || Hou(k)h || hǿr || heyr || ljenёç || hæ || táli || hauhaz || schaach
|-
| ''Home'' || Ham || Heim || óðal || hós || shmer || hóm || ''h''ómo || ohaz || hoom
|-
| ''Hook'' || Anjeêl || Hakken || þnægi || snäge || grrepa || húk || hóko || hokaz || hook
|-
| ''House'' || Hus || Haus || húss || hós || shmer || hás || dómo || ohaz || hws
|-
| ''Many'' || Manï || Fil || mikkil || mikil || shumed || maný || máni || managaz || mainy
|-
| ''Moon'' || Monê || Maane || monæð || monð || luna || mún || mūno || sili || moun
|-
| ''Night'' || Nït || Naht || kvøld || kveld || narrlid || næt || nitó || nahta || nicht
|-
| ''No'' || Nesê || Ne || nǽ || nä || ne || nó || no || ne || no
|-
| ''Old'' || Öld || Ald || ald || ald || vёrmad || óld || ólti || arhaz || aud
|-
| ''One'' || An || Ein || ǽn || ään || ej || et || óna || hiz || wan
|-
| ''Ounce'' || Ïnsê || (none) || hring || stu mas || || ánce || ūnso || (none) || wns
|-
| ''Snow'' || Sma || Snei || þnǽ || snä || bolurţe || snó || snóvo || sniwaz || znaw
|-
| ''Stone'' || Stan || Stein || stǽnn || stän || gjur || stón || róko || liþaz || stoon
|-
| ''That'' || Tet || Dazh || þetta || hete || çad || þat || ta || sa/so/þat || that
|-
| ''Two/Twain'' || Twa || Zvei/Zvou || tvǽr || tär || xa || tvo || do || twaiz || twa
|-
| ''Who'' || Wa || Ver(Nominative form) || hvem || ven || cus || vú || ki || hwaz || fa
|-
| ''Worm'' || Wïêm || Vurm || slanga || slange || sligert || vurm || vormó || wurmiz || wierem
|}

==Romance conlangs==
===Natlang comparison table===
{|border=1
! ''English''
! Latin
! Catalan
! French
! Galician
! Italian
! Norman Jèrriais
! Lombard
! Piedmontese
! Spanish
! Portuguese
! Romansh
|-
| ''Apple'' || [Mattiana] Mala; Pomum (fruit) || Poma || Pomme || Mazá || Mela || Poumme || Pomm/Pumm || Pom || Manzana/Poma || Maçã || Mail
|}

===Conlang comparison table===
{|border=1
! ''English''

|-
| ''Apple''
|-
| ''Board''
|-
| ''Book''
|-
| ''Breast''
|-
| ''Brown''
|-
| ''Day''
|-
| ''Dead''
|-
| ''Die''
|-
| ''Enough''
|-

X

2011-02-14T21:44:11Z

Nortaneous: more examples

[[Category:Latin letters]]
[[Category:Orthography]]
[[Category:Transliteration]]
[[Category:Transcription]]
'''X''' is the 21st and final letter of the original [[Latin alphabet]], adapted via [[Etruscan]] from [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] [[chi]] (Χ). Since its inception, it has gone on to become one of the "leftover" letters of the Latin alphabet, and has taken on a considerable array of phonetic values, however most commonly, one of /ʃ x ks/.

==[[Velar]]s==
The three canonical values (and a few others) of ''x'' all involve velar consonants.
===Aspirated [[voiceless velar stop]]===
Or, /kʰ/. The original value of chi. Does anyone use it these days anymore?
===Cluster /ks/===
The original Latin value, as well as the value of chi in western varieties of the Greek alphabet. This is retained in several natlangs, including English, and has inspired several conlangs to prominently feature the cluster.
*''Further examples here.''
===Cluster /gz/===
The cluster has sometimes developed voice in English.
*''And elsewhere?''
===Cluster /kʃ/===
Hindi romanization occasionally uses <x> to transliterate the character <क्ष> /kʃ/.
===[[Voiceless velar fricative]]===
[[Spirantization]] got hang of chi in Greek by the Byzantine times, and the resulting fricativ value was handed down not only to Modern Greek, but also to the [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] kha (Х), and doutlessly inspired by these, also to the [[IPA]]; which then begat ''x'' as /x/ in many linguist-devised Latin orthographies, natlang or conlang.
*Conlang examples: [[Olaetian]] (current transliteration), [[Tirelat]], [[Zharranh]], [[Tilya]], [[Ludireo]]

==Further [[fricative]]s==
Voiceless fricativ values are not uncommon for ''x'' either.
===[[Voiced alveolar fricative]]===
[[English]] pronounces initial ''x'' as /z/ in words such as ''xylophone''. The original transliteration of the [[Olaetian]] alphabet used this letter for a laminal sound /z̻/ (while the apical sound /z̺/ is written ''z''); current practice is to transcribe the laminal sound as ''ż''.
===[[Voiceless alveolar fricative]]===
For some godforsaken reason, [[Vietnamese]] and [[Hmong]] use ''x'' for /s/.
*''Please don't tell me you do this (at least, if you are not Vietnamese or Hmong yourself)''
===[[Voiceless postalveolar fricative]]===
[[Portuguese]] and [[Old Spanish]] use ''x'' for /ʃ/, a regular [[sound change]] from Latin /ks/. A large number of South American natlangs (and some elsewhere) get the same usage from them. Maltese also does this, though probably for unrelated reasons. Popular in conlangs as well.
*''List examples here.''

===[[Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative]]===
[[Pinyin]] transcription of Mandarin, likely inspired by the previous, uses ''x'' for /ɕ/.
*A conlang example is [[Simik]] (a.k.a. [[Zirinka]])

===[[Voiceless pharyngeal fricative]]===
[[Somali]] uses ''x'' for /ħ/.
*''Did your conlang run out of letters, too?''
===[[Voiceless retroflex fricative]]===
While no natlang use is known, [[Rejistanian]] writes this sound as <x> in the transliteration into the Latin alphabet.

==Other consonants==
And this is why we call it a "leftover" letter.
===[[Voiced alveolar affricate]]===
/dz/ is found in [[Albanian]] and '''Pashto'''. We are not sure whichever got it first, and if there is any connection anyway. There's just really no single fitting Latin letter for /dz/ once you've spent ''z'' on /z/, and at least this is better than making up some sort of a voiced ''[[c]]'' (oh, those wacky [[Turkish|Turks]]…)
===[[Alveolar ejective affricate]]===
'''Kiowa''', spoken not anywhere near Kiev but in Oklahoma, together with [[J#Voiceless alveolar stop|other]] [[V#Bilabial ejective|unintuitiv]] letter assignments, uses ''x'' for /tsʼ/.
===[[Alveolar ejective stop]]===
In the East Cushitic '''Oromo''', ''x'' = /tʼ/.
===[[Alveolar implosive]]===
The fellow East Cushitic '''Afar''' goes by ''x'' = /ɗ/. We suspect this may be cognate with the previous.
===[[Glottal stop]]===
As if [[Pirahã]] wasn't weird enuff yet, Daniel Everett had to pick ''x'' for /ʔ/, even with ''[[q]]'' unused.
*This may not have been his idea, as [[Wikipedia:Nambikwara language|Nambikwara]] does the same too.

===[[Postalveolar click]]===
/ǃ/ and variations thereof are the standard usage of ''x'' in Nguni languages such as [[Zulu]].

==Oh, but we're not done yet…==
''(*supervillaneous mad cackle*)''
===[[Schwa]]===
*[[Sasxsek]]
===[[Ejective|Ejectivity]]===
*[[Na'vi-Sprache|Na'vi]]
===Rising [[tone]]===
*'''Iu Mien''' (that's the "Mien" of [[Hmong-Mien languages]])
===[[Voiceless dental fricative]]===
*For some very good reason that has unfortunately been lost to time, the conlang [[Enzielu]] uses ''x'' for /θ/.
===[[General all-purpose diacritic]]===
*[[ASCII]]fication of [[Esperanto]] and [[gjâ-zym-byn]]

Q

2011-02-14T21:37:39Z

Nortaneous: /* Other uses */ adding things from wikipedia page on Q

'''Q''' is a Latin letter ultimately descending from the Phoenician [[qoppa]].

==Back stops==
===[[Labialized]] voiceless velar stop===
[[Latin]] adopted ''Q'' from Etruscan, where it represented /k/ before /u/. This motivated its use for Latin's /kʷ/. In classical Latin, this is usually rendered as ''QV''.
*''Conlang examples?''

===[[Voiceless uvular stop]]===
In most modern Semitic languages, Proto-Semitic *q is a voiceless uvular stop, and hence ''q'' is used for this purpose in the transliteration of those languages, inspired by this in the [[IPA]], and consequently also in countless modern Romanizations from Aleut to Yucatec. Some variations occur, such as /qʰ/ in Eyak.
*''Conlang examples go here, etc.''

===[[Voiceless velar stop]]===
Most of the westerly Romance languages (such as [[Spanish]]) have, subsequent to the palatalization of Latin /k/ before front vowels, also delabialized /kʷ/ in the same context. This has lead to ''qu'' (or, if you will, ''q'' with the ''u'' being silent) being used for /k/.

Those West Germanic languages that have loaned ''q'' also use it for /k/, similar to Classical Latin usually only an an allograph in a cluster /kw/ or /kv/.

==Other uses==
[[Pinyin]] transcription of Mandarin Chinese uses ''q'' for a voiceless [[aspirated]] palato-alveolar affricate, {{IPA|/tɕʰ/}}.

Visual similarity to [[ŋ]] has motivated the use of ''q'' for various velar nasal phonemes, eg. a prenasalized stop /ŋg/ in [[Fijian]].

[[Zulu]], [[Xhosa]] etc. use ''q'' for a [[postalveolar click]], {{IPA|/ǃ/}}.

[[Afar]] uses ''q'' for /ʕ/, and [[Kiowa]] uses ''q'' for /kʼ/.

''anything else?''

[[Category:Latin letters]]
[[Category:Orthography]]
[[Category:Transliteration]]
[[Category:Transcription]]

Stop

2010-06-07T02:28:04Z

Nortaneous: aleut doesn't have three of /p t k ?/

A '''stop''' is a kind of [[consonant]] during which the flow of air through the mouth is entirely stopped. Thus the term can refer to [[nasal]]s, though ''oral stops'' are usually meant.

[[Affricate]]s are also be subsumed under stops under the previous definition. The class of oral non-affricate stops is that of '''plosives'''.

Table of typical (non-affricate) stops:

{|
|-
! !! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] !! [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]] !! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] !! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] !! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Epiglottal consonant|Epiglottal]] !! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! Voiceless stops
| [[Voiceless labial stop|p]] || [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] || [[Voiceless retroflex stop|ʈ]]
| [[Voiceless palatal stop|c]] || [[Voiceless velar stop|k]] || [[Voiceless uvular stop|q]]
| rowspan="2"|[[Epiglottal stop|ʡ]]* || rowspan="2"| [[Glottal stop|ʔ]]*
|-
! Voiced stops
| [[Voiced labial stop|b]] || [[Voiced alveolar stop|d]] || [[Voiced retroflex stop|ɖ]]
| [[Voiced palatal stop|ɟ]] || [[Voiced velar stop|g]] || [[Voiced uvular stop|ɢ]]
|-
! [[Nasal]] stops
| [[Labial nasal|m]] || [[Alveolar nasal|n]] || [[Retroflex nasal|ɳ]]
| [[Palatal nasal|ɲ]] || [[Velar nasal|ŋ]] || [[Uvular nasal|ɴ]]
| N/A || N/A
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki> The [[IPA]] symbol for the epiglottal stop has no voicing defined; the voiced/voiceless distinction does not apply to the glottal stop.

==Stops in languages==
All [[natural language]]s have plosives; all (except [[Aleut]], which natively has only /t k q/, along with the affricates /ts tʃ/) have at least three out of the four of labial, coronal, velar and glottal. (This is sometimes stated in terms of /p t k ʔ/; however, this does not work in cases where the only labial stop is voiced /b/.)

From this we can sketch out subtypes.
* Both languages with and without the glottal stop are commonplace.
* Languages without labial stops are found in the Americas, including [[Iroquioan]] languages and [[Tlingit]].
* Possibly the only language without any coronal stops or affricates is [[Hawaiian]], however even it has /n/. Among the [[Khoisan]] languages, N|u bizarrely turns up lacking /t d/. It does have /n ts/.
* Languages without velar stops are found sparsely, including the pacific [[Samoan]] and the Brazilian [[Xavante]].

Nasal stops are also found in most languages. In some, including African languages as well as Amazonian languages like [[Pirahã]], they may be allophonic with oral stops (more rarely, with other sonorants eg. [m] ~ [ɓ], or [n] ~ [l]), and thus, missing phonemically but not phonetically. Tlingit again works as an example where nasals are lacking also phonetically. The same goes for the quite minimal [[Rotokas]].

:[[ANADEW]]: [[Arabic]] and [[Hausa]] have no /p/. [[Pirahã]] has [m] only as an allophone of /b/, and [k] but possibly not /k/. [[Winnebago]] lacks /t/ but has /d/.

[[Category:Phonology]]

Velar consonant

2010-06-07T02:23:56Z

Nortaneous: spelling, added examples

'''Velar consonants''' are the most common type of [[dorsal consonant]]s, pronounced with the dorsum of the tongue raised towards the soft palate (or velum). [[Velarization]] utilizes the same gesture, but with another primary articulation. Velar or further back closure is used to produce the airflow in [[click]]s, but their [[POA]] are generally defined by the front articulation (this also implies the impossibility of a velar click; not that it stopped [[IPA]] from creating a symbol for one).

[[Back vowel]]s may also be characterized as velar, tho for those in the [ɔ] to [ɑ] region "uvular" or "pharyngeal" may be more accurate descriptions.

==Plosives==
The [[voiceless velar stop]] /k/ is nigh-universal in languages of the world and commonly a high-frequency consonant. When [[aspiration]] or [[ejective]]ness are contrasted, the same applies to these counterparts. Languages lacking /k/ have generally previously shifted it to /ʔ/ (examples include Tahitian and perhaps [[wikipedia:Xavante language|Xavante]]) or have other voiceless dorsal stops, usually at least /kʷ/ (sometimes /kp/ ([http://web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/L/L4133.html Klao]) or /q/ ([http://web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/L/L6105.html Hupa])). A third , more academic possibility is a language not making any voicing distinction in stops and having [k] as an allophone of a consonant best described as /g/.

By contrast, the [[voiced velar stop]] /g/ (or /ɡ/, if you are a stickler for proper typography) is considerably more unstable than its other "basic" counterparts /b/ and /d/; languages with a [[Phoneme hole|hole]] at /g/ are found randomly scattered around the world, with little areal relevance. Known pathways of elimination include → /ɣ/, also a likely intermediate on the road towards loss. [[Arabic]] has freak unmotivated unconditional palatalization to /ʤ/ (while in many dialects leaving /k/ be). ''(I think this is one of a number of hints for Classical Arabic /q/ having been [ɢ] --ed.)'' The [[Velar implosive|implosive]] /ɠ/ is subject to a similar limitation.

A curious exception of stop distribution is (Xalxa) [[Mongolian]], which lacks /k/ but has /g/.

==Affricates==
Voiceless velar affricates occur mostly as an areal feature in Southern Africa, commonly furthermore being ejective and in some cases (Zulu, Archi) lateral. Voiceless velar lateral affricates tend to vary with clusters of a velar stop and an alveolar lateral (Zulu, Archi (might just be notational difference there)). It is also fleetingly found in some [[High German]] dialects, demonstrating its role as the intermediate in the change /kʰ/ → /x/.

Voiced velar affricates are completely unattested, both as phonemic and as a predictable allophone of any other consonant.

==Fricatives==
Velar fricatives /x/ and /ɣ/ are not uncommon, tho not as common as their stop or labial/alveolar counterparts.


Lateral velar fricatives are possible, but rare.

==Nasal==
The [[velar nasal]] /ŋ/ is even more commonly lacking as a phoneme than /g/, tho for some reason its distribution is more tied to areal factors. Additionally, among languages that do have /ŋ/, there is also a strong tendency to disallow the word-initial position (examples include the [[Germanic languages]]; exceptions include Austronesian and most languages of Siberia) and sometimes any onset position ([[Mandarin]]).

==Other sonorants==
The [[labial-velar approximant]] /w/ is more common than the plain velar version /ɰ/. This is not surprising, since both are high back [[semivowel]]s, and the high back rounded vowel /u/ is also more common than the high back unrounded vowel /ɯ/.

A velar lateral approximant /ʟ/ is very rare (a velarized alveolar /ɫ/ is somewhat more common), to the point of being about as common as its obstruent counterparts.

Velar trills or flaps are impossible (but see [[velopharyngeal trill]])

==Sound changes involving velars==
===From===
Velar consonants may commonly be palatalized into palatal consonants near front vowels (which may then decay via [[assibilation]] or similar pathways). This change is also attested as spontaneous in languages that contrast velars with [[uvular consonant]]s, in indigenous languages of the Pacific coast of North America. This is also hypothesized of [[Proto-Indo-European]] in some reconstructions, considering that there are ''(AFAIK --ed.)'' no clear examples of palatal stops becoming velar stops.

Another typical POA change is retraction to uvular near back vowels (a much rarer spin on this occurs in [[Lahu]], where velars become uvular before all vowels). Spontaneous backing is attested for the fricatives in many Afro-Asiatic languages.

Labialization can occur near rounded vowels, and resulting labialized velars are capable of turning to labials (eg. [[Greek]]). The change of *w → /v/, ubiquitous in continental European languages, also falls under this.

Other velar → non-velar sound changes are *w → /j/ (in [[Hebrew]]), *ɣ → /j/ (in many languages), *ŋ → /n/ (in [[Hawaiian])

===To===
Sound changes that systematically create velars are rare. Regardless there are attested examples, including
*labialized labials → labialized velars (in [[Oceanic]])
*linguolabials → labialized velars (in [[Athabascan]]; via a similar intermediate as the previous?)
Sound changes creating some individual velar sound are somewhat more numerous:
*in languages with small consonant inventories, /p/ → /k/ (was it Iroquioan?), /t/ → /k/ (in Oceanic, generally part of a [[chain shift|pull chain]] with /k/ → /ʔ/ previously)
*/tʰ/ → /tx/ (Athabascan)
*/ʃ/ → /x/ (in [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] ([[ruki]]), [[Spanish]], possibly [[Finnish|Finnic]], reportedly certain dialects of [[Japanese]])
*/f/ → /x/ (a few [[Italic languages]])
*/h/ → /x/ (probably somewhere)
*/h/ → /ŋ/ ([[Wikipedia:Rhinoglottophilia|rhinoglottophilia]] - [[Nyole]])
*/ɫ/ → /w/ (common, eg. [[French]]), /ɰ/ or /ɣ/
*the same, starting from /r/ (English seems to be on this road)
*creation of /w/ from (back) vowels by [[diphthongization]]
*∅ → /w/ epenthetically near rounded vowels
*∅ → /ŋ/ word-initially (a [[Samoyedic]] idiosyncrasy)
*∅ → /k/ epenthetically between vowels (''example needed'')
*[[Ugaritic]] appears to have very strange changes from original *θʼ / *ðˤ (emphatic interdental) and *tɬʼ / *ɬˤ (emphatic lateral) to *ɣ.

[[Category:Phonology]]

User:Nortaneous/projects

2009-06-12T02:13:50Z

Nortaneous: New page: A place for my langs that aren't complete enough for a page. Current project: Vowels: /a e i o u y/ Light consonants: /b_j dZ J\j\ p_j tS cC/ /f_j v T_j D_j S Z C j m_j J l/ Dark conso...

A place for my langs that aren't complete enough for a page.

Current project:

Vowels:
/a e i o u y/

Light consonants:
/b_j dZ J\j\ p_j tS cC/
/f_j v T_j D_j S Z C j m_j J l/

Dark consonants:
/b d g p t k/
/f w T D s z x G m n 5/

Orthography:
<a e i o u y>
<b r g p t c>
<f v tt d s z ch j m n l>

The light/dark value of a consonant is determined by the next vowel: C + <a o u> is dark, C + <e i y> is light. To write a light consonant after a dark vowel or a dark consonant after a light vowel:
L + a = <ea>
L + o = <io>
L + u = <iu>
D + e = <ae>
D + i = <ui>
D + y = <uy>

A light consonant (except /tS dZ cC J\j\ l v S Z j/ after a dark vowel is pronounced with a /j/ glide: <bio> is /bjo/.
A dark consonant after a light vowel (except /t d s z w 5/ is pronounced with a /M\/ glide, or a /w/ glide for labials: <bae> is /bwe/, and <kae> is /kM\e/.

Stress is always on the first syllable of a word. There are five vowels possible in unstressed closed syllables: /@ E~I i U Y/, written <a e i u y>.

User:Nortaneous

2009-06-12T01:55:01Z

Nortaneous:

{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big>'''Nortaneous'''</big>
|-
|colspan="2" valign=top|
[[Image:Conflag_med.png]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| October 12, 1993 - Maryland, USA
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| student
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''
|| English, some Latin
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| piles of projects that I'm too lazy to work on
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''
||
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| linguistics, programming, dicking around with website things
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''
|| site: http://cryptm.org/~nort/
|}

User:Nortaneous

2009-06-12T01:53:33Z

Nortaneous: New page: {{subst:userpage}}

{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big>'''MY NAME'''</big>
|-
|colspan="2" valign=top| HERE IS PLACE FOR A PICTURE, MAYBE A PICTURE OF ME! :)<br />
[[Image:Conflag_med.png]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| MY DATE OF BIRTH; MY PLACE OF BIRTH, MY COUNTRY OF BIRTH
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| MY PROFESSION
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''
|| NATURAL LANGUAGES THAT I SPEAK/READ/WRITE
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| CONLANGS THAT I HAVE CREATED
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''
|| CONLANGS THAT I KNOW/USE/AM INERESTED IN THAT OTHERS HAVE CREATED
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| MY INTERESTS
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''
|| MORE INFORMATION
|}

ANY TEXT OF MY CHOICE