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Tanaros

2020-10-19T22:49:39Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Numbers */

Kunke

2020-10-19T22:28:23Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Possessive Prefixes */

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called '''DIRECT''', is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called '''INVERSE''', are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siwosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuwosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuwosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal person prefix.

'eur-' is the areal third person prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix. The disjoint prefix replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when both the possessum and the possessor are ''both'' in the direct (zero-marked) form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint prefix. The inverse disjoint form replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when the possessum is inverse and the possessor is direct.

A disjoint prefix to replace 'asa-' when the possessum is direct and the possessor is inverse '''does not exist'''.

Thus:

'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siwosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is direct)’

'uososizhenayaah' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is inverse)’

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-(disjoint)-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference does not apply to the first verb in a series of clauses. The switch-reference prefixes encodes tense ''as well as'' change of subject.

==Verbal Duoplurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Non-Singular
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs are inherently singular and therefore have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the identical in singular and non-singular.

If the subject is different from that of the previous sentence, the verbal disjoint prefix must follow the the switch reference prefix.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

1.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuwsena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

2.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuwwehsi unesiso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

3.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet.

warrior-INV housemaid SG-see-SG-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

4.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoosuwasayet asayosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid-INV NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

5.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoosuwihoyet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-iho-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV NSG-see-NSG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other person.
The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other people.

5a.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoosuwasaiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other people.

6.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwihoyet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-iho-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV SG-see-NSG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

7.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unoyuossisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.DIFF-NSG.DJT-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and some other people seized her house.

8.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unoyaassisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and some other person seized her house.

9.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

warrior field-INV NSG-seize-AREA.NSG-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields.

10.

osihoshet uososuwasiwaah ihosisoyazhihu

osi-horhet uos-osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

warrior INV.DJT-field-INV NSG-seize-AREA.NSG-FUT

The warriors will seize her fields.

=Lexicon=

asa - (sg) asa 'to see'; hiiyasa 'observation'

asiw (sg) -'area of agriculture'; asiw 'to cultivate'; osiyasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'; euzhosihoshet 'mercenaries'

kuaw (pl) - 'collection of shiny things'; osikuaw 'necklace'; osuwkuaw 'diadem'; hiikuaw 'jewelry'; hiikuawaah 'piece of jewelry'

kunke (pl) - kunke 'to speak'; osikunke 'the Kunke speaking community'; osikunkeyaah 'a speaker of Kunke; dialogue participant'; osuwkunke 'Kunke-speaking ancestors'; osuwkunkeyaah 'an ancestor; tradition (communication between living and late participants);

nasah (sg) - 'long wooden thing'; osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

rena (sg) - 'girl, daughter'; osizhena 'girl'; siwosizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - 'water'; runwu 'be wet, make wet'; osizhunwu 'rain'; osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwu 'spray'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall(s)'

ruta (sg) - 'round protrudance'; ruta 'to protrude, intrude, enter'; siwosizhuta 'neck'; siwosuwsuta 'nose, ear'; siuhiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - 'eye'; siwosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siwosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siwosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso (du) - 'seize, grab with both hands'; siso 'to seize'; osisiso 'a lifting'; osuwsiso 'a pulling towards'; hiisiso 'a reaching in and pulling out'

wehsi (sg) - 'building'; wehsi 'to build'; osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building, house'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-10-19T22:27:11Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Commentary */

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called '''DIRECT''', is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called '''INVERSE''', are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siwosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuwosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuwosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal person prefix.

'eur-' is the areal third person prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix. The disjoint prefix replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when both the possessum and the possessor are ''both'' in the direct (zero-marked) form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint prefix. The inverse disjoint form replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when the possessum is inverse and the possessor is direct.

A disjoint prefix to replace 'asa-' when the possessum is direct and the possessor is inverse '''does not exist'''.

Thus:

'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is direct)’

'uososizhenayaah' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is inverse)’

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-(disjoint)-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference does not apply to the first verb in a series of clauses. The switch-reference prefixes encodes tense ''as well as'' change of subject.

==Verbal Duoplurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Non-Singular
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs are inherently singular and therefore have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the identical in singular and non-singular.

If the subject is different from that of the previous sentence, the verbal disjoint prefix must follow the the switch reference prefix.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

1.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuwsena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

2.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuwwehsi unesiso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

3.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet.

warrior-INV housemaid SG-see-SG-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

4.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoosuwasayet asayosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid-INV NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

5.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoosuwihoyet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-iho-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV NSG-see-NSG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other person.
The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other people.

5a.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoosuwasaiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other people.

6.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwihoyet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-iho-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV SG-see-NSG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

7.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unoyuossisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.DIFF-NSG.DJT-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and some other people seized her house.

8.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unoyaassisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and some other person seized her house.

9.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

warrior field-INV NSG-seize-AREA.NSG-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields.

10.

osihoshet uososuwasiwaah ihosisoyazhihu

osi-horhet uos-osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

warrior INV.DJT-field-INV NSG-seize-AREA.NSG-FUT

The warriors will seize her fields.

=Lexicon=

asa - (sg) asa 'to see'; hiiyasa 'observation'

asiw (sg) -'area of agriculture'; asiw 'to cultivate'; osiyasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'; euzhosihoshet 'mercenaries'

kuaw (pl) - 'collection of shiny things'; osikuaw 'necklace'; osuwkuaw 'diadem'; hiikuaw 'jewelry'; hiikuawaah 'piece of jewelry'

kunke (pl) - kunke 'to speak'; osikunke 'the Kunke speaking community'; osikunkeyaah 'a speaker of Kunke; dialogue participant'; osuwkunke 'Kunke-speaking ancestors'; osuwkunkeyaah 'an ancestor; tradition (communication between living and late participants);

nasah (sg) - 'long wooden thing'; osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

rena (sg) - 'girl, daughter'; osizhena 'girl'; siwosizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - 'water'; runwu 'be wet, make wet'; osizhunwu 'rain'; osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwu 'spray'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall(s)'

ruta (sg) - 'round protrudance'; ruta 'to protrude, intrude, enter'; siwosizhuta 'neck'; siwosuwsuta 'nose, ear'; siuhiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - 'eye'; siwosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siwosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siwosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso (du) - 'seize, grab with both hands'; siso 'to seize'; osisiso 'a lifting'; osuwsiso 'a pulling towards'; hiisiso 'a reaching in and pulling out'

wehsi (sg) - 'building'; wehsi 'to build'; osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building, house'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-10-19T22:23:49Z

LinguarumMagister:

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called direct, is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called inverse are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal person prefix.

'eur-' is the areal third person prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix. The disjoint prefix replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when both the possessum and the possessor are ''both'' in the direct (zero-marked) form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint prefix. The inverse disjoint form replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when the possessum is inverse and the possessor is direct.

A disjoint prefix to replace 'asa-' when the possessum is direct and the possessor is inverse '''does not exist'''.

Thus:

'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is direct)’

'uososizhenayaah' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is inverse)’

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-(disjoint)-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference does not apply to the first verb in a series of clauses. The switch-reference prefixes encodes tense ''as well as'' change of subject.

==Verbal Duoplurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Non-Singular
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs are inherently singular and therefore have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the identical in singular and non-singular.

If the subject is different from that of the previous sentence, the verbal disjoint prefix must follow the the switch reference prefix.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

1.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuwsena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

2.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuwwehsi unesiso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

3.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet.

warrior-INV housemaid SG-see-SG-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

4.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoosuwasayet asayosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid-INV NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

5.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoosuwihoyet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-iho-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV NSG-see-NSG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other person.
The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other people.

5a.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoosuwasaiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other people.

6.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwihoyet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-iho-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV SG-see-NSG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

7.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unoyuossisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.DIFF-NSG.DJT-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and some other people seized her house.

8.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoosuwasayet aasosuwwehsi unoyaassisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and some other person seized her house.

9.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

warrior field-INV NSG-seize-AREA.NSG-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields.

10.

osihoshet uososuwasiwaah ihosisoyazhihu

osi-horhet uos-osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

warrior INV.DJT-field-INV NSG-seize-AREA.NSG-FUT

The warriors will seize her fields.

=Lexicon=

asa - (sg) asa 'to see'; hiiyasa 'observation'

asiw (sg) -'area of agriculture'; asiw 'to cultivate'; osiyasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'; euzhosihoshet 'mercenaries'

kuaw (pl) - 'collection of shiny things'; osikuaw 'necklace'; osuwkuaw 'diadem'; hiikuaw 'jewelry'; hiikuawaah 'piece of jewelry'

kunke (pl) - kunke 'to speak'; osikunke 'the Kunke speaking community'; osikunkeyaah 'a speaker of Kunke; dialogue participant'; osuwkunke 'Kunke-speaking ancestors'; osuwkunkeyaah 'an ancestor; tradition (communication between living and late participants);

nasah (sg) - 'long wooden thing'; osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

rena (sg) - 'girl, daughter'; osizhena 'girl'; siwosizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - 'water'; runwu 'be wet, make wet'; osizhunwu 'rain'; osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwu 'spray'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall(s)'

ruta (sg) - 'round protrudance'; ruta 'to protrude, intrude, enter'; siwosizhuta 'neck'; siwosuwsuta 'nose, ear'; siuhiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - 'eye'; siwosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siwosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siwosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso (du) - 'seize, grab with both hands'; siso 'to seize'; osisiso 'a lifting'; osuwsiso 'a pulling towards'; hiisiso 'a reaching in and pulling out'

wehsi (sg) - 'building'; wehsi 'to build'; osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building, house'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-10-14T00:29:14Z

LinguarumMagister: Updated Examples

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called direct, is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called inverse are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal person prefix.

'eur-' is the areal third person prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix. The disjoint prefix replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when both the possessum and the possessor are ''both'' in the direct (zero-marked) form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint prefix. The inverse disjoint form replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when the possessum is inverse and the possessor is direct.

A disjoint prefix to replace 'asa-' when the possessum is direct and the possessor is inverse '''does not exist'''.

Thus:

'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is direct)’

'uososizhenayaah' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is inverse)’

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-(disjoint)-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference does not apply to the first verb in a series of clauses. The switch-reference prefixes encodes tense ''as well as'' change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Non-Singular
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs are inherently singular and, unlike nouns, have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the identical in singular and non-singular.

If the subject is different from that of the previous sentence, the verbal disjoint prefix must follow the the switch reference prefix.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

1.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuwsena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

2.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuwwehsi unesiso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

3.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet.

warrior-INV housemaid SG-see-SG-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

4.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi unesisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid-INV NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

5.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwihoyiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-iho-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV NSG-see-NSG-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other person.
The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other people.

5a.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized the house of some other people.

6.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwihoyiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-iho-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid-INV SG-see-NSG-RPST 3-house RPST.SAME-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

7.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuossisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.DIFF-NSG.DJT-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and some other people seized her house.

8.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaassisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid NSG-see-SG-RPST 3-house RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and some other person seized her house.

9.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

warrior field-INV NSG-seize-AREA.NSG-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields.

10.

osihoshet uososuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet uos-osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

warrior INV.DJT-field-INV NSG-seize-AREA.NSG-FUT

The warriors will seize her fields.

=Lexicon=

asa - (sg) asa 'to see'; hiiyasa 'observation'

asiw (sg) -'area of agriculture'; asiw 'to cultivate'; osiyasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'; euzhosihoshet 'mercenaries'

kuaw (pl) - 'collection of shiny things'; osikuaw 'necklace'; osuwkuaw 'diadem'; hiikuaw 'jewelry'; hiikuawaah 'piece of jewelry'

kunke (pl) - kunke 'to speak'; osikunke 'the Kunke speaking community'; osikunkeyaah 'a speaker of Kunke; dialogue participant'; osuwkunke 'Kunke-speaking ancestors'; osuwkunkeyaah 'an ancestor; tradition (communication between living and late participants);

nasah (sg) - 'long wooden thing'; osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

rena (sg) - 'girl, daughter'; osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - 'water'; runwu 'be wet, make wet'; osizhunwu 'rain'; osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwu 'spray'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall(s)'

ruta (sg) - 'round protrudance'; ruta 'to protrude, intrude, enter'; osizhuta 'neck'; osuwsuta 'nose, ear'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - 'eye'; siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso (du) - 'seize, grab with both hands'; siso 'to seize'; osisiso 'a lifting'; osuwsiso 'a pulling towards'; hiisiso 'a reaching in and pulling out'

wehsi (sg) - 'building'; wehsi 'to build'; osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building, house'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-09-22T22:35:36Z

LinguarumMagister:

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called direct, is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called inverse are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal person prefix.

'eur-' is the areal third person prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix. The disjoint prefix replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when both the possessum and the possessor are ''both'' in the direct (zero-marked) form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint prefix. The inverse disjoint form replaces 'asa-' (and only 'asa-') when the possessum is inverse and the possessor is direct.

A disjoint prefix to replace 'asa-' when the possessum is direct and the possessor is inverse '''does not exist'''.

Thus:

'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is direct)’

'uososizhenayaah' ‘his/her/their daughter (possessum is inverse)’

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-(disjoint)-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference does not apply to the first verb in a series of clauses. The switch-reference prefixes encodes tense ''as well as'' change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Duoplural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs are inherently singular and, unlike nouns, have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the identical in singular and duoplural.

If the subject is different from that of the previous sentence, the verbal disjoint prefix must follow the the switch reference prefix.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==
'''Examples under corrective maintenance'''

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osihoshet osuwsena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuwwehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid 3pl-see-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuwwehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-house RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asa - (sg) asa 'to see'; hiiyasa 'observation'

asiw (sg) -'area of agriculture'; asiw 'to cultivate'; osiyasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'; euzhosihoshet 'mercenaries'

kuaw (pl) - 'collection of shiny things'; osikuaw 'necklace'; osuwkuaw 'diadem'; hiikuaw 'jewelry'; hiikuawaah 'piece of jewelry'

kunke (pl) - kunke 'to speak'; osikunke 'the Kunke speaking community'; osikunkeyaah 'a speaker of Kunke; dialogue participant'; osuwkunke 'Kunke-speaking ancestors'; osuwkunkeyaah 'an ancestor; tradition (communication between living and late participants);

nasah (sg) - 'long wooden thing'; osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

rena (sg) - 'girl, daughter'; osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - 'water'; runwu 'be wet, make wet'; osizhunwu 'rain'; osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwu 'spray'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall(s)'

ruta (sg) - 'round protrudance'; ruta 'to protrude, intrude, enter'; osizhuta 'neck'; osuwsuta 'nose, ear'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - 'eye'; siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso (du) - 'seize, grab with both hands'; siso 'to seize'; osisiso 'a lifting'; osuwsiso 'a pulling towards'; hiisiso 'a reaching in and pulling out'

wehsi (sg) - 'building'; wehsi 'to build'; osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-09-09T16:31:06Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Lexicon */

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called direct, is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called inverse are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal person prefix.

'eur-' is the areal third person prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix. The disjoint prefix replaces 'asa-' (but not 'eur-') when both the subject and the possessor are ''both'' in the direct (zero-marked) form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint form. The inverse disjoint form replaces 'asa-' (but not 'eur-') when the subject is inverse, the possessor is direct, and the possessor is not.

'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (subject is direct)’

'uososizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (subject is inverse)’

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-(disjoint)-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference does not apply to the first verb in a series of clauses. The switch-reference prefixes encodes tense ''as well as'' change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Duoplural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs are inherently singular and, unlike nouns, have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the identical in singular and duoplural.

If the subject is different from that of the previous sentence, the verbal disjoint prefix must follow the the switch reference prefix.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==
'''Examples under corrective maintenance'''

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osihoshet osuwsena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuwwehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid 3pl-see-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuwwehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-house RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asa - (sg) asa 'to see'; hiiyasa 'observation'

asiw (sg) -'area of agriculture'; asiw 'to cultivate'; osiyasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'; euzhosihoshet 'mercenaries'

kuaw (pl) - 'collection of shiny things'; osikuaw 'necklace'; osuwkuaw 'diadem'; hiikuaw 'jewelry'; hiikuawaah 'piece of jewelry'

kunke (pl) - kunke 'to speak'; osikunke 'the Kunke speaking community'; osikunkeyaah 'a speaker of Kunke; dialogue participant'; osuwkunke 'Kunke-speaking ancestors'; osuwkunkeyaah 'an ancestor; tradition (communication between living and late participants);

nasah (sg) - 'long wooden thing'; osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

rena (sg) - 'girl, daughter'; osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - 'water'; runwu 'be wet, make wet'; osizhunwu 'rain'; osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwu 'spray'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall(s)'

ruta (sg) - 'round protrudance'; ruta 'to protrude, intrude, enter'; osizhuta 'neck'; osuwsuta 'nose, ear'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - 'eye'; siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso (du) - 'seize, grab with both hands'; siso 'to seize'; osisiso 'a lifting'; osuwsiso 'a pulling towards'; hiisiso 'a reaching in and pulling out'

wehsi (sg) - 'building'; wehsi 'to build'; osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-09-09T16:00:20Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Sentence Examples */

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called direct, is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called inverse are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal person prefix.

'eur-' is the areal third person prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix. The disjoint prefix replaces 'asa-' (but not 'eur-') when both the subject and the possessor are ''both'' in the direct (zero-marked) form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint form. The inverse disjoint form replaces 'asa-' (but not 'eur-') when the subject is inverse, the possessor is direct, and the possessor is not.

'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (subject is direct)’

'uososizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (subject is inverse)’

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-(disjoint)-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference does not apply to the first verb in a series of clauses. The switch-reference prefixes encodes tense ''as well as'' change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Duoplural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs are inherently singular and, unlike nouns, have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the identical in singular and duoplural.

If the subject is different from that of the previous sentence, the verbal disjoint prefix must follow the the switch reference prefix.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==
'''Examples under corrective maintenance'''

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osihoshet osuwsena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuwwehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

warrior housemaid 3pl-see-RPST DJT-house RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuwwehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

warrior-INV housemaid 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-house RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asiw (sg) - osiwasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'

kuaw (pl) - hiikuaw 'jewelry'

nasah (sg) - osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

asa - to see

rena (sg) - osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - 0sizhunwu 'rain'; osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhuwu 'spray'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall'

ruta (sg) - osizhuta 'neck'; osuwsuta 'nose, ear'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso - to seize

wehsi (sg) - osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-09-09T15:42:15Z

LinguarumMagister:

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called direct, is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called inverse are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal person prefix.

'eur-' is the areal third person prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix. The disjoint prefix replaces 'asa-' (but not 'eur-') when both the subject and the possessor are ''both'' in the direct (zero-marked) form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint form. The inverse disjoint form replaces 'asa-' (but not 'eur-') when the subject is inverse, the possessor is direct, and the possessor is not.

'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (subject is direct)’

'uososizhena' ‘his/her/their daughter (subject is inverse)’

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-(disjoint)-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference does not apply to the first verb in a series of clauses. The switch-reference prefixes encodes tense ''as well as'' change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Duoplural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs are inherently singular and, unlike nouns, have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the identical in singular and duoplural.

If the subject is different from that of the previous sentence, the verbal disjoint prefix must follow the the switch reference prefix.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==
'''Examples under corrective maintenance'''

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asiw (sg) - osiwasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'

kuaw (pl) - hiikuaw 'jewelry'

nasah (sg) - osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

asa - to see

rena (sg) - osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - 0sizhunwu 'rain'; osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhuwu 'spray'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall'

ruta (sg) - osizhuta 'neck'; osuwsuta 'nose, ear'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso - to seize

wehsi (sg) - osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-09-08T14:59:20Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Possessive Prefixes */

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called direct, is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called inverse are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal person prefix.

'eur-' is the areal third person prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix. The disjoint prefix replaces 'asa-' when both the subject and the possessor are ''both'' in the direct (zero-marked) form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint form. The inverse disjoint form replaces 'asa-' when the subject is inverse, the possessor is direct, and the possessor is not an individual included within the inverse subject.

'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of the subject)’

'uososizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of a singular subject)’

If the inverse-marked subject is inherently dual or plural, the inverse disjoint prefix can only reflect the non-singular meaning of the inverse-marked subject. Thus, if the subject is 'osihoshetaah' ‘warrior/warriors (sg/du)’, from 'osi-horhet', 'uososizhena' can only refer to a daughter of someone who is a not a part of the group of the two warriors who are the subject of the sentence; if she were the daughter of one of these warriors, one would use 'asayosizhena'.

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference is zero-marked on a free-standing verb. Switch-reference encodes tense as well change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Duoplural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs, unlike nouns, have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic, which is different. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the same.

The verbal disjoint prefix must follow a switch reference prefix and precede the verb root if the subject is different from the previous sentence.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asiw (sg) - osiwasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'

kuaw (pl) - hiikuaw 'jewelry'

nasah (sg) - osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

asa - to see

rena (sg) - osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall'

ruta (sg) - osizhuta 'neck'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso - to seize

wehsi (sg) - osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-09-08T14:41:53Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Possessive Prefixes */

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called direct, is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called inverse are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

'nue-' is the first person prefix.

'iih-' is the second person prefix.

'asa-' is the third person prefix. It is often replaced by the options below.

'uwi-' is the reflexive third person prefix. First and second reflexives use 'nue-' and 'iih-'.

'aek-' is the reciprocal prefix. Then it becomes less familiar to speakers of European languages.

'eur-' is an areal prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix, used when both the subject and the possessor are both in the direct zero-marked form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint form (a neologism on the basis of the plural disjoint prefix). It is used when the subject is inverse-marked, the possessor is not, and the possessor is not an individual included within the inverse-marked subject. Thus, from 'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of the subject)’

'uososizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of a singular subject)’

If the inverse-marked subject is inherently dual or plural, the inverse disjoint prefix can only reflect the non-singular meaning of the inverse-marked subject. Thus, if the subject is 'osihoshetaah' ‘warrior/warriors (sg/du)’, from 'osi-horhet', 'uososizhena' can only refer to a daughter of someone who is a not a part of the group of the two warriors who are the subject of the sentence; if she were the daughter of one of these warriors, one would use 'asayosizhena'.

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference is zero-marked on a free-standing verb. Switch-reference encodes tense as well change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Duoplural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs, unlike nouns, have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic, which is different. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the same.

The verbal disjoint prefix must follow a switch reference prefix and precede the verb root if the subject is different from the previous sentence.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asiw (sg) - osiwasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'

kuaw (pl) - hiikuaw 'jewelry'

nasah (sg) - osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

asa - to see

rena (sg) - osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall'

ruta (sg) - osizhuta 'neck'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso - to seize

wehsi (sg) - osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-09-08T14:33:41Z

LinguarumMagister:

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number, called direct, is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers, called inverse are indicated by the inverse number suffix '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwu' means 'water (flat)', 'osizhunwu' means 'water (vertical)', and 'hiizhunwu' means 'water (squatting)' 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

The first, second, and third persons are represented by 'nue-', 'iih-', and 'asa-', respectively.

'uwi-' is the reflexive prefix.

'aek-' is the reciprocal prefix. Then it becomes less familiar to speakers of European languages.

'eur-' is an areal prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix, used when both the subject and the possessor are both in the direct zero-marked form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint form (a neologism on the basis of the plural disjoint prefix). It is used when the subject is inverse-marked, the possessor is not, and the possessor is not an individual included within the inverse-marked subject. Thus, from 'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of the subject)’

'uososizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of a singular subject)’

If the inverse-marked subject is inherently dual or plural, the inverse disjoint prefix can only reflect the non-singular meaning of the inverse-marked subject. Thus, if the subject is 'osihoshetaah' ‘warrior/warriors (sg/du)’, from 'osi-horhet', 'uososizhena' can only refer to a daughter of someone who is a not a part of the group of the two warriors who are the subject of the sentence; if she were the daughter of one of these warriors, one would use 'asayosizhena'.

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference is zero-marked on a free-standing verb. Switch-reference encodes tense as well change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Duoplural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs, unlike nouns, have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic, which is different. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the same.

The verbal disjoint prefix must follow a switch reference prefix and precede the verb root if the subject is different from the previous sentence.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asiw (sg) - osiwasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'

kuaw (pl) - hiikuaw 'jewelry'

nasah (sg) - osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

asa - to see

rena (sg) - osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall'

ruta (sg) - osizhuta 'neck'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso - to seize

wehsi (sg) - osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-08-26T17:46:46Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Verbal Plurals */

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers are indicated by the inverse number '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

The first, second, and third persons are represented by 'nue-', 'iih-', and 'asa-', respectively.

'uwi-' is the reflexive prefix.

'aek-' is the reciprocal prefix. Then it becomes less familiar to speakers of European languages.

'eur-' is an areal prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix, used when both the subject and the possessor are both in the direct zero-marked form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint form (a neologism on the basis of the plural disjoint prefix). It is used when the subject is inverse-marked, the possessor is not, and the possessor is not an individual included within the inverse-marked subject. Thus, from 'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of the subject)’

'uososizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of a singular subject)’

If the inverse-marked subject is inherently dual or plural, the inverse disjoint prefix can only reflect the non-singular meaning of the inverse-marked subject. Thus, if the subject is 'osihoshetaah' ‘warrior/warriors (sg/du)’, from 'osi-horhet', 'uososizhena' can only refer to a daughter of someone who is a not a part of the group of the two warriors who are the subject of the sentence; if she were the daughter of one of these warriors, one would use 'asayosizhena'.

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference is zero-marked on a free-standing verb. Switch-reference encodes tense as well change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Affixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Duoplural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs, unlike nouns, have explicit duoplural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic, which is different. The duoplural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the same.

The verbal disjoint prefix must follow a switch reference prefix and precede the verb root if the subject is different from the previous sentence.

An areal suffix after the verb root refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the direct object. A verbal disjoint suffix after the verb refers to the number (singular or duoplural) of the omitted direct object.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asiw (sg) - osiwasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'

kuaw (pl) - hiikuaw 'jewelry'

nasah (sg) - osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

asa - to see

rena (sg) - osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall'

ruta (sg) - osizhuta 'neck'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso - to seize

wehsi (sg) - osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-08-26T17:28:06Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Lexicon */

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers are indicated by the inverse number '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

The first, second, and third persons are represented by 'nue-', 'iih-', and 'asa-', respectively.

'uwi-' is the reflexive prefix.

'aek-' is the reciprocal prefix. Then it becomes less familiar to speakers of European languages.

'eur-' is an areal prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix, used when both the subject and the possessor are both in the direct zero-marked form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint form (a neologism on the basis of the plural disjoint prefix). It is used when the subject is inverse-marked, the possessor is not, and the possessor is not an individual included within the inverse-marked subject. Thus, from 'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of the subject)’

'uososizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of a singular subject)’

If the inverse-marked subject is inherently dual or plural, the inverse disjoint prefix can only reflect the non-singular meaning of the inverse-marked subject. Thus, if the subject is 'osihoshetaah' ‘warrior/warriors (sg/du)’, from 'osi-horhet', 'uososizhena' can only refer to a daughter of someone who is a not a part of the group of the two warriors who are the subject of the sentence; if she were the daughter of one of these warriors, one would use 'asayosizhena'.

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference is zero-marked on a free-standing verb. Switch-reference encodes tense as well change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Suffixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Plural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs, unlike nouns, have explicit plural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic, which is different.The plural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the same.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asiw (sg) - osiwasiw 'vine trellis'; osuwasiw 'field'; hiiyasiw 'vineyard'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'

kuaw (pl) - hiikuaw 'jewelry'

nasah (sg) - osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'branch'

asa - to see

rena (sg) - osizhena 'daughter'; osuwsena 'housemaid'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall'

ruta (sg) - osizhuta 'neck'; hiizhuta 'limb'

ruwsa (du) - siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso - to seize

wehsi (sg) - osiwehsi 'tower'; osuwwehsi 'building'; hiiwehsi 'buttress'

Kunke

2020-08-26T17:21:33Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Sentence Examples */

=General Description=

Kunke is a nominative-accusative SOV language which combines:

1. trial number

2. inverse number marking

3. orientation prefixes

4. areal prefixes.

5. disjoint prefixes

=Number and Orientation=

==Number==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Number
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
!
| -0
| -aah
|-
|}

==Orientation==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orientation
! Vertical
! Horizontal
! Squatting
|-
!
| osi-
| osuw-
| hii-
|-
|}

==Commentary==

Kunke has inverse number marking. Each stem is inherently singular, dual, or plural. The inherent number is zero-marked and lexically determined. Both non-inherent numbers are indicated by the inverse number '-aah'. Stems consist minimally of an orientation prefix and a root.

The basic meaning of the root 'nasah' is 'long wooden thing' and it is inherently singular; thus 'osinasah' means 'tree', 'osinasahaah' 'trees (dual or plural)', 'osuwnasah' 'stick', 'hiinasah' 'branch'.

'Ruwsa' 'eyes' is inherently dual. 'Siuyosuwsuwsa' means 'eyes (dual). 'Siuyosuwsuwsuayaah' means 'eye(s) (singular and plural)'. 'Siuyosizhuwsa' means 'downward eye; modesty', 'siuhiizhuwsa' 'upward-glancing eyes; insolence'.

'Runwu' 'water' is inherently plural. 'Osuwsunwuyaah' means 'drop of water (in river)', 'osizhunwuyaah' 'raindrop', and 'hiizhunwuyaah' 'waterfall (because of the shift from horizontal to vertical').

=Possessive Prefixes=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Possessive Prefixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprical
! Areal
! Disjoint
! Inverse Disjoint
|-
!
| siu-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
| uos-
|-
|}

There are possessive prefixes in Kunke. One of them, 'siu-', seen above in words such as 'siuyosuwsuwsa' ‘eyes (du)’, is used with inalienably possessed objects, such as body parts and relatives. It is frequently used to create nouns.

The first, second, and third persons are represented by 'nue-', 'iih-', and 'asa-', respectively.

'uwi-' is the reflexive prefix.

'aek-' is the reciprocal prefix. Then it becomes less familiar to speakers of European languages.

'eur-' is an areal prefix, used when the possessor is areal, spatial, or temporal.

'aas-' is the disjoint prefix, used when both the subject and the possessor are both in the direct zero-marked form and are not identical.

'uos-' is the inverse disjoint form (a neologism on the basis of the plural disjoint prefix). It is used when the subject is inverse-marked, the possessor is not, and the possessor is not an individual included within the inverse-marked subject. Thus, from 'osizhena' ‘daughter’ from 'osi-rena':

'siuyosizhena' ‘daughter’

'nueyosizhena' ‘my daughter’

'iihosizhena' ‘your daughter’

'asayosizhena' ‘his/her daughter’

'uwiyosizhena' ‘his/her/their own daughter’

'aekosizhenayaah' ‘each other’s daughters’

'euzhosizhena' ‘area daughter; foundling; prostitute’

'aasosizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of the subject)’

'uososizhena' ‘his/her daughter (but not of a singular subject)’

If the inverse-marked subject is inherently dual or plural, the inverse disjoint prefix can only reflect the non-singular meaning of the inverse-marked subject. Thus, if the subject is 'osihoshetaah' ‘warrior/warriors (sg/du)’, from 'osi-horhet', 'uososizhena' can only refer to a daughter of someone who is a not a part of the group of the two warriors who are the subject of the sentence; if she were the daughter of one of these warriors, one would use 'asayosizhena'.

=Genitives=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive
! Alienable
! Inalienable
|-
!
| -ia
| -iko
|-
|}

There are two genitive suffixes, one alienable '-ia', the other inalienable '-iko'. A piece of jewelry owned by the warrior’s daughter would produce 'iihosizhenayia hiikuaw' ‘your daughter’s jewelry’, but her neck, 'ruta', would produce 'iihosizhenayiko siuyosizhuta' ‘your daughter’s neck’.

=Verbal Structure=

Kunke verbs have the following structure:

switch reference-subject-root-object-tense.

==Switch reference==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Switch Reference
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Same Subject
| une-
| ohru-
| uuh-
| hue-
|-
! Different Subject
| uno-
| our-
| uuw-
| oha-
|-
|}

Switch reference is zero-marked on a free-standing verb. Switch-reference encodes tense as well change of subject.

==Verbal Plurals==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Verbal Suffixes
! Generic
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! Reflexive
! Reciprocal
! Areal
! Disjoint
|-
! Singular
| ook-
| nue-
| iih-
| asa-
| uwi-
| aek-
| eur-
| aas-
|-
! Plural
| hue-
| iti-
| wao-
| iho-
| uwi-
| aer-
| iar-
| uos-
|-
|}

Verbs, unlike nouns, have explicit plural forms for numbers and persons. The singular forms are the same as the possessive prefixes listed above, except for the Generic, which is different.The plural forms are different, except for the Reflexive, which is the same.

==Tense Suffixes==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Tense Suffixes
! Remote Past
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
!
| -iet
| -iur
| -iun
| -ihu
|-
|}

==Sentence Examples==

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet aas-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet uososuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet uos-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST INV.DJT-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsena asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaid and seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah ihoyosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The two warriors saw the housemaids and seized her house.

osihoshetaah osuwsenayaah asayosuwasayiet asayosuwwehsi uneyasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet-aah osuw-rena-aah asa-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi une-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior-INV SQU-daughter-INV 3sg-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.SAME-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warrior saw the housemaids and seized their house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyuosihosisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-uos-iho-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-PL.DJT-3pl-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (duoplural) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwsena ihoyosuwasayiet aasosuwwehsi unoyaasasasisoyeuzhiet

osi-horhet osuw-rena iho-osuw-asa-iet asa-osuw-wehsi uno-aas-asa-siso-eur-iet

VERT-warrior SQU-daughter 3pl-see-RPST 3-HORZ-building RPST.DIFF-SG.DJT-3sg-seize-AREA-RPST

The warriors saw the housemaid and someone else (singular) seized her house.

osihoshet osuwasiwaah ihosisoyiazhihu

osi-horhet osuw-asiw-aah iho-siso-iar-ihu

VERT-warrior HORZ-field-INV 3pl-seize-AREA.PL-FUT

The warriors will seize the fields’

=Lexicon=

asiw (sg) - osuwasiw 'field'

hoshet (< hor-het) (pl) - osihoshet 'band of warriors'; osihoshetaah 'warrior(s)'

kuaw (pl) - hiikuaw 'jewelry'

nasah (sg) - osinasah 'tree'; osinasahaah 'trees'; osuwnasah 'stick'; hiinasah 'stick'

osuw - to see

rena (sg) - osizhena 'daughter'; euzhosizhena 'foundling; prostitute'

runwu (pl) - osizhunwuyaah 'raindrop'; osuwsunwu 'water'; osuwsunwuyaah 'drop of water (in river)'; hiizhunwuyaah 'waterfall'

ruta (sg) - osizhuta 'neck'

ruwsa (du) - siuyosizhuwsa 'modesty'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eyes'; siuyosuwsuwsa 'eye(s) (sg/pl)'; siuhiizhuwsa 'insolence'

siso - to seize

wehsi (sg) - building

Guild of Scholars Docket

2019-09-05T20:17:14Z

LinguarumMagister:

Current Proposals before the Guild of Scholars:

Old Business

1. Munayamhe Forum

2. Saist Forum

New Business

3. Converbals:

Cases have been reported of -yosaku- plus negative polarity and irrealis mood instead of -yosa- plus positive polarity and realis mood to express certainty. This appears to be influence from -teku- plus negative polarity. Is this a legitimate form? More broadly, clarification on current use of -yosa-.

4. Stress:

Nasal vowels have been reported attracting stress.

5. Pronouns

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-09-05T20:07:43Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Adverbials (6.) */

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb and verbal derivatives is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The consonant-initial prefixes are reduced to their consonant in speech. The third person animate becomes /y-/ and the third person inanimate is separated from the verb root by an epenthetic /-n-/. Keno Siye writes the subject and object prefixes as separate characters from the verb root regardless of pronunciation. A tendency toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots, especially suppletive ones maintains suppletion in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a)
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a)
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| I.tu.me(a).yam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| Kem.tu.ne(a).kim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

The number of suppletive roots in Siye are limited, but these include most of the most common verbs. Many of these are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffixes, and the directional suffixes, so it may seem that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of adverbial suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| e.le.Ko.pu.me(a)
| I see it.
|-
! eleyempuna.
| e.le.Yem.pu.ne(a)
| I saw it.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Adverbial suffixes often contain meanings rendered by an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs /-ne-/ (intransitive),/-mke-/ (transitive), and /-mmu-/(ditransitive) fill the verb root position. The nasal components of /-mke-/ and /-mmu-/ are phonetically part of the preceding subject or object prefix. Keno Siye, however, writes them as ligatured special characters derived from /-nuke-/ and /-numu-/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| e.le.Nu(ke).pu.te.me(a)
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| le.Ne.pu.te.ne(a)
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| Im i.Im.pu.ne(a)
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| Im.po Ka.sa i.Im.po.pu.su.ne(a)
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and at least one suffix is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Transliteration
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| ku
| The null grammatical number is a matter of fierce dispute. In any other position in the verb complex, negative /-ku-/ is a secondary suffix, following primary suffixes and unable to bear stress. Since the grammatical number prefix must bear stress after a trisyllabic verb root, a secondary suffix is often felt to be illegitimate in this position.
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| pu
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| so, so(u)
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| ke
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| lo, lo(u)
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| ka
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (either linguistically or genetically), do not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| pi
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| pe
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| ku(u), ke(u), ka(u), pu(u), pi(u), pe(u)
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.sum.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| i.le.Su.pu.sum.su.me(a)
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| aleyempusumtuna.
| A(i).le.Yem.pu.sum.tu.ne(a)
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupusumnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.sum.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupuyosamnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Adverbials (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka-, -mluka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant. -mluka- may be used in finite verbs but not participles.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam-, -mluyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant. -mluyam- may be used in finite verbs but not participles
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na), -hana- (2269)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| -kana follows oral vowels (all vowels to 2269), -hana- nasal vowels (2269)
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu), -hanu- (2269)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| -kanu- follows oral vowels (all vowels to 2269), -hanu- nasal vowels (2269)
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Transliteration
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| me(a)
| IPFV.POS.REAL (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| ne(a)
| PFV.POS.REAL (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| me
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| ne
| PFV.POS.IRL (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| me(u)
| IPFV.NEG.REAL (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| ne(u)
| PFV.NEG.REAL (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| me(e)
| IPFV.NEG.IRL (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| ne(e)
| PFV.NEG.IRL (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| Ke.na.ne(a).ki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| Nu.na.me(a).ki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| Ke.na.ne(a).kim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| Nu.na.me(a).kim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| Nu.na.me(a).yam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| Su.sum.su.me(a).yam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffixes - except the reflexive suffix, the absence of which would change the semantics of the participles. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).yam
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-09-05T20:02:45Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Specific Directional Suffixes */

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb and verbal derivatives is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The consonant-initial prefixes are reduced to their consonant in speech. The third person animate becomes /y-/ and the third person inanimate is separated from the verb root by an epenthetic /-n-/. Keno Siye writes the subject and object prefixes as separate characters from the verb root regardless of pronunciation. A tendency toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots, especially suppletive ones maintains suppletion in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a)
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a)
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| I.tu.me(a).yam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| Kem.tu.ne(a).kim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

The number of suppletive roots in Siye are limited, but these include most of the most common verbs. Many of these are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffixes, and the directional suffixes, so it may seem that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of adverbial suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| e.le.Ko.pu.me(a)
| I see it.
|-
! eleyempuna.
| e.le.Yem.pu.ne(a)
| I saw it.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Adverbial suffixes often contain meanings rendered by an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs /-ne-/ (intransitive),/-mke-/ (transitive), and /-mmu-/(ditransitive) fill the verb root position. The nasal components of /-mke-/ and /-mmu-/ are phonetically part of the preceding subject or object prefix. Keno Siye, however, writes them as ligatured special characters derived from /-nuke-/ and /-numu-/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| e.le.Nu(ke).pu.te.me(a)
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| le.Ne.pu.te.ne(a)
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| Im i.Im.pu.ne(a)
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| Im.po Ka.sa i.Im.po.pu.su.ne(a)
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and at least one suffix is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Transliteration
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| ku
| The null grammatical number is a matter of fierce dispute. In any other position in the verb complex, negative /-ku-/ is a secondary suffix, following primary suffixes and unable to bear stress. Since the grammatical number prefix must bear stress after a trisyllabic verb root, a secondary suffix is often felt to be illegitimate in this position.
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| pu
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| so, so(u)
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| ke
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| lo, lo(u)
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| ka
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (either linguistically or genetically), do not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| pi
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| pe
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| ku(u), ke(u), ka(u), pu(u), pi(u), pe(u)
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.sum.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| i.le.Su.pu.sum.su.me(a)
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| aleyempusumtuna.
| A(i).le.Yem.pu.sum.tu.ne(a)
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupusumnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.sum.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupuyosamnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Adverbials (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na), -hana- (2269)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| -kana follows oral vowels (all vowels to 2269), -hana- nasal vowels (2269)
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu), -hanu- (2269)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| -kanu- follows oral vowels (all vowels to 2269), -hanu- nasal vowels (2269)
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Transliteration
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| me(a)
| IPFV.POS.REAL (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| ne(a)
| PFV.POS.REAL (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| me
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| ne
| PFV.POS.IRL (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| me(u)
| IPFV.NEG.REAL (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| ne(u)
| PFV.NEG.REAL (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| me(e)
| IPFV.NEG.IRL (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| ne(e)
| PFV.NEG.IRL (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| Ke.na.ne(a).ki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| Nu.na.me(a).ki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| Ke.na.ne(a).kim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| Nu.na.me(a).kim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| Nu.na.me(a).yam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| Su.sum.su.me(a).yam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffixes - except the reflexive suffix, the absence of which would change the semantics of the participles. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).yam
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-09-05T19:50:57Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Participle Structure */

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb and verbal derivatives is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The consonant-initial prefixes are reduced to their consonant in speech. The third person animate becomes /y-/ and the third person inanimate is separated from the verb root by an epenthetic /-n-/. Keno Siye writes the subject and object prefixes as separate characters from the verb root regardless of pronunciation. A tendency toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots, especially suppletive ones maintains suppletion in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a)
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a)
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| I.tu.me(a).yam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| Kem.tu.ne(a).kim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

The number of suppletive roots in Siye are limited, but these include most of the most common verbs. Many of these are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffixes, and the directional suffixes, so it may seem that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of adverbial suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| e.le.Ko.pu.me(a)
| I see it.
|-
! eleyempuna.
| e.le.Yem.pu.ne(a)
| I saw it.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Adverbial suffixes often contain meanings rendered by an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs /-ne-/ (intransitive),/-mke-/ (transitive), and /-mmu-/(ditransitive) fill the verb root position. The nasal components of /-mke-/ and /-mmu-/ are phonetically part of the preceding subject or object prefix. Keno Siye, however, writes them as ligatured special characters derived from /-nuke-/ and /-numu-/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| e.le.Nu(ke).pu.te.me(a)
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| le.Ne.pu.te.ne(a)
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| Im i.Im.pu.ne(a)
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| Im.po Ka.sa i.Im.po.pu.su.ne(a)
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and at least one suffix is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Transliteration
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| ku
| The null grammatical number is a matter of fierce dispute. In any other position in the verb complex, negative /-ku-/ is a secondary suffix, following primary suffixes and unable to bear stress. Since the grammatical number prefix must bear stress after a trisyllabic verb root, a secondary suffix is often felt to be illegitimate in this position.
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| pu
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| so, so(u)
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| ke
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| lo, lo(u)
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| ka
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (either linguistically or genetically), do not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| pi
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| pe
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| ku(u), ke(u), ka(u), pu(u), pi(u), pe(u)
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.sum.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| i.le.Su.pu.sum.su.me(a)
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| aleyempusumtuna.
| A(i).le.Yem.pu.sum.tu.ne(a)
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupusumnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.sum.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupuyosamnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Adverbials (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| Analogical N-ana- under investigation
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| Analogical N-anu- under investigation
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Transliteration
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| me(a)
| IPFV.POS.REAL (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| ne(a)
| PFV.POS.REAL (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| me
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| ne
| PFV.POS.IRL (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| me(u)
| IPFV.NEG.REAL (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| ne(u)
| PFV.NEG.REAL (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| me(e)
| IPFV.NEG.IRL (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| ne(e)
| PFV.NEG.IRL (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| Ke.na.ne(a).ki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| Nu.na.me(a).ki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| Ke.na.ne(a).kim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| Nu.na.me(a).kim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| Nu.na.me(a).yam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| Su.sum.su.me(a).yam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffixes - except the reflexive suffix, the absence of which would change the semantics of the participles. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).kim
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).yam
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-09-05T19:49:08Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Participle Structure */

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb and verbal derivatives is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The consonant-initial prefixes are reduced to their consonant in speech. The third person animate becomes /y-/ and the third person inanimate is separated from the verb root by an epenthetic /-n-/. Keno Siye writes the subject and object prefixes as separate characters from the verb root regardless of pronunciation. A tendency toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots, especially suppletive ones maintains suppletion in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a)
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a)
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| I.tu.me(a).yam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| Kem.tu.ne(a).kim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

The number of suppletive roots in Siye are limited, but these include most of the most common verbs. Many of these are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffixes, and the directional suffixes, so it may seem that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of adverbial suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| e.le.Ko.pu.me(a)
| I see it.
|-
! eleyempuna.
| e.le.Yem.pu.ne(a)
| I saw it.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Adverbial suffixes often contain meanings rendered by an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs /-ne-/ (intransitive),/-mke-/ (transitive), and /-mmu-/(ditransitive) fill the verb root position. The nasal components of /-mke-/ and /-mmu-/ are phonetically part of the preceding subject or object prefix. Keno Siye, however, writes them as ligatured special characters derived from /-nuke-/ and /-numu-/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| e.le.Nu(ke).pu.te.me(a)
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| le.Ne.pu.te.ne(a)
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| Im i.Im.pu.ne(a)
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| Im.po Ka.sa i.Im.po.pu.su.ne(a)
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and at least one suffix is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Transliteration
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| ku
| The null grammatical number is a matter of fierce dispute. In any other position in the verb complex, negative /-ku-/ is a secondary suffix, following primary suffixes and unable to bear stress. Since the grammatical number prefix must bear stress after a trisyllabic verb root, a secondary suffix is often felt to be illegitimate in this position.
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| pu
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| so, so(u)
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| ke
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| lo, lo(u)
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| ka
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (either linguistically or genetically), do not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| pi
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| pe
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| ku(u), ke(u), ka(u), pu(u), pi(u), pe(u)
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.sum.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| i.le.Su.pu.sum.su.me(a)
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| aleyempusumtuna.
| A(i).le.Yem.pu.sum.tu.ne(a)
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupusumnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.sum.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupuyosamnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Adverbials (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| Analogical N-ana- under investigation
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| Analogical N-anu- under investigation
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Transliteration
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| me(a)
| IPFV.POS.REAL (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| ne(a)
| PFV.POS.REAL (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| me
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| ne
| PFV.POS.IRL (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| me(u)
| IPFV.NEG.REAL (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| ne(u)
| PFV.NEG.REAL (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| me(e)
| IPFV.NEG.IRL (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| ne(e)
| PFV.NEG.IRL (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| Ke.na.ne(a).ki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| Nu.na.me(a).ki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| Ke.na.ne(a).kim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| Nu.na.me(a).kim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| Nu.na.me(a).yam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| Su.sum.su.me(a).yam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffixes - except the reflexive suffix, the absence of which would change the semantics of the participles. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| Tom.ka.su.ne(a).ki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| Tom.ka.su.n(e)a.ki
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| Tom.ka.su.n(e)a.kim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| Tom.ka.su.n(e)a.kim
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| Tom.ka.su.n(e)a.yam
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Talk:Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-09-05T19:28:31Z

LinguarumMagister:

==Converbals==

-teku- + NEG 'to fear doing' Aversive (AVE)

-teku- governs negative polarity, because fear and hesitation (but not doubt) governs negative polarity. Negation of the aversive converbal is standard negation.

siye melo eleyoputekutumu.

I fear to listen to these words.

-yosaku- + IRLS (* + RLS)

-yosaku- governs irrealis mood, even though its sense is realis, because it is derived from the dubitative (DUB) -yosa- + IRLS.

==Naming of Converbals==

-yam- ABL Abilitive

-kaku- + NEG.PFV HES Hesitant

-kaku- + NEG.IPV UNR Unreliable

-ni- MUT Mutual

-te- + IPV DES Desiderative

-ka- + PFV DEC Decisive

-kom- PRO Promissive

-neme- + PFV CSS Cessative

-neme- + IPV ADD Addictive

-num-/-mnu- NUM Numerical

-teku- + NEG AVE Aversive

-teka- + IRLS DIS Dispositive

-teka- + RLS 'should'

-mulu- FRS Frustrative

-muluyam-/-muyam- + IPV CON Conative

-muluka-/-muka- + PFV FRS+DEC

-yosa- + IRLS DUB Dubitive

-yosaku- + IRLS MIR Mirative

-like- FALL Fallacic?

-likeku- SUCC Success

==Participle Structure==

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffix. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are in fact more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. The characteristic suffix of the participle is the nominalizer. There are three nominalizing suffixes -yam, -ki, -kim, which convert the participle to a nominal stem which can take number and case suffixes. -yam creates active, mostly animate nouns; these are usually imperfective unless the converbal suffix requires perfective. -ki creates passive, mostly inanimate nouns; counter-intuitively, it also creates instrumental nouns. In general, the participles with perfective aspect have a passive meaning, while those with imperfective aspect have instrumental meaning. -kim creates inanimate place names.

1. Root

2. Causative

3. Converbal

4. Directional

5. Aspect

6. Mode

7. Nominalizer

8. Grammatical Number

9. Case

===New Adverbials==
==Non-Volitional==

Indirect evidentiality, first person, derived from first person: ye < *de

==Mirativity==
-ne- < -ne- PFV

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-04-11T23:28:32Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes */

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb and verbal derivatives is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The consonant-initial prefixes are reduced to their consonant in speech. The third person animate becomes /y-/ and the third person inanimate is separated from the verb root by an epenthetic /-n-/. Keno Siye writes the subject and object prefixes as separate characters from the verb root regardless of pronunciation. A tendency toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots, especially suppletive ones maintains suppletion in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a)
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a)
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| I.tu.me(a).yam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| Kem.tu.ne(a).kim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

The number of suppletive roots in Siye are limited, but these include most of the most common verbs. Many of these are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffixes, and the directional suffixes, so it may seem that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of adverbial suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| e.le.Ko.pu.me(a)
| I see it.
|-
! eleyempuna.
| e.le.Yem.pu.ne(a)
| I saw it.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Adverbial suffixes often contain meanings rendered by an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs /-ne-/ (intransitive),/-mke-/ (transitive), and /-mmu-/(ditransitive) fill the verb root position. The nasal components of /-mke-/ and /-mmu-/ are phonetically part of the preceding subject or object prefix. Keno Siye, however, writes them as ligatured special characters derived from /-nuke-/ and /-numu-/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| e.le.Nu(ke).pu.te.me(a)
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| le.Ne.pu.te.ne(a)
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| Im i.Im.pu.ne(a)
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| Im.po Ka.sa i.Im.po.pu.su.ne(a)
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and at least one suffix is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Transliteration
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| ku
| The null grammatical number is a matter of fierce dispute. In any other position in the verb complex, negative /-ku-/ is a secondary suffix, following primary suffixes and unable to bear stress. Since the grammatical number prefix must bear stress after a trisyllabic verb root, a secondary suffix is often felt to be illegitimate in this position.
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| pu
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| so, so(u)
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| ke
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| lo, lo(u)
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| ka
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (either linguistically or genetically), do not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| pi
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| pe
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| ku(u), ke(u), ka(u), pu(u), pi(u), pe(u)
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.sum.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| i.le.Su.pu.sum.su.me(a)
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| aleyempusumtuna.
| A(i).le.Yem.pu.sum.tu.ne(a)
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupusumnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.sum.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupuyosamnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Adverbials (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| Analogical N-ana- under investigation
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| Analogical N-anu- under investigation
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Transliteration
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| me(a)
| IPFV.POS.REAL (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| ne(a)
| PFV.POS.REAL (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| me
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| ne
| PFV.POS.IRL (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| me(u)
| IPFV.NEG.REAL (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| ne(u)
| PFV.NEG.REAL (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| me(e)
| IPFV.NEG.IRL (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| ne(e)
| PFV.NEG.IRL (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffix. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-04-11T23:14:30Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Suffixes */

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb and verbal derivatives is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The consonant-initial prefixes are reduced to their consonant in speech. The third person animate becomes /y-/ and the third person inanimate is separated from the verb root by an epenthetic /-n-/. Keno Siye writes the subject and object prefixes as separate characters from the verb root regardless of pronunciation. A tendency toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots, especially suppletive ones maintains suppletion in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a)
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a)
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| I.tu.me(a).yam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| Kem.tu.ne(a).kim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

The number of suppletive roots in Siye are limited, but these include most of the most common verbs. Many of these are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffixes, and the directional suffixes, so it may seem that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of adverbial suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| e.le.Ko.pu.me(a)
| I see it.
|-
! eleyempuna.
| e.le.Yem.pu.ne(a)
| I saw it.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Adverbial suffixes often contain meanings rendered by an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs /-ne-/ (intransitive),/-mke-/ (transitive), and /-mmu-/(ditransitive) fill the verb root position. The nasal components of /-mke-/ and /-mmu-/ are phonetically part of the preceding subject or object prefix. Keno Siye, however, writes them as ligatured special characters derived from /-nuke-/ and /-numu-/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| e.le.Nu(ke).pu.te.me(a)
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| le.Ne.pu.te.ne(a)
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| Im i.Im.pu.ne(a)
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| Im.po Ka.sa i.Im.po.pu.su.ne(a)
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and at least one suffix is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Transliteration
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| ku
| The null grammatical number is a matter of fierce dispute. In any other position in the verb complex, negative /-ku-/ is a secondary suffix, following primary suffixes and unable to bear stress. Since the grammatical number prefix must bear stress after a trisyllabic verb root, a secondary suffix is often felt to be illegitimate in this position.
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| pu
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/.
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| so, so(u)
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| ke
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| lo, lo(u)
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| ka
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (either linguistically or genetically), do not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| pi
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| pe
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| ku(u), ke(u), ka(u), pu(u), pi(u), pe(u)
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.sum.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| i.le.Su.pu.sum.su.me(a)
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| aleyempusumtuna.
| A(i).le.Yem.pu.sum.tu.ne(a)
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupusumnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.sum.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| Le.Ne.sa.kam.e.le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.su.ne(a)
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le yaletupuyosamnana.
| Le.ya(i).le.Tu.pu.yo(sa)m.na.ne(a)
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Adverbials (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| Analogical N-ana- under investigation
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| Analogical N-anu- under investigation
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| IPFV.POS.RLS (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| IPFV.NEG.RLS (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| PFV.NEG.RLS (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| IPFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| PFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffix. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-04-11T22:52:35Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Verb Root (3.) */

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb and verbal derivatives is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The consonant-initial prefixes are reduced to their consonant in speech. The third person animate becomes /y-/ and the third person inanimate is separated from the verb root by an epenthetic /-n-/. Keno Siye writes the subject and object prefixes as separate characters from the verb root regardless of pronunciation. A tendency toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots, especially suppletive ones maintains suppletion in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a)
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a)
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| I.tu.me(a).yam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| Kem.tu.ne(a).kim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

The number of suppletive roots in Siye are limited, but these include most of the most common verbs. Many of these are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffixes, and the directional suffixes, so it may seem that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of adverbial suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| e.le.Ko.pu.me(a)
| I see it.
|-
! eleyempuna.
| e.le.Yem.pu.ne(a)
| I saw it.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Adverbial suffixes often contain meanings rendered by an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs /-ne-/ (intransitive),/-mke-/ (transitive), and /-mmu-/(ditransitive) fill the verb root position. The nasal components of /-mke-/ and /-mmu-/ are phonetically part of the preceding subject or object prefix. Keno Siye, however, writes them as ligatured special characters derived from /-nuke-/ and /-numu-/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| e.le.Nu(ke).pu.te.me(a)
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| le.Ne.pu.te.ne(a)
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| Im i.Im.pu.ne(a)
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| Im.po Ka.sa i.Im.po.pu.su.ne(a)
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and at least one suffix is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| The null grammatical number is a fiction of members of the Guild of Scholars who prefer systemacity over the duty to reflect the necessary distinctions for effective commerce. A Terrestrial analogy would be those letters of the Sanskrit alphabet which do not exist in any extant words but appear in the charts to eliminate asymmetry. Ed. - (The anger here needs tempering)
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun to which it applies, unless context dictates otherwise.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun to which it applies, but context may dictate a different understanding.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (and here it must be stated that 'ethnic' here could be defined either linguistically or genetically), it is important to not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| a ileyempusumtuna.
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le ya iletupusumnana.
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le ya iletupuyosamnana.
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Converbals (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Converbal
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| Analogical N-ana- under investigation
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| Analogical N-anu- under investigation
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| IPFV.POS.RLS (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| IPFV.NEG.RLS (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| PFV.NEG.RLS (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| IPFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| PFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffix. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-04-11T22:30:58Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Vowel-Initial Roots */

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The tendency, however, is toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots (especially suppletive ones). When this occurs, the initial vowel remains in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| pe.le.I.pu.tu,me(a)
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| pe.le.Kem.pu.tu.ne(a)
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| I.tu.me(a).yam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| Kem.tu.ne(a).kim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

There are a limited number of suppletive roots in Siye, but they include most of the most common verbs. Many of these verbs are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffix, and the directional suffixes, so it can appear to the learner that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of converbal suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| I see it.
|-
! eletupuna.
| I saw.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Converbal suffixes often contain meanings which would be an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs -mke- (transitive) and -ne- (intransitive) fill the verb root position.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and one or more suffix, is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| The null grammatical number is a fiction of members of the Guild of Scholars who prefer systemacity over the duty to reflect the necessary distinctions for effective commerce. A Terrestrial analogy would be those letters of the Sanskrit alphabet which do not exist in any extant words but appear in the charts to eliminate asymmetry. Ed. - (The anger here needs tempering)
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun to which it applies, unless context dictates otherwise.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun to which it applies, but context may dictate a different understanding.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (and here it must be stated that 'ethnic' here could be defined either linguistically or genetically), it is important to not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| a ileyempusumtuna.
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le ya iletupusumnana.
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le ya iletupuyosamnana.
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Converbals (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Converbal
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| Analogical N-ana- under investigation
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| Analogical N-anu- under investigation
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| IPFV.POS.RLS (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| IPFV.NEG.RLS (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| PFV.NEG.RLS (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| IPFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| PFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffix. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-04-11T22:28:29Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Consonant-Initial Root */

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| Le.ke Ke(in).no.lo(a) e.le.Ne.sa.kam.lo.ne(a)
| We few have written many books.
-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The tendency, however, is toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots (especially suppletive ones). When this occurs, the initial vowel remains in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

There are a limited number of suppletive roots in Siye, but they include most of the most common verbs. Many of these verbs are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffix, and the directional suffixes, so it can appear to the learner that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of converbal suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| I see it.
|-
! eletupuna.
| I saw.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Converbal suffixes often contain meanings which would be an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs -mke- (transitive) and -ne- (intransitive) fill the verb root position.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and one or more suffix, is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| The null grammatical number is a fiction of members of the Guild of Scholars who prefer systemacity over the duty to reflect the necessary distinctions for effective commerce. A Terrestrial analogy would be those letters of the Sanskrit alphabet which do not exist in any extant words but appear in the charts to eliminate asymmetry. Ed. - (The anger here needs tempering)
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun to which it applies, unless context dictates otherwise.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun to which it applies, but context may dictate a different understanding.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (and here it must be stated that 'ethnic' here could be defined either linguistically or genetically), it is important to not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| a ileyempusumtuna.
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le ya iletupusumnana.
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le ya iletupuyosamnana.
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Converbals (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Converbal
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| Analogical N-ana- under investigation
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| Analogical N-anu- under investigation
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| IPFV.POS.RLS (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| IPFV.NEG.RLS (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| PFV.NEG.RLS (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| IPFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| PFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffix. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Siye Verbal Morphology

2019-04-11T22:24:55Z

LinguarumMagister:

=Verb and Participle Structure=

==Verb Structure==

The minimal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, one verb root, a pronominal number suffix, and a polarity-aspect-mood (PAM) suffix. The maximal Siye verb consists of two pronominal prefixes, a verb root, a pronominal number suffix, a causative or portative suffix, an "adverbial" suffix, a directional suffix, and a PAM suffix. Relational and coordinative suffixes are often classed as verbal suffixes due to the heavily verb-final nature of Siye, but are more accurately described as clause-final suffixes, The explicit negative suffix is originally a mobile secondary suffix, but has become lexicalized to create new suffixes.

Note that the following discussion solely and/or primarily refers to the Romanization scheme of Siye rather than the indigenous orthography, Keno Siye, which is substantially more complex.

===Prefixes===

The two prefixes are the pronominal prefixes: one for the object pronoun, and one for the subject pronoun. Pronominal prefixes work on a nominative-accusative basis.

There are two conjugations in Standard Siye: the yi-conjugation and the ya-conjugation. The yi-conjugation is the basic conjugation, while the ya-conjugation is used when the object of the clause is topicalized. The object prefix and the subject prefix can combine according to the rules of vowel dominance. If you are correcting a text using non-standard pronominal prefixes, this can be very confusing.

====Object Prefix (1.)====

The object prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical object of the clause. The object prefix can change depending on whether the verb is yi-conjugation or ya-conjugation. The last form in each list is the ya-conjugation form. The others are yi-conjugation forms.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Object Prefixes
! yi-forms
! ya-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
|
|-
! 2nd
| pe-
| sa-
| /sa/, unlike the other ya-conjugation prefixes, is not derived from a contraction with the Accusative Case /-a/
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-
| ya-
| /i-/ is used before a subject prefix beginning in a consonant. /y-/ is used before a subject prefix or verb root beginning in a vowel. /ya-/ appears before a consonant. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| e-
| a-
| /n/ is an epenthetic consonant before a vowel-initial verb root. Keno Siye indicates /-en-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
|
| /me-/ is the definite object prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| mu-
| mu-
| /mu-/ is the object prefix before all subject prefixes except /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ (for its replacement, see below), except vowel-initial verb roots. Many Siye-speakers despise this exception as a neologism. Such persons prefer to rely on nouns and pronouns to avoid ambiguity.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| tum-
| tum-
| In Standard Siye, /tum-/ replaces /mu-/ before the 3rd person suffixes /-(h)i-/ or /-(h)e-/ before consonant-initial verb roots in order to eliminate ambiguity. There are many Scholars, however, including the "Mooneys", who despise this neologism.
|-
! reflexive
| um-
| um-
| Although the reflexive prefix is structurally an object prefix, reflexivity is a valency-changing operation. A reflexive verb form, therefore, although it has the prefixes of a transitive verb, is syntactically intransitive.
|-
|}

====Subject Prefix (2.)====

The subject prefix is used to indicate the person of the grammatical subject of the clause, for both transitive and intransitive verbs. The subject prefix is identical to the yi-conjugation form of the object prefix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Subject Prefixes
! yi-forms
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le-, l-
| /-l-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 2nd
| pe-, p-
| /-p-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! 3rd animate
| i-, y-, -hi-, 0-
| /y-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots. Keno Siye indicates /y-/ before a vowel-initial verb root as a separate character from the verb root. -hi- appears between /tum-/ or /um-/ and a consonant-initial vowel root. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-i-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /i/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /i-/. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs.
|-
! 3rd inanimate
| -e-, -en-
| /-en-/ breaks the rules of vowel dominance by appearing as a separate syllable before vowel-initial verb roots. Vowel dominance often results in the deletion of the 3rd animate subject prefix /-e-/. The Guild of Scholars insists that this is a case of a deleted /e/ rather than a zero-marked morpheme /0-/, because intransitive verbs maintain the subject prefix /e-/. /-en-/ occurs before vowel-initial verb roots. There is no zero-marked morpheme for intransitive verbs. Keno Siye indicates /-n-/ in this case as a nasal overline.
|-
! 3rd definite
| me-
| /me-/ is the definite subject prefix. It references a previously known argument, from noun to noun phrase to entire clause.
|-
! 3rd indefinite
| -mu-, -m-
| /-m-/ appears before vowel-initial verb roots.
|-
! infinitive
| ke-
| /ke-/ is the infinitive suffix. Its pronominal number suffix is always -pe-.
|}

====A note on zero-marking====

Sometimes in the marketplace one will hear the use of forbidden forms. The zeal of the merchants is to be commended, but their habit of shortening forms is a moral weakness.

Furthermore, the elision of an initial /i/ or /e/ as the object or subject of a verb can lead to confusion. If the busty, lusty, and loud village girl asks /yetelo maputesumo/, how is one to know if she means seeds /yete/ (inanimate) or fruit /yete/ (animate)? She should say /emaputesumo/ for the former, and /imaputesumo/ for latter. Sadly, such grammatical integrity is seldom found in those who use poor grammar consciously.

===Verb Root (3.)===

Siye verb roots are the "heart" of the verb. with a maximum length of three syllables. The meaning of a roots is often broader than the equivalent English; both causative suffixes and the directional suffixes derive new stems from the root without structural change. The meaning of the stem may not be apparent from the meaning of the root. The primary stress of the verb is on the first syllable of the verb root.

====Consonant-Initial Root====

Consonant-initial roots are the most common form of roots.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! leke kenolo elenesakamlona.
| We few have written many books.
|-
|}

====Vowel-Initial Roots====

Vowel-initial roots are less common than consonant-initial roots. The rules of vowel dominance are suspended at the ligature between the subject pronoun prefixes and the vowel-initial roots. The tendency, however, is toward the regularization of vowel-initial roots (especially suppletive ones). When this occurs, the initial vowel remains in deverbal nouns and participles.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! peliputuma.
| I love you.
|-
! pelekemputuna
| I loved you.
|-
! itumayam
| lover
|-
|-
! kemtunakim
| place of loving, boudoir
|-
|}

====Suppletive Roots====

There are a limited number of suppletive roots in Siye, but they include most of the most common verbs. Many of these verbs are highly productive in their derivational interactions between the root, the causative suffix, and the directional suffixes, so it can appear to the learner that the Siye verb consists of nothing but suppletive verbs. One former suppletive root, nu/mu 'give', spontaneously regularized in the period 2200-2210. The forms derived before this date, however, retain the suppletive form. Eventually, no doubt, new regular forms wil arise.

If a verb root is suppletive, the suppletion marks a division between the perfective and imperfective aspects. This is not necessarily true of converbal suffixes.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! elekopuma.
| I see it.
|-
! eletupuna.
| I saw.
|-
|}

====Auxiliary Verbal Roots====

Converbal suffixes often contain meanings which would be an independent verb in English. Since the verb root position cannot be empty, the semantically empty verbs -mke- (transitive) and -ne- (intransitive) fill the verb root position.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! elemkeputema
| I want it.
|-
|-
! leneputena
| I want.
|-
|}

====Extended Verbal Roots====

The only verbal root extension documented so far is the augmentive suffix -po.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! im yimpuna.
| The wind is blowing
|-
! impo kasa yimpopusuna.
| The north wind blew mightily.
|-
|}

====Derivative Verbal Roots====

Derivative Verbal Roots are formed when a participle composed of the root and one or more suffix, is reinterpreted as a new root in the verb root position, thereby opening the position(s) vacated by the suffix(es). Although the derivational mechanics of this process is systematic, the complexities of the suppletive roots results in much lexical overruling of potential derivative verbal roots.

===Suffixes===

====Grammatical Number (4.)====

4. Grammatical Number

The grammatical number suffix in Standard Siye is nominative-accusative if the verb is imperfective, agreeing with the subject of a transitive clause. If the verb is perfective, the grammatical number suffix is ergative-absolutive, agreeing with the grammatical object of the transitive clause. If the noun with which the grammatical number suffix must agree is indefinite or unknown, the default number is singular.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Form
! Notes
|-
! Null
| NUL
| -ku-
| The null grammatical number is a fiction of members of the Guild of Scholars who prefer systemacity over the duty to reflect the necessary distinctions for effective commerce. A Terrestrial analogy would be those letters of the Sanskrit alphabet which do not exist in any extant words but appear in the charts to eliminate asymmetry. Ed. - (The anger here needs tempering)
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -pu-
| Also indefinite. /-p-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so-, -s-
| /-s-/ is only used before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke-
| Paucal number is generally 3-5 instances of the noun to which it applies, unless context dictates otherwise.
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo-, -l-
| Plural number is generally more than 5 instances of the noun to which it applies, but context may dictate a different understanding.
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka-
| When -ka- is used as an ethnic suffix (and here it must be stated that 'ethnic' here could be defined either linguistically or genetically), it is important to not combine this sense with the basic pantic sense.
|-
! Exclusive
| EXCL
| -pi-
| The exclusive marker -pi- may replace the dual, paucal, or plural number if and only if the dual, paucal, or plural number is marked on the noun with which the verb agrees in number, or with the ethnic sense of -ka- as a nominal grammatical number.
|-
! Infinitive
| INF
| -pe-
| -pe- is the pronominal number suffix which always accompanies the infinitive prefix ke-.
|-
! Colloquial
| COL
| -k-, -p-
| /-k-/ (null, paucal, pantic), /-p-/ (singular, exclusive, infinitive) are found before the continuative suffix /-u-/ or the tense marker /-ulu-/ in non-standard Siye. The Guild of Scholars, however, has ruled the ambiguity too confusing for Standard Siye. The primary use, therefore, is in folk songs, poetry, and writing, and especially puns.
|-
|}

====Causative (5.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Causatives
! Abbreviations
! Form
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Causative
| CAUS
| -sum-
| This is a valence-increasing, often derivational, suffix which changes an intransitive verb to a transitive verb, and a transitive to a ditransitive.
| le nesakam eletupusumsuna
| I sent the letter (probably via messenger)
|-
!
|
|
|
| ilesupusumsuma.
| I sent him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| a ileyempusumtuna.
| I showed it to him.
|-
!
|
|
|
| le ya iletupusumnana.
| I lifted him. I promoted him.
|-
! Portative
| PORT
| -yosam-
| Almost identical to the causative suffix; implies that the subject or causor performed the action herself in a direct physical way.
| le nesakam eletupuyosamsuna
| I sent the letter (it was in my pocket)
|-
!
|
|
|
| le ya iletupuyosamnana.
| I lifted him.
|-
|}

====Converbals (6.)====

This is a rich category. If a particular converbal suffix triggers a particular aspect (perfective or imperfective), this does not mean that one will never find that suffix coupled with the other aspect. The use of the uncharacteristic aspect. however, does indicate markedness. There is only one converbal suffix per verb.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Converbal
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Imperfective
| INCEPTIVE (INCP)
| to begin Xing
| -hi- occurs after nasal vowels, -nam- elsewhere
| Umloya sili nukepu enulo''nam' 'nama.
| They began to build the tower.
|-
! -hi-, -nam- + Perfective
| IMPERFECT (IPF)
| to begin but not finish Xing
|
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu''nam''nana.
| They began but did not finish building the tower.
|-
! -hom-,-mnu-
| LASCIVIOUS (LASC)
| to do X lasciviously
| -hom- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- elsewhere
| itupumnukina.
| She danced lasciviously.
|-
! -ka- + Perfective
| INTENTIVE (INTNT), DECISIVE (DEC)
| to have resolved to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| Kumayam sili nukepu eyempu' 'ka' 'na.
| The Lord had resolved to see the tower.
|-
! -kaku- +Imperfective Negative
| INTERMITTENT (ITM)
| to be unreliable at Xing
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| eyuluwepukakutumu.
| He is an unreliable tracker.
|-
! -kaku- + Perfective Negative
| HESITANT (HES)
| to waver on doing X
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lepetusokakusunu.
| You hesitated to send the two of us.
|-
! -kom-
| PROMISSIVE (PRO)
| to promise to X
| -kom- can govern the Causative Construction, especially with a ditransitive root
| La letumpusum' 'kom' 'na.
| He promised to marry me.
|-
! -like- + Positive
| FALL (FALLIC)
| to fail to X
| The negative of -like- + Positive is -likeku- + Positive, not -like- + Negative
| pe yeteka ipetomka' 'like' 'sunaya ...
| Because you have failed to sell all the fruit …
|-
! -like- + Negative
| SCS (SUCCESSFUL)
| to succeed in Xing
| The negative of -like- + Negative is -likeku- + Negative, not -like- + Positive
| umloya lusili ekepu' 'like' 'sunu.
| The men have succeeded in building the city.
|-
! -lo-, -te-
| PRAC
| to to practice doing X
| -lo- occurs with the imperfective aspect, -te- with the perfective. The perfective association of -te- differentiates this from the imperfective desiderative suffix -te-. This suffix -lo- always appears after the pronominal number suffix, thus there is no potential for confusion.
| Epesipulonamumo?
| Have been you been practicing (your) singing?
|-
! -lo-, -te-
|
|
|
| Epeyeputenanu.
| I have not been practicing singing. (*I wanted to sing)
|-
! -lote- + Positive
| DECEPTIVE (DCP)
| to pretend to X
|
| enesakampulotema.
| She pretended to write.
|-
! -lote- + Negative
| AUTHENTIC (AUTH)
| to act authentically in doing X
|
| Le sa pelipulotemu.
| I really do love you. (I am not pretending to love you)
|-
! -mmu-/-num-
| PERMISSIVE2 (PRM2), HINDER (HIN)
| to allow, to hinder
| -num- occurs after nasal vowels; -mmu- occurs elsewhere. -mmu-/-num- is used for the notions of allowance or hindering, without the official implication of the suffix -numu-. If it is contrasted with the suffix -numu-, -mmu-/-num- indicates an allownance or hindering without official sanction.
| Layeke mena tupilotu um lumsa yinumupummusuna.
| This girl allowed the foreigner to steal (lit. take/receive) the birds.
|-
! -mulu-
| FRUSTRATIVE (FRS)
| to do X in vain
|
| ilo anepopumulununa.
| They debased the currency in vain.
|-
! -muluka-, -muka- + Perfective
| FRS + DEC
| to fail to do what one has resolved to do
| From -mulu- + -ka-. -muka- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lepekepisummulukanuna.
| You have failed to kill us (said to the would-be assassins of the poet Kupi).
|-
! -muluyam-, -muyam- + Imperfective
| CONATIVE (CON)
| to try
| From -mulu- + -yam-. -muyam- is a stress-shortened variant.
| lekusomuluyamnuma.
| We (two) are trying to sleep.
|-
! -mum-,-mnu-
| NUMERICAL (NUM)
| to do X number of times
| -mum- occurs after nasal vowels, -mnu- after oral vowels
| pewaku ilosupumnutuna.
| I kissed her thrice.
|-
! -neme- + Perfective
| CESSATIVE (CSS)
| to stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| Umloya sili nukepu ekepu' 'neme' 'nana.
| The men stopped building the tower.
|-
! -neme- + Imperfective
| ADDICTIVE (ADD)
| can't stop Xing
| -mme- is the form of -neme- in participles following an oral vowel. It is never used elsewhere.
| le kenolo elapu''neme''tuma. (ammetumayam)
| I can't stop buying books. (bibliophile)
|-
! -ni-
| COOPERATIVE (COOP), MUTUAL (MUT)
| to do X together
| -ni- can only occur with the paucal, plural, or pantic numbers. The number restriction applies to the subject of the clause; it does not vary depending on the aspect of the verb.
| lelikaninuma.
| We will all die together.
|-
! -nim- + Positive
| BENEFACTIVE (BEN)
| do X well
| -he-, -ya- + Negative is dialectical
| layekeya esipunimnama.
| The girl sings well.
|-
! -nim- + Negative
| MALEFACTIVE (MAL)
| to do X badly
| -he-, -ya- + Positive is dialectical
| amakimna esipunimnamu.
| The merchant sings badly.
|-
! -numu- + Positive
| PERMISSIVE1 (PERM1, PRM1)
| to permit/forbid
| -numu- indicates permission or lack thereof. In a transitive clause, the translation is 'someone is allowed to perform the action of the verb'. In a ditransitive clause using the Causative Construction, the translation is 'someone allows someone to perform the action of the verb.' If it is contrasted with the suffix -mmu-/-num-, -numu- indicates official permission.
| le a elekopu' 'numu' 'ma
| I am allowed/permitted to see it.
|-
! -numu- + Negative
| FORBID (FRB)
| to permit/forbid
|
| Le petu a elekop' 'numu' 'mu.
| I forbid you from seeing it.
|-
! -so-
| BIS
| to do twice
|
| ilosupusotuna.
| I kissed her twice.
|-
! -te- + Imperfective
| DESIDERATIVE (DES)
| to want to X
| Perfective -ka- and imperfective -te- form a strong contrast in the derivative system.
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'te' 'suma.
| I want to send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Realis
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| should X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'suma.
| I should send a letter.
|-
! -teka- + Irrealis
| DISPOSITIVE (DIS)
| would like to X
|
| (Le) nesakam elesupusum' 'teka' 'sume.
| I would like to send a letter.
|-
! -teku- + Imperfective Negative
| AVERSIVE (AVE)
| to fear X happening
| The negation is external /to/ preceding the verb.
| lelikatekanumu.
| We all fear death.
|-
! -to- + Imperfective Negative
| NEGATIVE IMPERATIVE/NIMV
| negative imperative
| The verb requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives do not take number suffixes but not pronominal prefixes and are second person.
| Lilopusum' 'to' 'numu la!
| Do not kill me!
|-
! -tum-
| MOMENTANE (MOM)
| to do once
|
| ilosuputumtuna.
| I kissed her once.
|-
! -u-, -hu, -tam- + Imperfective
| CONTINUATIVE (CONT, CNT)
| to continue to X
| -u occurs after the shortened pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-; -hu occurs after nasal vowels; -tam occurs everywhere else.
| Tupikaya esika' 'tam' 'nama.
| All the birds continued singing.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
| This suffix plus perfective aspect creates a definite past tense, but with the imperfective aspect creates a strong future tense (the future cannot be definite). It replaces any other converbal suffix. -ulu- is the form after the pronominal number suffixes -s- and -l-, -lu- otherwise. After a nasal vowel, the form is -hulu-, but -lu- is a permissible alternative if it creates a better stress pattern.
| Uku um nimupu ikimpulukina.
| Uhu was a good man.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Pukani um nimusopu ikimsulukina.
| Uhu and Fuka were good people.
|-
! -ulu-, -hulu, -lu-
| TNS
| tense marker
|
| Uku Puka yikepusum(hu)lununa.
| Uhu killed Fuka.
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive
| IMPERATIVE (IMV)
| positive imperative
| -wi- requires an external object. Note that imperatives place the direct object after the verb. Imperatives take number suffixes, but not pronominal prefixes and are 2nd person.
| Lilosum' 'wi' 'numa yaso!
| Kill those two!
|-
! -wi- + Imperfective Positive + Pronominal Prefixes
| OBLIGATORY (OBL)
| must X
| When -wi- is suffixed to a verb root that possesses pronominal prefixes, it means 'must'.
| Yaso ipekelosumwinuma.
| You must kill these two.
|-
! -yam- + (usually) Imperfective
| ABILITATIVE (ABIL)
| able to X
| The association with the imperfective is not as strong as it is with some of the other converbals. -yam- triggers the Causative Construction in transitive verbs.
| Leyaloya Nesa ekolo' 'yam' 'ma.
| The men are able to see Nesa.
|-
! -yem-
| ITERATIVE (ITER, ITR)
| to do again
| -yem- does not have a characteristic aspect.
| Leyaloya Nesasum itulo' 'yem' 'tuna.
| The men have returned from Nesa.
|-
! -yosa- + Positive Irrealis
| DUBITATIVE (DUB)
| supposedly
| The negative of -yosa- + Positive Irrealis is -yosaku- + Positive Irrealis
| amayamna yetelo etomlo''yosa''sune.
| The merchant supposedly sold the seeds.
|-
! -yosa- + Negative Irrealis
| ENERGETIC (EN)
| certainly
| The negative of -yosa- + Negative Irrealis is -yosaku- + Negative Irrealis
| um lumsaloya nimuku esiloyosameku.
| The foreigners certainly speak badly.
|-
|}

====Directionals (7.)====

=====General Directionals=====

Directionals derive from suffixes indicating direction of motion; in many cases, however, the verb root and the directional suffix combine to create a discrete verb stem. The sense of motion or stationary position is encoded by the verb root and the valency of the verb complex.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki-
| DIR.STAT, D1
| in place
| eletompu''ki''na
| I kept it in stock
| ikimpu''ki''ma
| She is
| lesupu''ki''ma
| I will wander
|-
! -na-
| DIR.SUPER, D2
| up
|
|
| ikimpu''na''ma
| She has grown up
| lesupu''na''ma
| I will go up
|-
! -nu-
| DIR.SUB, D3
| down'
|
|
| lesupu''nu''ma
| I will go down
| sakipo ekimpu''nu''ma
| The lake has shrunk
|-
! -su-
| DIR.ABL, D4
| away from
| eletompu''su''na
| I sold it
|
|
| lesupu''su''ma
| I will go
|-
! -tu-
| DIR.ALL, D5
| towards
| eletompu''tu''na
| I bought it
|
|
| lesupu''tu''ma
| I will come
|-
|}

-ki- requires some clarification. It places emphasis on the stationary or heavily localized nature of the verb. This need not, however, be completely stationary. The basic directionals are egophoric, i.e., related to the position of the speaker, although in the case of transitive verbs the person upon whom the egophoric position is based may be conventionalized.

=====Specific Directional Suffixes=====

The specific directionals are directional converbal suffixes in Position 7 which refer to absolute rather han egophoric position, as the basic directionals do. The specific directionals, therefore, can only be literal directions. A sentence in which the specific directional suffix has usurped the place of a basic directional suffix must express the egophoric directional information using the Siye case system.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -kuna-, -huna- (< kemhu-na)
| DNV
| from north to the Valley
| -kuna- follows oral vowels, -huna- nasal vowels
|-
! -kana- (< kasa-na)
| DVN
| from the Valley to the north
| Analogical N-ana- under investigation
|-
! –kunu-, -hunu- (< kemhu-nu)
| DSV
| from the south to the Valley
| -kunu- follows oral vowels, -hunu- nasal vowels
|-
! -kanu- (< -kasa-nu)
| DVS
| from the Valley to the south
| Analogical N-anu- under investigation
|-
! -posum- (< sakipo-sum)
| DEC
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -pomsu- (< pomi-su)
| DCE
| from the east to the west/center
|
|-
! -sakinu- (< saki-nu)
| DWE
| from the west to the east (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -sakina- (<saki-na)
| DEW
| from the east to the west (via the River, or general)
|
|-
! -lutesu- ( < lupate-su)
| DCW
| from the east/center to the west
|
|-
! -posu- (< sakipo-su)
| DCE
| from the west/center to the east
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! Umloya itulosakinanam Sinaluke umhikimlosumkina.
| Men came from the east and settled at Shinar.
|-
! Le Nesasu Lusilisum sususuyamke iletukesumpomsuna.
| I summoned the (few) messengers to Nesa from the City.
|-
! Lusilisum ya ipetupusumtuna.
| You have summoned him from the city.
|-
! Lusilisum ya petu ipetupusumposumna.
| You have summoned him from east westward unto you from the city.
|-
|}

====Aspect (8.) and Polarity (9.): PAM Suffixes====

Siye verbs have two aspects, perfective and imperfective, totally detached from time considerations. The perfective is used if the event is viewed as complete action or state, the imperfective if it is viewed as a continuing action or state.

Siye has two polarities, positive and negative.

Siye has two moods, realis and irrealis.

In Early (pre-Vowel Dominance) Siye, Position 8 contained aspect and mood, while Position 9 contained polarity, but vowel dominance collapsed the Positions into the PAM Suffix and triggered the analogical creation of the negative irrealis suffixes.

Various converbal suffixes control the choice of aspect, polarity, mood, or any combination thereof.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -ma-
| IPFV.POS.RLS (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -na-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -me-
| IPFV.POS.IRLS (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -ne-
| PFV.POS.RLS (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -mu-, -mew-
| IPFV.NEG.RLS (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -mew- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -meau-
|-
! -nu-, -new-
| PFV.NEG.RLS (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
| -new- occurs before the coordinative suffix -am
| -neau-
|-
! -meku-
| IPFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -neku-
| PFV.NEG.IRLS (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

====Relational (10.), Coordinative (11.), and Negative (12.)====

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Relational Suffixes
! Name
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -ame, -me
| RELATIVE (REL)
| who/what/which/that
|
|-
! -eki, -ki
| PURPOSE (PURP), RESULT (RES)
| so that, with the result that
| See Siye Syntax for differentiation
|-
! -ekem, -kem
| TEMPORAL (TEMP)
| when
|
|-
! -(e)su, -su, -esunam, -sunam
| APODOTIC (APO)
| then
|
|-
! -esum, -sum
| CONDITIONAL (COND), PROTASIS (PROT)
| if
|
|-
! -eya, -ya
| EXPLANATORY (EXPLAN)
| because
|
|-
! -umo
| POSITIVE INTERROGATIVE (PINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
! -ukumo
| NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE (NINT)
|
| -amo, -mo, Eastern Provinces, Lake, Tiye
|-
| Coordinative Suffixes
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ham, -am, -m
| COORDINATIVE (COORD, CO)
| Connects two verb clauses
| -ham after a nasal consonant; -am after -e- or -i-; -m after -o- or -u-
|-
! -sunam
| APODOTIC + COORDINATIVE (APOCO)
|
| from -su-ni-am to avoid homophony with Conditional -sum
|-
| Negative Suffix
| Name
| Meaning
| Notes
|-
! -ku-
| NEGATIVE (NEG)
| Negation
| Originally a general floating negative suffix, it has evolved into a method of restoring negation in converbal constructions (-yosa-/-yosaku-), relational suffixes (-umo/-ukumo), and PAM suffixes (-me-/-meku-).
|-
|}

These suffixes except the Negative Suffix are clause final, not verb-final. A sentence with OVS word order will attach these suffixes to the inflected S.

=Participle Structure=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| kenanaki
| that which is done, deed
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| nunamaki
| by which it is done, instrument, force
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| kenanakim
| place of deed
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| nunamakim
| time of deed
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| nunamayam
| doer, actor
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| susumsumayam
| messenger, missionary
|-
|}

Siye participles are derived from Siye verbs. The verb is stripped of its pronominal prefixes and therefore the person suffix. Roots which supplete according to aspect still do so. There are more suppletive roots for participles than finite verbs, since the initial stress and the lack of any pronominal prefixes preserved weak verb-initial roots. There are three nominalizing suffixes: -yam, -ki, and -kim, creating a nominal stem which governs number and case suffixes. Instrumental Siye -ki is from Tide -gi, while Passive Siye -ki is from Tide -kë.

A converbal suffix can overrule these aspectual rules. In the sentence "I have resolved to sell it" "eletompukasuna", the converbal suffix -ka- governs the perfective aspect. The perfective form of the suppletive root, a-su rather than tom-su, must occur. When this verb is turned into a participle, the participial forms which normally use imperfective aspect (instrumental, locative, and agentive) must use the perfective aspect, even if this creates homophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Participial Nominalizers
! Name
! Aspect
! Notes
! Example
! Translation
|-
! -ki
| Passive
| Perfective
| passive, mostly inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki
| resolution to sell
|-
! -ki
| Instrumental
| Imperfective
| instrumental inanimate nouns
| tomkasunaki (*akasumaki)
| resolution to sell, by which one resolves to sell (e.g. profit-loss analysis)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Perfective
| place in which characteristic activity occurs OR place in which the characteristic activity no longer occurs
| tomkasunakim
| place of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (if past, or once only)
|-
! -kim
| Locative
| Imperfective
| time of engagement in characteristic activity OR place in which the characteristic activity occurs
| tomkasunakim (*akasumakim)
| time of resolution to sell OR place of resolution to sell (business office, for example)
|-
! -yam
| Agent
| Imperfective
| active, agentive animate nouns
| tomkasunayam (*akasumayam)
| resolute seller
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T21:15:18Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| Le.I.ne(e).ki.Li.yo.E.le.Li.pu.na.me(a)
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-D1-P1
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.sum.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-D5-P2
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.kim.I.Ku.pu.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-D3-P1
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.tu.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-D4-P2
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulunuma.
|-
!
| Li.yo.ne.to.Le.Li.lo.u(lu).nu.me(a)
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| Ne.po.ne.ya.su.sum.su.yam.lo.ya.si.m(e)a.yam.ke.I(i).Tu.ke.sum.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the few Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
! Transliteration
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
| ne(a)
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
| me(a)
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
| sum.a
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
| kem.a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
| su(a), sa
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
| tu(a), sa, ta
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a, sa
| ki(a)
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
| ku(a)
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
| pu(a)
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
| ni(a)
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na < ne(a) > and the APOSS ending -ma < me(a) > as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na < na > to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma < ma > to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na < ni(a) > and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na < na > become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na < na > becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is absorbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa <sa >: The various 'cases' of -sa < sa > (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
! Transliteration
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
| ku
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
| N/A
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
| so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
| ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
| lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
| ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Transliteration
! Transliteration
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| Le, le
| Le(a)
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| Pe, pe
| Sa, sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| I
| Ya, ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| E, e
| E(a), e(a)
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| mu
| mu(a)
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Transliteration
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| me(m).tu
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| me(e)m.sum
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| me(e)m.kim
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| me(e).ki
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| me.to
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T21:11:24Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Pronouns */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| Le.I.ne(e).ki.Li.yo.E.le.Li.pu.na.me(a)
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-D1-P1
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.sum.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-D5-P2
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.kim.I.Ku.pu.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-D3-P1
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.tu.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-D4-P2
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulunuma.
|-
!
| Li.yo.ne.to.Le.Li.lo.u(lu).nu.me(a)
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| Ne.po.ne.ya.su.sum.su.yam.lo.ya.si.m(e)a.yam.ke.I(i).Tu.ke.sum.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the few Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
! Transliteration
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
| ne(a)
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
| me(a)
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
| sum.a
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
| kem.a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
| su(a), sa
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
| tu(a), sa, ta
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a, sa
| ki(a)
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
| ku(a)
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
| pu(a)
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
| ni(a)
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na < ne(a) > and the APOSS ending -ma < me(a) > as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na < na > to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma < ma > to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na < ni(a) > and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na < na > become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na < na > becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is absorbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa <sa >: The various 'cases' of -sa < sa > (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
! Transliteration
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
| ku
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
| N/A
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
| so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
| ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
| lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
| ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Transliteration
! Transliteration
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| Le, le
| Le(a)
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| Pe, pe
| Sa, sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| I
| Ya, ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| E, e
| E(a), e(a)
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| mu
| mu(a)
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T21:04:41Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Grammatical Number */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| Le.I.ne(e).ki.Li.yo.E.le.Li.pu.na.me(a)
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-D1-P1
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.sum.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-D5-P2
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.kim.I.Ku.pu.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-D3-P1
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.tu.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-D4-P2
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulunuma.
|-
!
| Li.yo.ne.to.Le.Li.lo.u(lu).nu.me(a)
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| Ne.po.ne.ya.su.sum.su.yam.lo.ya.si.m(e)a.yam.ke.I(i).Tu.ke.sum.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the few Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
! Transliteration
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
| ne(a)
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
| me(a)
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
| sum.a
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
| kem.a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
| su(a), sa
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
| tu(a), sa, ta
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a, sa
| ki(a)
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
| ku(a)
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
| pu(a)
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
| ni(a)
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na < ne(a) > and the APOSS ending -ma < me(a) > as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na < na > to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma < ma > to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na < ni(a) > and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na < na > become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na < na > becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is absorbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa <sa >: The various 'cases' of -sa < sa > (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
! Transliteration
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
| ku
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
| N/A
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
| so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
| ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
| lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
| ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T21:02:01Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Complex cases */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| Le.I.ne(e).ki.Li.yo.E.le.Li.pu.na.me(a)
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-D1-P1
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.sum.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-D5-P2
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.kim.I.Ku.pu.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-D3-P1
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.tu.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-D4-P2
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulunuma.
|-
!
| Li.yo.ne.to.Le.Li.lo.u(lu).nu.me(a)
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| Ne.po.ne.ya.su.sum.su.yam.lo.ya.si.m(e)a.yam.ke.I(i).Tu.ke.sum.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the few Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
! Transliteration
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
| ne(a)
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
| me(a)
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
| sum.a
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
| kem.a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
| su(a), sa
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
| tu(a), sa, ta
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a, sa
| ki(a)
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
| ku(a)
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
| pu(a)
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
| ni(a)
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na < ne(a) > and the APOSS ending -ma < me(a) > as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na < na > to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma < ma > to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na < ni(a) > and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na < na > become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na < na > becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is absorbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa <sa >: The various 'cases' of -sa < sa > (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T21:00:19Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Complex cases */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| Le.I.ne(e).ki.Li.yo.E.le.Li.pu.na.me(a)
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-D1-P1
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.sum.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-D5-P2
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.kim.I.Ku.pu.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-D3-P1
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.tu.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-D4-P2
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulunuma.
|-
!
| Li.yo.ne.to.Le.Li.lo.u(lu).nu.me(a)
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| Ne.po.ne.ya.su.sum.su.yam.lo.ya.si.m(e)a.yam.ke.I(i).Tu.ke.sum.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the few Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
! Transliteration
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
| ne(a)
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
| me(a)
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
| sum.a
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
| kem.a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
| su(a)
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
| tu(a)
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a
| ki(a)
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
| ku(a)
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
| pu(a)
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
| ni(a)
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na < ne(a) > and the APOSS ending -ma < me(a) > as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na < na > to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma < ma > to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na < ni(a) > and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na < na > become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na < na > becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is absorbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa <sa >: The various 'cases' of -sa < sa > (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T20:44:25Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Cases Authorized 2192 */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| Le.I.ne(e).ki.Li.yo.E.le.Li.pu.na.me(a)
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-D1-P1
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.sum.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-D5-P2
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.kim.I.Ku.pu.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-D3-P1
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.tu.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-D4-P2
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulunuma.
|-
!
| Li.yo.ne.to.Le.Li.lo.u(lu).nu.me(a)
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| Ne.po.ne.ya.su.sum.su.yam.lo.ya.si.m(e)a.yam.ke.I(i).Tu.ke.sum.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the few Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na and the APOSS ending -ma as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is abosrbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa: The various 'cases' of -sa (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T20:40:30Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Cases Authorized 2217 */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| Le.I.ne(e).ki.Li.yo.E.le.Li.pu.na.me(a)
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-D1-P1
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.sum.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-D5-P2
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.kim.I.Ku.pu.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-D3-P1
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.tu.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulunuma.
|-
!
| Li.yo.ne.to.Le.Li.lo.u(lu).nu.me(a)
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| Ne.po.ne.ya.su.sum.su.yam.lo.ya.si.m(e)a.yam.ke.I(i).Tu.ke.sum.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the few Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na and the APOSS ending -ma as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is abosrbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa: The various 'cases' of -sa (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T20:36:07Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Cases Authorized 2200 */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| Le.I.ne(e).ki.Li.yo.E.le.Li.pu.na.me(a)
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-D1-P1
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.sum.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-D5-P2
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.kim.I.Ku.pu.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-D3-P1
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.tu.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulunuma.
|-
!
| Li.yo.ne.to.Le.Li.lo.u(lu).nu.me(a)
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na and the APOSS ending -ma as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is abosrbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa: The various 'cases' of -sa (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T20:32:54Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Cases Authorized 2192 */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| Le.I.ne(e).ki.Li.yo.E.le.Li.pu.na.me(a)
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-D1-P1
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.sum.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-D5-P2
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.kim.I.Ku.pu.nu.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-D3-P1
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| La.ye.si.li.ne(e)m.tu.I.Tu.pu.su.ne(a)
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulununa.
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-DIR-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na and the APOSS ending -ma as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is abosrbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa: The various 'cases' of -sa (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T20:20:21Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Peripheral Cases */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e and the "daughter" (e).

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! siline
| si.li.ne
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| si.li.so.ne
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| Pe.ne sum.me
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! silime
| si.li.me
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| si.li.me
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| si.li.me.so
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| sa.ki.kem.sum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
|
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.sum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.tu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| Lu.pa.te.kem pem.pe.kim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| Lu.si.li.ke.su
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| La.ye.ke le.me.tu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! koki
| Ko.ki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| Le.ya.ke.La.ye.ke.ni.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary adverbial suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary adverbial suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| Um.Mi.so.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| Ke.wim.Mi.ke.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| U.mo.Mi.lo.ku.I.su.pu.tu.me(a)
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| Um.Me.Ku.tum.pu.I.Kim.pu.ki.me(a)
| that man is a hudzu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-DIR.UP-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ALL-PFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-DIR.DOWN-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulununa.
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-DIR-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na and the APOSS ending -ma as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is abosrbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa: The various 'cases' of -sa (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T20:05:25Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Cases authorized 2229 */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutumhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! siline
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! silime
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! koki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary converbal suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary converbal suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| that man is a hutsu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-DIR.UP-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ALL-PFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-DIR.DOWN-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulununa.
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-DIR-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na and the APOSS ending -ma as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is abosrbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa: The various 'cases' of -sa (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Nominal Morphology

2019-03-25T20:04:04Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Core Cases */

=Cases=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| alleged from restored Tide -ŋi (the lost Case 4.); actually an adoption of Rural Ye -i from Early Siye Equative -pu
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| from Tide -suŋ
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Tide -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| from Tide -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| from Thide -gi
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| from Tide -ku, Thide -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| from Tide -bu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| from -ne + eya, analogical causal of clause-final causal -ya
|-
|}

==Core Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Core Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
| subject of intransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (pre-2229)
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
| direct object of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of causee in ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| indirect object of recipient in ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
| subject of transitive verb
|-
!
|
|
| subject of ditransitive verb
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -hi, -0
| direct address (post-2229)
|-
|}

1a. NOMINATIVE (NOM): -0 NOM: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Nominative Case in Standard Siye is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or a personal name. Where a particular Siye dialect draws the line between Nominative/Accusative and Absolutive/Ergative, in other words, where the split of the split-ergative occurs, is the primary isogloss between Siye dialects.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! mu
| Mu
| someone, something
|-
|}

1b. ABSOLUTIVE (ABS): -0 ABS: Everything Except Pronouns and Personal Names

The Absolutive Case is used for the subject of an intransitive clause and the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. Many Scholars believe that the existence of zero-marked surface forms for both Absolutive and Accusative Cases is the cause of the 'slippery slope' of confusion over which core cases to use.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! oya
| O.ya
| eagle
|-
|}

2. ACCUSATIVE (ACC): -a, -0, -ha ACC: Pronouns, Personal Names

The Accusative Case is used for the object of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is either a pronoun or personal name. -ha occurs after syllables containing a nasal vowel. The Accusative Case is vulnerable to vowel dominance, and therefore has a -0 surface form identical to the Nominative and Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! Kumayamha
| Ku.ma.yam.a
| Chief(ACC)
|-
! Kutu
| Ku.tu(a)
| Chief (NOM/ACC) (archaic)
|-
|}

3. ERGATIVE (ERG): -ya, -na

The Ergative Case is used for the subject of a transitive clause, provided that the noun is neither a pronoun nor a personal name. -na follows a syllable containing a nasal consonant or a nasal vowel; -ya follows otherwise. This is a remnant of the period in which the Siye-speakers were a conquered people under the rule of a tribe that spoke a different but related dialect.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kumayamna
| Ku.ma.yam.na
| the chief
|-
! kutuya
| Ku.tu.ya
| the chief (archaic)
|-
|}

===Cases authorized 2229===

20. VOCATIVE (VOC): -hi, -0

The Vocative Case is used for direct address. -hi follows a nasal syllable, while -0 follows an oral syllable. In Early Siye, Vocative was the fourth case. In the transition from Early Siye to Modern Siye, the Vocative Case was lost via vowel dominance after oral syllables and by analogy after nasal syllables. From then to 2229, the vocative usage was covered by Nominative and Absolutive Cases. The post-2229 use is allegedly a restoration of the case, but in truth is an adoption of the Rural Ye Vocative Case -i derived from the Siye Equative Case -pu, via {{IPA|[i]}} < {{IPA|[y]}} < {{IPA|[hy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸy]}} < {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Transliteration
! Translation
|-
! kutummhi
| Ku.tum.i
| o priest!
|-
! leyake
| Le.ya.ke(i)
| o boy!
|-
|}

==Peripheral Cases==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Genitive Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
| alienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| accidental characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate direct object (with 'eki') of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
| inalienable possession
|-
!
|
|
| essential characteristic
|-
!
|
|
| origin
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional animate instrument (with 'eki')
|-
|}

4. GENITIVE (GEN): -ne

The Genitive Case is used to describe alienable possession or an accidental characteristic of a object. There is an archaic form -e, which is found in place names such as Luse and is the origin of the adjectival ending -(h)e.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! siline
| of the house
|-
! silisone
| of the two houses
|-
! pene summe
| because of you
|-
|}

5. POSSESSIVE (POSS): -me

The Possessive Case is used to describe inalienable possession or an essential characteristic of an object. until recently the Possessive Case, unlike the other Cases, preceded rather than followed the grammatical number suffix. The reason for this anomaly is not clear, and many a scholar of the Guild has written his first professional linguistic essay on this topic. With the development and authorization of the post-2192 cases, however, the inverse possessive has developed a derivational rather than syntactic role, and the order has normalized to match the other cases.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! silime
| of the house
|-
! silisome
| of the two houses (post-2192)
|-
! silimeso
| of the two houses (pre-2192)
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
| motion away from
|-
!
|
|
| motion out of (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| origin of a person
|-
!
|
|
| reason (pre-2217)
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
| location
|-
!
|
|
| inside (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| price of transferred object
|-
!
|
|
| postpositional case
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| towards
|-
!
|
|
| into (pre-2192)
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| inanimate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -tu
| benefactive
|-
!
|
|
| animate or intimate possession
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of transitive clause
|-
!
|
|
| animate indirect object of ditransitive causative perfective verb
|-
|}

6. ABLATIVE (ABL): -sum

The Ablative Case is used to describe motion away from a point or (pre-2192) origin from a particular location. It is also used to describe the origin of a person (although the Genitive and Possessive are also used for this) or (pre-2217) reason of a condition. It is not used for origin from a person. The authorization in 2192 of the Elative Case 15. -nesum has narrowed the domain of the Ablative, as has the authorization in 2217 of the Causative Case -neya.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! sakikemhusum
| away from the river
|-
|}

7. LOCATIVE (LOC): -kem

The Locative Case is used to describe a location, or, in ditransitive clauses, the object being transferred or the price of the object in the Absolutive Case (more rarely, Accusative Case). The authorization in 2192 of the Inessive Case 16. -nemkim has narrowed the domain of the Locative. Some postpositions take the Locative rather than the Genitive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! neme lusilinekem
| at the border (end) of the city
|-
! lupatekem pempesum
| from beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempetu
| to beyond the mountain
|-
! lupatekem pempekim
| beyond the mountain
|-
|}

8. (AL)LATIVE/DATIVE (ALL): -su

The Allative Case is used for the inanimate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Allative-Dative.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! lusilikesu
| towards the village
|-
|}

9. DATIVE-BENEFACTIVE (DAT): -tu

The Dative Case is used for the animate indirect object of a main clause, direction towards, direction into (pre-2192), and the animate direct object of a Causative Construction clause when the verb is perfective aspect. The authorization in 2192 of the Illative Case 17. -nemtu has narrowed the domain of the Dative-Benefactive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! layeke lemetu
| for my sister
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ki
| inanimate instrument
|-
!
|
|
| direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb
|-
!
|
|
| adverbial elaboration
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
| accompaniment 'with'
|-
!
|
|
| nominal 'and'
|-
|}

10. INSTRUMENTAL (INS): -ki

The Instrumental Case is used to describe the means by which something is done. This case is only used with Inanimate nouns in Standard Siye; it is rude to use the Instrumental Case with an Animate nouns. The Instrumental Case is used for the inanimate direct object of a Causative Construction Clause when the verb is perfective aspect. Prior to 2192, the postposition /eki/ (e+INS) plus an animate noun in the Genitive Case was used for the animate equivalent. In 2192, the Animate Instrumental case (14. -neki) was authorized to replace this construction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! koki
| by hand; manually
|-
|}

13. COMITATIVE (COM): -ni

The Comitative Case is used to describe accompaniment. It also serves as the primary nominal form of 'and', thus contrasting with the primarily verbal form -(h)(a)m. When used as 'and', the grammatical number of the verb is governed by the noun in the Nominative or Absolutive.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! leyake layekeni isuputuma
| the boy walks with the girl
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Adverbial Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
| forms adverbs
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
| predicate
|-
!
|
|
| direct address (very rare)
|-
|}

11. ADVERBIAL (ADV): -ku

The Adverbial Case converts roots into adverbs. The Guild of Scholars treats this as a case rather than a derivational affix. This suffix is used to adverbialize secondary converbal suffixes excluded from their usual placement by a primary converbal suffix.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! um miku isuputuma
| the man hops/hobbles forward (on one foot)
|-
! um misoku isuputuma
| the man walks forward (on two feet)
|-
! kewim mikeku isuputuma
| the Martian lion walks forward (on four feet)
|-
! umo miloku isuputuma
| the spider walks forward (on many feet)
|-
|}

12. EQUATIVE (EQ): -pu

The Equative Case is used to describe the second noun or adjective in a predicate statement. In Early (pre-vowel dominance) Siye, it was sometimes used as a Vocative Case. In the earliest stage of vowel dominance, it served as a replacement for the elided 20. (Classic) Vocative following an oral vowel. Contemporary Standard Siye elected to eliminate the Vocative entirely, but contemporary Rural Ye, having collapsed the Adverbial, Equative, and Allative into {{IPA|[-hu]}} or {{IPA|[hy]}}, chose to regularize the Vocative usage.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
|-
! um me kutumpu ikimpukima
| that man is a hutsu-priest
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2192==

As of 2192,the following cases were declared legal for formal writing. All of them are the result of contractions between the Genitive Case and postpositions that began with e-.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Locative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neki
| animate direct object of ditransitive causative imperfective verb (post-2192)
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
| out of a location (post-2192)
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemkim
| inside a location (post-2192)
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemtu
| into a location (post-2192)
|-
|}

14. ANIMATE INSTRUMENTAL (ANS): -neki

The Animate Instrumental Case is used for the demoted animate agent of the subordinate clause in imperfective aspect in a Causative Construction. See INSTRUMENTAL (INS) (10.) above and Causative Construction under Siye Sytax.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Le ineki liyo elelipunama.
|-
!
| le-0 i-neki liyo-0 e-le-li-pu-sum-na-ma
|-
!
| 1-NOM 3-ANS food-ABS 4-1-eat.IMPFV-SG-CAUS-DIR.UP-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| I will feed him (=I will cause him to eat the food)
|-
|}

15. ELATIVE (ELA): -nemsum

The Elative Case is used for motion out of a location, superceding this use of 6. ABL.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemsum itupusuna.
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemsum i-tu-pu-tu-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ELA 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ALL-PFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman exited the house.
|-
|}

16. INESSIVE (INE): -nemkim

The Inessive Case is used for position inside of a location, superceding this use of 7. LOC.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemkim ikupununa.
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemkim i-ku-pu-nu-ma
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-INE 3-sleep.IMPFV-SG-DIR.DOWN-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman is sleeping in the house.
|-
|}

17. ILLATIVE (ILL): -nemtu

The Illative Case is used for motion into a location, superceding this use of 8. ALL and 9. DAT.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Laye silinemtu itupusuna.
|-
!
| laye-0 sili-nemtu i-tu-pu-su-na
|-
!
| woman-ABS house-ILL 3-go.PFV-SG-DIR.ABL-PFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| The woman entered the house.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2200==

As of 2200,the following case was authorized to replace -ne to.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! New Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
| without (post-2200)
|-
|}

18. ABESSIVE (ABE): -neto

The Abessive Case is used to describe lack. A counterpart to the Comitative case, the authorization of the Abessive Case was proposed in 2192, but some members of the Guild of Scholars felt that the conflation of the Genitive Case with the postposition /to/ was not as strong as that of situations such as inessive /-nemtu/ from /-ne emtu/, since there was no natural contraction. A minority of Scholars lobbied for /-nito/ on the analogy of Comitative /-ni/.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Liyoneto lelilulununa.
|-
!
| liyo-neto le-li-lo-ulu-nu-ma
|-
!
| food-ABE 1-die.IMPFV-PL-TNS-DIR-IMPFV.POS.REALIS
|-
!
| Without food, we will die.
|-
|}

==Cases Authorized 2217==

As of 2217, the following case was declared legal for formal writing.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Comitative Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
| because of (post-2217)
|-
|}

19. CAUSAL (CAUS): -neya

The Causal Case is used to describe the cause of something when the cause is expressed as a noun. Although the causative has long been expressed formally either by -sum, the Ablative Case or by -ne summe, that is, the noun 'cause' in the Possessive Case preceded by the causative object in the Genitive Case, the postposition 'eya' has long been used informally with the Genitive Case. The recent conflations of postposition using the dummy noun 'e' with preceding Genitive Case -ne have created many new informal case endings, all of which the Gulld of Scholars are examining in order to determine whether and when such neologisms should be accepted as part of Standard Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Neponeya susumsuyamloya Simayamke yitukesumnuna.
|-
!
| nepo-neya susumsuyam-lo-ya Simayam-ke-0 i-i-tu-ke-sum-nu-na
|-
!
| money-CAUS missionary-PL-ERG Siye-speaker-PAUC-ABS 3-3-move.PFV-PAUC-CAUS-D3-P2
|-
!
| The missionaries drowned (baptized?) the Siye-speakers because of (their) money.
|-
|}

==Complex cases==

Complex cases occur when Suffixaufnahme places an Accusative -a after another case suffix which ends in a vowel. These are not official cases, and therefore illegitimate and immoral; furthermore, their illegitimacy means that the crude names herein given are descriptive rather than prescriptive. It is necessary, however, to recognize these forms when in the the western provinces or handling a document from that region. It is difficult to purify immoral grammar if you do not know what the author intended.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Complex Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Contraction of
|-
! Accusi-genitive (AGEN)
| 1
| -na
| -ne-a
|-
! Accusi-possessive (APOSS)
| 2
| -ma
| -me-a
|-
! Accusi-ablative (AABL)
| 3
| -sumha
| -sum-ha
|-
! Accusi-locative (ALOC)
| 4
| -kemha
| -kem-a
|-
! Accusi-allative (AALL)
| 5
| -su, -sa
| -su-a
|-
! Accusi-dative (ADAT)
| 6
| -tu, -sa, -ta
| -tu-a
|-
! Accusi-instrumental (AINS)
| 7
| -ki, -sa
| -ki-a
|-
! Accusi-adverbial (AADV)
| 8
| -ku
| -ku-a
|-
! Accusi-equative (AEQ)
| 9
| -pu
| -pu-a
|-
! Accusi-comitative (ACOM)
| 10
| -na
| -ni-a
|-
|}

===Notes===

AGEN & APOSS: When noun phrases which are used in the Western Provinces are authorized as composite nouns, there is often a choice between the AGEN ending -na and the APOSS ending -ma as the correct syllable. In general, the Guild of Scholars follows Standard Siye guidelines and therefore chooses -na to follow nasal syllables and act as a case ending, and -ma to follow oral syllables and act as the new final syllable of the word. If, however, there is a substantial semantic difference between the meaning of the noun phrase using the Genitive Case and that using the Possessive Case, the Guild of Scholars may authorize an otherwise illegal use of -na following an oral syllable as a new final syllable.

ACOM: If a noun phrase which is used in the Western Provinces uses the ACOM ending -na and is authorized as a composite noun, the Guild of Scholars requires that the -na become the case ending if the now ultimate syllable contains a nasal vowel; otherwise, -na becomes the final syllable of the word.

AALL & ADAT: When the AALL OR ADAT 'cases' are used in a sentence with a transitive verb, it seems as though there is no grammatical direct object. If the Accusative suffix is abosrbed, the verb remains transitive and is treated as though it had a covert applicative suffix.

-sa: The various 'cases' of -sa (AALL, ADAT, AINS) form a contentious issue for the Guild of Scholars. There is a proposal, originally brought forth at the same time as the proposals for the cases authorized in 2192, to replace the Animate Instrumental (ANS) case -neki with -sa. The "Saists" or "Eastern Saists" are part of the Animacist faction which strongly believes in maintaining the distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. These Saists support (unofficially, of course) the use of AALL and ADAT endings. This group should not be confused with the group who call themselves Saists or Western Saists. The latter group is comprised of Scholars from the Far Western Province who advocate the adotion of -sa as an animacy-neutral form of the Dative and Allative Cases in order to prevent the commercial exploitation of Far Westerners who have difficulty with animacy distinctions. As of the current date (2229 AD), the Eastern Saists have diminished in power, but the Western Saists have fared better, although they have not yet received official recognition.

=Grammatical Number=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Grammatical Number
! Abbreviation
! Ending
|-
! Null
| NL
| -ku, -hu, -u
|-
! Singular
| SG
| -0
|-
! Dual
| DU
| -so
|-
! Paucal
| PAUC
| -ke
|-
! Plural
| PL
| -lo
|-
! Pantic
| PAN
| -ka
|-
|}

The Null Number refers to the absence of a particular thing. As of the current date (2229 A.D.), the null number is primarily poetic. /hu/ appears after nasal syllables.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! tupiku sakike mekem imikukima.
| No birds swim in this pond.
|
|-
! yetamku etamkukima.
| No stones remain.
| "Lament of the Fall of the Third Moon"
|-
|}

The Singular Number is used with singular nouns, some abstract nouns, and mass nouns. It is also the citation form of a Standard Siye word.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! uku sakike mekem imipukima.
| A fish swims in this pond.
|
|-
! kamna
| piece of cloth
|
|-
|}

The Dual Number is used to refer to exactly two things. Although pairs of items, such as eyes, are normally in the Dual Number, the Dual Number does not inherently indicate a pair.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! layekeso sakikem imisokima.
| A pair of girls walk by this pond.
|
|-
! wapomso
| the two merchants
|
|-
|}

The Paucal Number refers to a group which is smaller than that of Plural Number but more than the Dual Number. This is a culturally determined distinction.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeke tupime sakike mekem imikekima.
| A few fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! olake
| the few eagles
|
|-
|}

It is true that Paucal suffix -ke and the Diminutive suffix -ke are homophonous (but different etymologically). Context and greater familiarity with the language will allow the Sinammayam (learner of Siye) to distinguish between the two.

The Plural Number refers to a group, larger than that of Paucal Number. This is the generic plural in Siye.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekelo tupime sakike mekem imilokima.
| Many fledglings swim in this pond.
|
|-
! kewimlo
| the many lions
|
|-
|}

The Pantic Number refers to all of a certain thing. It is also used as an ethnic or group designation.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Example
! Translation
! Literary Source
|-
! kekeka tupime ileyempuyamtumame sakike mekem imikakima.
| All of the fledgings whom I espy are swimming in this pond.
|
|-
! Simayamka
| (all) Siye-speakers
|
|-
|}

Structure: ROOT-NUMBER-CASE, except (until 2192) for the Possessive Case, in which case the order is ROOT-CASE-NUMBER.

==Definiteness and Numeral Placement==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness and Numeral Placement
!
!
!
!
|-
! Siye nouns are inherently definite.
| tupiya
| tupi-ya
| bird-ERG
| the bird
|-
! An indefinite noun requires a following /tum/.
| tupi tumna
| tupi tum-na
| bird INDEF-ERG
| a bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tukiya
| tupi tuki-ya
| bird white-ERG
| the white bird
|-
! Adjectives follow the noun.
| tupi tuki tumna
| tupi tuki tum-na
| bird white INDEF-ERG
| a white bird
|-
! The demonstrative /me/ provides further definition
| tupi tuki mena
| tupi tuki me-na
| bird white DEF-ERG
| this/that white bird
|-
! Numerals precede the verb. They are definite.
| tum tupiya
| tum tupi-ya
| one bird-ERG
| one bird
|-
!
| so tupisoya
| so tupi-so-ya
| two bird-DU-ERG
| two birds
|-
!
| ko tupiloya
| ko tupi-lo-ya
| five bird-PL-ERG
| five birds
|-
!
| ko tupilo mena
| ko tupi-lo me-na
| five bird-PL DEF-ERG
| those five birds
|-
|}

=Pronouns=

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st
| le
| la
| /le/ derives from Thide first person pronoun /de/
|-
! 2nd
| pe
| sa
| /pe/ and /sa/ derive from different Thide pronominal roots, /be/ and /ša/ respectively
|-
! 3rd animate
| i
| ya
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/
|-
! 3rd inanimate (aka 4th)
| e
| a
| /i/ and /e/ both derive from Thide third person pronoun /ŋë/.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite (INDEF)
| mu
| mu
| /mu/ is both Nominative and Accusative, animate and inanimate.
|-
|}

In Standard Siye, all the pronouns have a nominative-accusative contrast rather than an ergative-absolutive one. The accusative form is used exclusively for the Accusative case; peripheral cases use the same form as the nominative. Most accusative forms end in /a/. In most cases this is derived from vowel dominance contraction with the Early Siye Accusative suffix /-a/ (Tide -ŋa, Thide -ŋa), but /a/ in /sa/ is original to Thide.

==Isoglosses==

The Valley in which Siye is spoken stretches halfway across the Martian equator, so there are variations in speech along its length. The primary isogloss is the boundary line between nouns that use the Nominative and Accusative and those that use the Ergative and Absolutive. In Standard Siye, the dialect of the City in the Central Province and the variety on which this article is based, only pronouns and personal names can use Nominative and Accusative forms. As one travels east the range of the Nominative decreases; as one travels west towards the Mountain, the opposite occurs. Thus, all varieties of Siye use /le, la/ for the first person pronouns. All but the Far Eastern Province and the Lake use /pe, sa/ for the second person pronoun. The Mid-Eastern Province and points west place all pronouns, regardless of number, in the Nominative category. Standard Siye, from the Central Province, adds personal names to the Nominative category. The Near Western Province requires that nouns denoting humans must be in the Nominative category, reducing the number of complex cases in the spoken version of the western dialects. The Mid-Western Province treats all animate nouns as Nominative, and the Far Western Province is full nominative under the "contamination" of Ulok.

==Non-standard pronouns==

The non-standard pronouns presented here (with one exception) are the ergative-absolutive forms used in the eastern provinces in lieu of the nominative-accusative ones. In documents other than contracts and academic works, non-standard pronouns may appear. The Valley is large, and the combination of vowel dominance and suffixation produce more forms than can be presented here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! Subject
! Object
! Where Used
! Other Notes
|-
! 2nd person
| peya
| pe
| Far Eastern Province, Lake
| /pe/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /pe/ (nominative)
|-
|-
! 3rd person animate
| iya
| i
| Eastern Provinces, Lake
| /i/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /i/ (nominative). /iya/ appears frequently in folk songs, even those composed by speakers of Standard Siye, as a strengthened form of /i/, which is monosyllabic, a lone vowel, and lowest on the vowel dominance hierarchy.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| eya
| e
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Non-standard /e/ (absolutive) is identical to standard /e/ (nominative). /eya/ appears outside of the eastern dialects much less frequently than /iya/.
|-
! 3rd person inanimate
| aya
| a
| Central Province innovation
| Originally an extremely vulgar usage, most common in the seedier parts of the City starting in the late 22nd century A.D., but it spreadi rapidly and now (2250) is heard in lower middle class contexts.
|-
! 3rd person indefinite
| muna
| mu
| Far Eastern Province, Mid-Eastern Province, Lake
| Note that in those dialects the ergative and absolutive forms of the 3rd person indefinite are distinct. Since the emergence of vowel dominance, there has been a small but vocal faction in the Guild of Scholars (the "Munayamlo") which advocates the use of /muna/~/mu/ to resolve ambiguities in current Standard Siye. The syllabary distinguishes between the two using a modified form of the basic < mu > character. The advocated use of of 'muna' is only as an independent pronoun, not as a verb suffix. As of the current date (2229), the Munayamlo have been gaining ground. But they have also been complaining for a millennium.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns==

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Instrumental
! Allative
|-
! Verb Valence
| Transitive
| Ditransitive (Causative)
| Ditransitive (Causative)
|-
! Verb Aspect
| Imperfective
| Imperfective
| Perfective
|-
! Not Expressed By Noun
| Subject, Direct Object
| Causee, Recipient
| Causee, Recipient
|-
! 3rd Person Inanimate
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Pronoun Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causee
| Recipient
|-
! Number Suffix on Verb Refers To
| Direct Object
| Causor
| Causee
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Portmanteau Pronouns
! Accusative
! Notes
|-
! 1st & Inanimate
| la
|
|-
! 2nd & Inanimate
| pa
|
|-
! 3rd & Inanimate
| ya
|
|-
! Definite & Inanimate
| ma
| Analogical
|-
|}

==Accusative Portmanteau Pronouns==

The accusative portmanteau pronouns are /la/, /pa/, /ya/, and /ma/. The first three are the result of a contraction of single nominative pronouns /le/, /pe/, and /i/ with the fourth person accusative pronoun /a/. Note that /la/ and /ya/ are homophonous with the simple accusative pronouns /la/ and /ya/. The accusative portmanteau pronoun /ma/ is derived analogically from the definite pronominal prefix /ma-/. The nominative pronouns /e/ and /mu/ do not have accusative portmanteau pronominal forms. The interrogative pronoun /pala/ has nothing to do the portmanteau process.

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is transitive; the verbal aspect is imperfective; neither the subject nor the direct object is expressed by a noun; the direct object is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the direct object, not the number of the subject; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the subject, not the number of the direct object.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Palo epekosoyammumo?
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| pa-lo-a e-pe-ko-so-yam-ma-umo
|-
!
| 2>4-PL-ACC 4-2-see.IPFV-DU-INCPTV-P1-Q
|-
!
| Can you two see them?
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka elipulunama.
|-
!
| palo-a epekosoyammumo
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-li-pu-ulu-na-ma
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-TNS-D2-P1
|-
!
| He won't eat them all.
|-
|}

Accusative portmanteau pronouns can occur with a perfective verb, but the permissible range is limited to subjects in the singular number and sentences where the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the direct object rather than the subject.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yaka eyokalunanu.
|-
!
| ya-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-nu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.PFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P6
|-
!
| He did not eat them all.
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!
!
|-
!
| Yakaka eyokalunamu
|-
!
| ya-ke-a-ka-a e-i-yo-ka-ulu-na-mu
|-
!
| 3>4-PAUC-4-PAN-ACC 4-3-eat.IMPFV-PAN-TNS-D3-P1
|-
!
| The few of them won't eat all of them.
|-
|}

==Portmanteau Pronouns in Causative Construction (Instrumental and Allative)==

Instrumental portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with an imperfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is imperfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the causee is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the recipient; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causor, not the number of the recipient.

Allative portmanteau pronouns can occur in Causative Constructions with a perfective verb under the following conditions: the verb of the clause is ditransitive; the aspect of the verb is perfective; neither the causee nor the recipient are expressed by nouns; the recipient is fourth person; the number suffix on the portmanteau pronoun refers to the number of the recipent, not the number of the causee; the number suffix on the verb refers to the number of the causee, not the number of the causor.

The number of the causor is singular.

=Post-2192 and post-2200 Derivational Suffixes=

The authorization of the new cases derived from -ne and postpositions has yielded new derivational suffixes for nouns. Whereas previously there was contrast between Genitive -ne and Possessive -me in these postpositional phrases, where the Genitive indicated alienable possession and the Possessive inalienable possession, the new case suffixes with -n- are perceived as cases, while the suffixes with -m- are perceived as suffixes which create new nouns.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Derivative Suffixes
! Animacy
! Meaning
! Example
! Translation
! Notes
|-
! -memtu
| Animate
| Indicates someone who is striving towards a goal
| kutummemtu
| apprentice of a hutsung-priest
|
|-
! -memsum
| Inanimate
| Indicates a lineage
| Kikamemsum
| from the lineage of Chika, Mr. or Mrs. Chikamengsung (surnames in the Western tradition are a recent borrowing from Terrestrial missionaries)
|
|-
! -memkim
| Inanimate
| Indicates the interior of a place
| silimemkim
| room
|
|-
! -meki
| Animate
| Indicates an animate agent
| a(tom)meki
| merchant
|
|-
! -meto
| Animate Adjective
| Indicates a living being lacking something expected
| isometo
| blind
| The older word for 'blind person' /ule/, which has an unfortunate homophone /ule/ 'idiot', is currently losing ground to the new formation /isometo/ 'blind, blind person', from /iso-/ 'a pair of eyes' and /-meto/ 'without', just as /ule/ has peviously replaced /wule/ and mostly displaced /nule/, both in turn derived from /ung-ure/. The dual number suffix in /iso-/, although still recognizable, has been reanalyzed as part of the root; thus 'many blind people' is /isometolo/, with the plural suffix /-lo/.
|-
!
|
|
| imeto
| one-eye
|
|-
|}

Siye Orthography

2019-03-25T19:55:05Z

LinguarumMagister:

The indigenous Siye orthography, "Keno Siye", is an abugida with ninety basic characters (the superimposed nasal coda is not counted), the Modern Basic Syllabary, in which all series (except the w-series and the s-series) distinguish initial and medial (non-initial) characters. The Archaic Syllabary was not originally organized, but later the antecedents of the Guild of Scholars organized the characters in a matrix and modified some homographs. The change from Tide to Tiye to Siye required a reorganization of the matrix, which is now known as the Modern Basic Syllabary. There are no spaces in the script. Initial characters are transcribed in with a Roman capital letter, while medial characters are transcribed with a Roman lower case letter. The w- and s-series, which lack this distinction, are transcribed as lower case.

A character is composed of a "mother", the principal skeleton, and a "daughter", the smaller detached parts. Exceptions are < To > and < no >, which only have "daughters". The medial characters derive from prenasalized characters in earlier stages of the language, for which reason so many of them have the nasal dash. < Ta > and <na> differ only in the presence of the nasal dash. The mother is shared wit < Ta >, < na >, < ti >, and < Li >. The daughter is shared with < Ta >, < na >, < Te >, < ne >, < Ti >, < ni >, < To >, and < no >. This daughter is a mother in < Tu > and < nu >, while < na > uses this mother and the nasal dash. As stated above, the nasal dash occurs only in medial syllables, 35 of the total 90. The orphan daughters < To > and < no > have daughters of their own. Some half-size characters, such as < ya > and < Tu >, expand to full height, but < Yo > and < Ma > remain at half-height.

There are additional characters modified from the basic characters to indicate grammatical suffixes, distinguish cases hidden by vowel dominance, adjectival derivation, and providing scribal shortcuts, as well as an "alphabet" that allows for corrections, foreign pronunciations, and coda consonants. In these cases, the "daughter" is orthographically expressed in parentheses. It is permissible to only use characters from the Basic Syllabary, but the use of the additional characters makes Keno Siye text easier to parse and makes the writer appear better morally and grammatically.

The positional suffix < na > is a basic character, but the perfective positive realis suffix < ne (a) >, which is often adjacent to the positional suffix < na >, is the basic character < ne > modified by a "daughter" < a >. A noun such as < wino > is pronounced identically in the absolutive and vocative, but the second character of the vocative, < no (i) >, is the absolutive < no > modified by a "daughter" . The orthography's ability to represent foreign pronunciation is important to missionary work. Superscript consonants and vowels indicate a correction. Subscript consonants indicate codas. Subscript vowels indicate the second part of diphthongs. The subscript coda consonants, in particular, are important for accurate transcription of Ulok in Keno Siye.

The very name of the writing system is < Ke(i).no Si.ye(e) >.

Many homophonous names are distinguished by additional characters. For example, the masculine name Uku is written < U.ku >, but the feminine name Uku is written < U.ke(u) >. A girl named Tu after the arranger of the Keno Siye would spell her name < Ta(u) > because the original name was Tadibu, which collapsed to < Ta(i).wu > and thence to < Ta(u) >.

Due to the complexities of Keno Siye, each affix in the main text of the grammar will have an indication of the character(s) used.

There are various Romanization schemes. The principal one (Standard), the one used in this document, hews close to the phonemic scheme of the native orthography. A Practical Orthography uses phonetics as its guiding principle. This system is rarer but still common. Cyrillic and Hebrew orthographies also exist.

Siye Dialects

2019-03-25T19:46:02Z

LinguarumMagister:

None of the dialects participate in the post-2245 voicing changes of Standard Siye

==Siye (Susu)==

The dialect of Siye dismissively known as Susu has as its principal feature the collapse of the affricates into the fricatives. This creates surprisingly few problems, so much so that some broad-minded Simayamka consider Susu 'barely a dialect'. This is intended as a compliment. The main grammatical feature of Susu is the replacement of the directional suffix /tu/ [su], now homophonous with the directional suffix /su/ [su], with /sa/ [sa].

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Examples
! Meaning
! Standard Spelling
! Standard Pronunciation
! Susu Pronunciation
|-
!
| fortress
| /kilu/
| {{IPA|[ˈʧʰi.lu]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈʃi.lu]}}
|-
!
| hudzu-priest
| /kutum/
| {{IPA|[ˈxu.dzʊⁿ]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈxu.sʊⁿ]}}
|-
!
| wisemen
| /pimuyamka/
| {{IPA|[ˈtçʰi.mu.ˌjæⁿ.ka]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈçi.mu.ˌjæⁿ.ka]}}
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -a, -ha, -0
|
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -ya, -na
|
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -ne, (etym.) -e
|
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -me
|
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -sum
|
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -kem
|
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -su
| from Siye -su, -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -ʃi
| from Siye -ki
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -ni
|
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -ku
|
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -pu
|
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -neʃi
|
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -nemsum
|
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -nemʃim
|
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -nemsu
|
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -neto
|
|-
! Causal
| 19
| -neya
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -{{IPA|[ʃi]}}-
| DIR.STAT
| in place
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[na]}}-
| DIR.SUPER
| up
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[nu]}}-
| DIR.SUB
| down
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[su]}}-
| DIR.ABL
| away from
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[sa]}}-
| DIR.ALL
| towards
| Replaces -{{IPA|[su]}}- from Siye -{{IPA|[tsu]}}-
|-
|}

==Siye (Tsishi)==

The Tsishi dialect features the coalescence of the high vowels and the creation of new phonemes from allophones.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Examples
! Meaning
! Standard Spelling
! Standard Pronunciation
! Tsishi Pronunciation
|-
!
| town, city
| /lusili/
| {{IPA|[ˈlu.ʃi.li]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈli.ʃi.ʎi]}}
|-
!
| lustful(ly)
| /omnuni/
| {{IPA|[ˈɔⁿ.nu.ni]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈɔⁿ.ni.ɲi]}}
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Absolutive
| 1, 1b
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -{{IPA|[a]}}, -0
| from Tide -ŋa
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -{{IPA|[ja]}}, -{{IPA|[na]}}
| from Tide -ɲa, Thide -sa
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -{{IPA|[ne]}}
| from Tide -ŋë, Thide -kë
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -{{IPA|[me]}}
| possibly from Tide definite pronoun /me/, Thide /me/
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -{{IPA|[sɪⁿ]}}
| from Siye -sum
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -{{IPA|[kɛⁿ]}}
| from Tide -këŋ
|-
! Allative-Dative
| 8
| -{{IPA|[si]}}
| from Siye -su
|-
! Dative-Benefactive
| 9
| -{{IPA|[tsu]}}
| from Siye -tu
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -{{IPA|[tʃi]}}
| from Siye -ki
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -{{IPA|[ɲi]}}
| from Siye -ni
|-
! Adverbial
| 11
| -{{IPA|[xi]}}
| from Siye -ku
|-
! Equative
| 12
| -{{IPA|[ɸi]}}
| from Siye -pu
|-
! Animate Instrumental
| 14
| -{{IPA|[netʃi]}}
| from Siye -ne + eki, instrumental postposition from instrumental case of inanimate pronoun 'e'
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -{{IPA|[nɛⁿsɪⁿ]}}
| from Siye -ne + emsum, analogical ablative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -{{IPA|[nɛⁿʃɪⁿ]}}
| from Siye -ne + emkim, analogical locative of emtu 'inner' from emtu 'innards'
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -{{IPA|[nɛⁿsi]}}
| from Siye -ne + emtu, locative postposition 'inner' from emtu "innards"
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -{{IPA|[neto]}}
| from Siye -ne + to "without", from Thide tʰo "absence"
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -{{IPA|[tʃi]}}-
| DIR.STAT
| in place
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[na]}}-
| DIR.SUPER
| up
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[ni]}}-
| DIR.SUB
| down
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[si]}}-
| DIR.ABL
| away from
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[tsi]}}-
| DIR.ALL
| towards
|
|-
|}

===Changes in Tsishi===

Recent (2250) changes in the Tsishi dialect have produced geminate consonants and closed oral syllables.

ʧ > ʃʃ {{IPA|[-ʃʃi]}} INS vs {{IPA|[-ʃi]}} INCL

ʦ > ss {{IPA|[-ssi]}} DAT vs {{IPA|[-si]}} ALL vs {{IPA|[-sɪⁿ]}} ABL

ʎ > ll {{IPA|[ˈʃilli]}} 'house', {{IPA|[ˈʧili]}} 'fort' {{IPA|[liʃillisi]}} 'to the town'

ɲ > nn {{IPA|[-nni]}} COM {{IPA|[-ni]}} DIR.SUB

===Siye (Tsushi)===

Tsushi is a newly (2250) recorded dialect or sub-dialect of Tsishi. Hypercorrection of the consonants preceding Tsishi i < u, i has resulted in:

{{IPA|[xi]}} for /ki/ {{IPA|[tʃi]}}

{{IPA|[ɸi]}} for initial /pi/ {{IPA|[tç]}}

{{IPA|[ʃu]}} for non-initial /pu/ {{IPA|[ɸu]}}

{{IPA|[si]}} for /si/ {{IPA|[ʃi]}}

==Ye==

Ye has two variations, Rural and Urban.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cases
! Case Number
! Case Suffix
! Notes
|-
! Nominative-Absolutive
| 1, 1a
| -0
|
|-
! Accusative
| 2
| -{{IPA|[ɔ]}}
|
|-
! Ergative
| 3
| -{{IPA|[nɔ]}}
|
|-
! Vocative
| 20
| -{{IPA|[i]}}
|
|-
! Genitive
| 4
| -{{IPA|[ne]}}
|
|-
! Possessive
| 5
| -{{IPA|[me]}}
|
|-
! Ablative
| 6
| -{{IPA|[ɛⁿ]}}, -0
|
|-
! Locative
| 7
| -{{IPA|[kæⁿ]}}
|
|-
! Allative-Dative
| (8) 9
| -{{IPA|[θi]}}
|
|-
! Instrumental
| 10
| -{{IPA|[xi]}}
|
|-
! Comitative
| 13
| -{{IPA|[ni]}}
|
|-
! Elative
| 15
| -{{IPA|[kɛⁿ]}}
| LOC + ABL
|-
! Inessive
| 16
| -{{IPA|[kæⁿxi]}}
| LOC + LOC
|-
! Illative
| 17
| -{{IPA|[kæⁿθi]}}
| LOC + ALL
|-
! Abessive
| 18
| -{{IPA|[nito]}}
| COM + to
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! General Directionals
! Abbreviation
! Meaning
! Notes
|-
! -{{IPA|[xi]}}-
| DIR.STAT
| in place
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[nɔ]}}-
| DIR.SUPER
| up
|
|-
! -{{IPA|[ni]}}-
| DIR.SUB
| down
| Older {{IPA|[ny]}}
|-
! -{{IPA|[i]}}-, -{{IPA|[0]}}-
| DIR.ABL
| away from
| Older {{IPA|[y]}}, {{IPA|[hy]}}; Ye absence of Directional implies DIR.ABL
|-
! -{{IPA|[θi]}}-
| DIR.ALL
| towards
| Older {{IPA|[θy]}}
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! PAM Suffixes
! Abbreviation
! Aspect
! Polarity
! Mood
! Notes
! Early Siye
|-
! -{{IPA|[mɔ]}}-
| IPFV.POS.REAL (PAM1, P1)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -mea-
|-
! -{{IPA|[nɔ]}}-
| PFV.POS.REAL (PAM2, P2)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Realis
|
| -nea-
|-
! -{{IPA|[me]}}-
| IPFV.POS.IRL (PAM3, P3)
| Imperfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -me-
|-
! -{{IPA|[ne]}}-
| PFV.POS.IRL (PAM4, P4)
| Perfective
| Positive
| Irrealis
|
| -ne-
|-
! -{{IPA|[mɔ:]}}-
| IPFV.POS.REAL (PAM5, P5)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Realis
|
| -meau-
|-
! -{{IPA|[nɔ:]}}-
| PFV.POS.REAL (PAM6, P6)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Realis
|
| -neau-
|-
! -{{IPA|[me:]}}-
| IPFV.POS.IRL (PAM7, P7)
| Imperfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Subjunctive
| -meu-
|-
! -{{IPA|[ne:]}}-
| PFV.POS.IRL (PAM8, P8)
| Perfective
| Negative
| Irrealis
| Contrafactual
| -neu-
|-
|}

1. In pre-Ye, {{IPA|a}} and {{IPA|um}} had become {{IPA|[ɑ]}} and {{IPA|[ʌⁿ]}}.

2. The fricatives coalesce into h: s, ɸ, ʃ , x > h.

3. The affricates become fricatives: tʃ, ts, tç > ʃ, s, ç

4. The Great Ye Vowel Shift; ɛⁿ > æⁿ, ɑ > ɔ, æⁿ > ɪɘⁿ, Cæⁿ > Cjɘⁿ, ɔⁿ > ɒⁿ, u > y, ʌⁿ > ɛⁿ

5. The semi-vowels and h disappear, precipitating a round of vowel dominance contraction: h, w, j > 0

6. The remaining fricatives increase distance from one another: ʃ, s, ç > x, θ, s

7. y > i (22nd century)

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Examples
! Meaning
! Standard Spelling
! Standard Pronunciation
! Rural Ye Pronunciation
! Notes
|-
!
| red
| /kiwa/
| {{IPA|[ˈʧʰi.ʋɑ]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈxɔ:]}}
|
|-
!
| I am seeing it.
| /eleyemputsuma/
| {{IPA|[e.le.ˈjɛⁿ.ɸu.ˌtsu.mɑ]}}
| {{IPA|[e.ˈlɛⁿ:.ʔi.ˌθi.mɔ]}}
|
|-
!
| towards the fortress
| /kilusu/
| {{IPA|[ˈʧʰi.lu.su]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈxi.li.θi]}}
|
|-
!
| cloak
| /kamsutu/
| {{IPA|[ˈkæⁿ.su.tsu]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈkʰjɘⁿ.i.θi]}}
|
|-
!
| beast
| /pitake/
| {{IPA|[ˈtçʰi.tɑ.ke]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈsi.tɔ.ke]}}
|
|-
!
| loc.
| /-kem/
| {{IPA|[gɛⁿ]}}
| {{IPA|[kæⁿ]}}
|
|-
!
| what?
| /pala/
| {{IPA|[ˈpa.la]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈpɔ.lɔ]}}
|
|-
!
| Martian duck
| /amsa/
|
| {{IPA|[ˈɪɘⁿ.sjɘⁿ]}}
| Mostly found in local words of pre-Siye origin
|-
!
| ecstasy
| /omnum/
| {{IPA|[ˈɔⁿ.nʌⁿ]}}
| {{IPA|[ˈɒⁿ.nɛⁿ]}}
|
|-
|}

===Tadji===

Tadji is a daughter language of Tide and a sister language to Tiye. It is descended from the ruling caste dialect used before the Great Revolt. It is beyond the scope of this document to explore the complexities of Tadji, so here it will merely be stated that Siye-speakers often use Tadji as an onomastic resource.

Siye Orthography

2019-03-25T19:31:00Z

LinguarumMagister:

The indigenous Siye orthography, "Keno Siye", is an abugida with ninety basic characters (the superimposed nasal coda is not counted), the Modern Basic Syllabary, in which all series (except the w-series and the s-series) distinguish initial and medial (non-initial) characters. The Archaic Syllabary was not originally organized, but later the antecedents of the Guild of Scholars organized the characters in a matrix and modified some homographs. The change from Tide to Tiye to Siye required a reorganization of the matrix, which is now known as the Modern Basic Syllabary. There are no spaces in the script. Initial characters are transcribed in with a Roman capital letter, while medial characters are transcribed with a Roman lower case letter. The w- and s-series, which lack this distinction, are transcribed as lower case.

A character is composed of a "mother", the principal skeleton, and a "daughter", the smaller detached parts. Exceptions are < To > and < no >, which only have "daughters". The medial characters derive from prenasalized characters in earlier stages of the language, for which reason so many of them have the nasal dash. < Ta > and <na> differ only in the presence of the nasal dash. The mother is shared wit < Ta >, < na >, < ti >, and < Li >. The daughter is shared with < Ta >, < na >, < Te >, < ne >, < Ti >, < ni >, < To >, and < no >. This daughter is a mother in < Tu > and < nu >, while < na > uses this mother and the nasal dash. As stated above, the nasal dash occurs only in medial syllables, 35 of the total 90. The orphan daughters < To > and < no > have daughters of their own. Some half-size characters, such as < ya > and < Tu >, expand to full height, but < Yo > and < Ma > remain at half-height.

There are additional characters modified from the basic characters to indicate grammatical suffixes, distinguish cases hidden by vowel dominance, adjectival derivation, and providing scribal shortcuts, as well as an "alphabet" that allows for corrections, foreign pronunciations, and coda consonants. In these cases, the "daughter" is orthographically expressed in parentheses. It is permissible to only use characters from the Basic Syllabary, but the use of the additional characters makes Keno Siye text easier to parse and makes the writer appear better morally and grammatically.

The positional suffix < na > is a basic character, but the perfective positive realis suffix < ne (a) >, which is often adjacent to the positional suffix < na >, is the basic character < ne > modified by a "daughter" < a >. A noun such as < wino > is pronounced identically in the absolutive and vocative, but the second character of the vocative, < no (i) >, is the absolutive < no > modified by a "daughter" . The orthography's ability to represent foreign pronunciation is important to missionary work. Superscript consonants and vowels indicate a correction. Subscript consonants indicate codas. Subscript vowels indicate the second part of diphthongs. The subscript coda consonants, in particular, are important for accurate transcription of Ulok in Keno Siye.

The very name of the writing system is < Ke(i).no Si.ye(e) >.

Due to the complexities of Keno Siye, each affix in the main text of the grammar will have an indication of the character(s) used.

There are various Romanization schemes. The principal one (Standard), the one used in this document, hews close to the phonemic scheme of the native orthography. A Practical Orthography uses phonetics as its guiding principle. This system is rarer but still common. Cyrillic and Hebrew orthographies also exist.

Siye Orthography

2019-03-25T19:29:39Z

LinguarumMagister:

The indigenous Siye orthography, "Keno Siye", is an abugida with ninety basic characters (the superimposed nasal coda is not counted), the Modern Basic Syllabary, in which all series (except the w-series and the s-series) distinguish initial and medial (non-initial) characters. The Archaic Syllabary was not originally organized, but later the antecedents of the Guild of Scholars organized the characters in a matrix and modified some homographs. The change from Tide to Tiye to Siye required a reorganization of the matrix, which is now known as the Modern Basic Syllabary. There are no spaces in the script. Initial characters are transcribed in with a Roman capital letter, while medial characters are transcribed with a Roman lower case letter. The w- and s-series, which lack this distinction, are transcribed as lower case.

A character is composed of a "mother", the principal skeleton, and a "daughter", the smaller detached parts. Exceptions are < To > and < no >, which only have "daughters". The medial characters derive from prenasalized characters in earlier stages of the language, for which reason so many of them have the nasal dash. < Ta > and <na> differ only in the presence of the nasal dash. The mother is shared wit < Ta >, < na >, < ti >, and < Li >. The daughter is shared with < Ta >, < na >, < Te >, < ne >, < Ti >, < ni >, < To >, and < no >. This daughter is a mother in < Tu > and < nu >, while < na > uses this mother and the nasal dash. As stated above, the nasal dash occurs only in medial syllables, 35 of the total 90. The orphan daughters < To > and < no > have daughters of their own. Some half-size characters, such as < ya > and < Tu >, expand to full height, but < Yo > and < Ma > remain at half-height.

There are additional characters modified from the basic characters to indicate grammatical suffixes, distinguish cases hidden by vowel dominance, adjectival derivation, and providing scribal shortcuts, as well as an "alphabet" that allows for corrections, foreign pronunciations, and coda consonants. In these cases, the "daughter" is orthographically expressed in parentheses. It is permissible to only use characters from the Basic Syllabary, but the use of the additional characters makes Keno Siye text easier to parse and makes the writer appear better morally and grammatically.

The positional suffix < na > is a basic character, but the perfective positive realis suffix < na >, which is often adjacent to the positional suffix < ne (a) >, is the basic character < ne > modified by a "daughter" < a >. A noun such as < wino > is pronounced identically in the absolutive and vocative, but the second character of the vocative, < no (i) >, is the absolutive < no > modified by a "daughter" . The orthography's ability to represent foreign pronunciation is important to missionary work. Superscript consonants and vowels indicate a correction. Subscript consonants indicate codas. Subscript vowels indicate the second part of diphthongs. The subscript coda consonants, in particular, are important for accurate transcription of Ulok in Keno Siye.

The very name of the writing system is < Ke(i).no Si.ye(e) >.

Due to the complexities of Keno Siye, each affix in the main text of the grammar will have an indication of the character(s) used.

There are various Romanization schemes. The principal one (Standard), the one used in this document, hews close to the phonemic scheme of the native orthography. A Practical Orthography uses phonetics as its guiding principle. This system is rarer but still common. Cyrillic and Hebrew orthographies also exist.

Siye Phonology

2019-03-25T19:27:08Z

LinguarumMagister:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Consonants
! Labial
! Coronal
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! Nasals
| {{IPA|m}} {{IPA|[m]}}
| {{IPA|n}} {{IPA|[n]}}
|
|
|
|-
! Plosives
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|[p]}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} {{IPA|[b]}}
| {{IPA|t}} {{IPA|[t]}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}} {{IPA|[d]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|[k]}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} {{IPA|[g]}}
|-
! Fricatives
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|[ɸ]}} {{IPA|[β]}}
| {{IPA|s}} {{IPA|[s]}} {{IPA|[z]}}
| {{IPA|s}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|[ç]}} {{IPA|[ʝ]}}
| {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|[x]}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
|-
! Affricates
|
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|[tçʰ]}} {{IPA|[tç]}}
|
| {{IPA|t}} {{IPA|[ts]}} {{IPA|[tsʰ]}} {{IPA|[dz]}}
| {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}} {{IPA|[tʃʰ]}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}
|-
! Liquids
| {{IPA|w}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| {{IPA|l}} {{IPA|[l]}}
|
| {{IPA|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|-
! Miscellaneous
| {{IPA|m}} {{IPA|[◌̃]}}
|
|
|
|
|-
|}

Outside the City, {{IPA|[ç]}} and {{IPA|[ʝ]}} merge with {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[ʒ]}}, even in Standard Siye.

Plosives and affricates are aspirated word-initially and when they are the initial onset of a verb root before an oral vowel. Before a nasal vowel, the non-aspirated unvoiced onsets are voiced, and the aspirated unvoiced consonants are deaspirated, but remain unvoiced. Initial aspiration of plosives and affricates is far less common outside the City. {{IPA|m}} word-finally or before a consonant (including {{IPA|h}}) indicates a nasal vowel. {{IPA|h}} {{IPA|[0]}} is a placeholder after /m/ {{IPA|[ⁿ]}} and (in Early Siye and dialects) intervocalically.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Affrication
! Place of Articulation
! Before {{IPA|[u]}}
! Before {{IPA|[i]}}
! Before {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
! Before {{IPA|[ɪⁿ]}}
! Notes
|-
! Labial
| {{IPA|[p]}}
| {{IPA|[ɸ]}}
| {{IPA|[ç]}}
| {{IPA|[β]}}
| {{IPA|[ʝ]}}
|
|-
! Initial Labial
| {{IPA|[p]}}
| {{IPA|[ɸ]}}
| {{IPA|[tçʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɸ]}}
| {{IPA|[tç]}}
|
|-
! Dental
| {{IPA|[t]}}
| {{IPA|[ts]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[dz]}}
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}} from {{IPA|[t]}} is an etymological spelling
|-
! Initial Dental
| {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[tsʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[ts]}}
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}} from {{IPA|[t]}} is an etymological spelling
|-
! Velar
| {{IPA|[k]}}
| {{IPA|[x]}}
| {{IPA|[tʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
| {{IPA|[dʒ]}}
|
|-
! Initial Velar
| {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[x]}}
| {{IPA|[tʃʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
| {{IPA|[tʃ]}}
|
|-
! Sibilant
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[z]}}
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|
|-
! Initial Sibilant
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[z]}}
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Oral Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|[i]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
! Close Mid
| {{IPA|e}} {{IPA|[e]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|o}} {{IPA|[o]}}
|-
! Open Mid
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[ə]}}
|
|
|-
! Open
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[a]}}
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Nasal Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close-Mid
| {{IPA|im}} {{IPA|[ɪⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|em}} {{IPA|[ɛⁿ]}}
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʌⁿ]}}
| {{IPA|om}} {{IPA|[ɔⁿ]}}
|-
! Open
| {{IPA|am}} {{IPA|[æⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
|}

{{IPA|[ə]}} and {{IPA|[a]}}, {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}} and {{IPA|[ʌⁿ]}} are in free variation. {{IPA|[ə]}} often occurs in unstressed vowels.

===Update===

As of 2246, unvoiced consonants are officially voiced before nasal vowels. In the City, this does not affect initial aspirated consonants, but in those dialects in which initial consonants are not aspirated, this voicing rule applies.

==Nasalization and Advanced Tongue Root==

In Standard Siye, the nasal vowels share the feature retracted tongue root (RTR), while the oral vowels share the feature advanced tongue root (ATR). In studies of Siye, the feature is defined as +ATR and -ATR. Standard Siye has the typologically rare 10-vowel ATR. The Near and Mid Provinces reduce the ATR system by removing [ə] in favor of a generalized [a].

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Oral Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|[i]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
! High Mid
| {{IPA|e}} {{IPA|[e]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|o}} {{IPA|[o]}}
|-
! Open
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[a]}}
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Nasal Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close-Mid
| {{IPA|im}} {{IPA|[ɪⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|em}} {{IPA|[ɛⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|om}} {{IPA|[ɔⁿ]}}
|-
! Open
| {{IPA|am}} {{IPA|[aⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
|}

The Far Western Province uses a seven-vowel system:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Oral Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|[i]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|ɔ}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
|-
! Open
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[a]}}
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Nasal Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close-Mid
| {{IPA|im}} {{IPA|[ɪⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|em}} {{IPA|[ɛⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|om}} {{IPA|[ɔⁿ]}}
|-
! Open
| {{IPA|am}} {{IPA|[aⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
|}

The Far Eastern Province and the Lake have a slightly different seven-vowel system:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Oral Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|[i]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|ɔ}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
|-
! Open
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[a]}}
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Nasal Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|im}} {{IPA|[iⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
! Close-Mid
|
|
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|em}} {{IPA|[ɛⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|om}} {{IPA|[ɔⁿ]}}
|-
! Open
| {{IPA|am}} {{IPA|[aⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
|}

==Vowel Dominance==

Standard Siye vowels have a dominance system whereby one vowel eliminates an adjacent vowel rather than creating a long vowel or diphthong. Early Siye lacked this feature. The impact of vowel dominance in Siye is extensive, but many exceptions exist to avoid ambiguity. The dominance pattern follows a V-shape, starting in the high back, descending to low central, and ascending to high front. Thus the dominance hierarchy is as follows: /u/ > /o/ > /a/ > /e/ > /i/.

==Stress Placement==

Stress in Siye is trochaic-dactylic. Polysyllabic affixes can only receive stress on the initial syllable. The combination of the following rules creates a complex primary-secondary stress pattern. Some regularly trisyllabic suffixes have bisyllabic allomorphs to conform to this pattern.

A Siye verb receives primary stress on the first syllable of the verb root; thus the verb /pelekopuyammu/{{IPA|[pe.le.ˈkʰo.ɸu.ˌjæⁿ.mu]}} and /lekunasonima/ {{IPA|[ˈle.xu.so.ˌni.ma]}} receive primary stresses on /ko/ and /ku/.

The secondary stresses are distributed according to the following rules:

1) There is a minimum of one and maximum of two unstressed syllables between stressed syllable

2) Only the first syllable of a root or suffix can be stressed.

3) The sequence of preferred placements of secondary stresses are as follows: directional (D) suffix; causative suffix; adverbial suffix; pronominal number suffix; PAM/P (polarity-aspect-mood) suffix.

Siye Phonology

2019-03-25T19:19:33Z

LinguarumMagister:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Consonants
! Labial
! Coronal
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
|-
! Nasals
| {{IPA|m}} {{IPA|[m]}}
| {{IPA|n}} {{IPA|[n]}}
|
|
|
|-
! Plosives
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|[p]}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} {{IPA|[b]}}
| {{IPA|t}} {{IPA|[t]}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}} {{IPA|[d]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|[k]}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} {{IPA|[g]}}
|-
! Fricatives
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|[ɸ]}} {{IPA|[β]}}
| {{IPA|s}} {{IPA|[s]}} {{IPA|[z]}}
| {{IPA|s}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|[ç]}} {{IPA|[ʝ]}}
| {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|[x]}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
|-
! Affricates
| A|[ʤ]}}
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|[tçʰ]}} {{IPA|[tç]}}
|
| {{IPA|t}} {{IPA|[ts]}} {{IPA|[tsʰ]}} {{IPA|[dz]}}
| {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}} {{IPA|[tʃʰ]}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}
|-
! Liquids
| {{IPA|w}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| {{IPA|l}} {{IPA|[l]}}
|
| {{IPA|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|-
! Miscellaneous
| {{IPA|m}} {{IPA|[◌̃]}}
|
|
|
|
|-
|}

Outside the City, {{IPA|[ç]}} merges with {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, even in Standard Siye.

Plosives and affricates are aspirated word-initially and when they are the initial onset of a verb root before an oral vowel. Initial aspiration of plosives and affricates is far less common outside the City. {{IPA|m}} word-finally or before a consonant (including {{IPA|h}}) indicates a nasal vowel. {{IPA|h}} {{IPA|[0]}} is a placeholder after /m/ {{IPA|[ⁿ]}} and (in Early Siye and dialects) intervocalically.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Affrication
! Place of Articulation
! Before {{IPA|[u]}}
! Before {{IPA|[i]}}
! Before {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
! Before {{IPA|[ɪⁿ]}}
! Notes
|-
! Labial
| {{IPA|[p]}}
| {{IPA|[ɸ]}}
| {{IPA|[ç]}}
| {{IPA|[β]}}
| {{IPA|[ʝ]}}
|
|-
! Initial Labial
| {{IPA|[p]}}
| {{IPA|[ɸ]}}
| {{IPA|[tçʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɸ]}}
| {{IPA|[tç]}}
|
|-
! Dental
| {{IPA|[t]}}
| {{IPA|[ts]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[dz]}}
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}} from {{IPA|[t]}} is an etymological spelling
|-
! Initial Dental
| {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[tsʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[ts]}}
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}} from {{IPA|[t]}} is an etymological spelling
|-
! Velar
| {{IPA|[k]}}
| {{IPA|[x]}}
| {{IPA|[tʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
| {{IPA|[dʒ]}}
|
|-
! Initial Velar
| {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[x]}}
| {{IPA|[tʃʰ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
| {{IPA|[tʃ]}}
|
|-
! Sibilant
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[z]}}
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|
|-
! Initial Sibilant
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| {{IPA|[z]}}
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Oral Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|[i]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
! Close Mid
| {{IPA|e}} {{IPA|[e]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|o}} {{IPA|[o]}}
|-
! Open Mid
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[ə]}}
|
|
|-
! Open
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[a]}}
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Nasal Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close-Mid
| {{IPA|im}} {{IPA|[ɪⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|em}} {{IPA|[ɛⁿ]}}
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʌⁿ]}}
| {{IPA|om}} {{IPA|[ɔⁿ]}}
|-
! Open
| {{IPA|am}} {{IPA|[æⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
|}

{{IPA|[ə]}} and {{IPA|[a]}}, {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}} and {{IPA|[ʌⁿ]}} are in free variation. {{IPA|[ə]}} often occurs in unstressed vowels.

===Update===

As of 2246, unvoiced consonants are officially voiced before nasal vowels. In the City, this does not affect initial aspirated consonants, but in those dialects in which initial consonants are not aspirated, this voicing rule applies.

==Nasalization and Advanced Tongue Root==

In Standard Siye, the nasal vowels share the feature retracted tongue root (RTR), while the oral vowels share the feature advanced tongue root (ATR). In studies of Siye, the feature is defined as +ATR and -ATR. Standard Siye has the typologically rare 10-vowel ATR. The Near and Mid Provinces reduce the ATR system by removing [ə] in favor of a generalized [a].

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Oral Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|[i]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
! High Mid
| {{IPA|e}} {{IPA|[e]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|o}} {{IPA|[o]}}
|-
! Open
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[a]}}
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Nasal Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close-Mid
| {{IPA|im}} {{IPA|[ɪⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|em}} {{IPA|[ɛⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|om}} {{IPA|[ɔⁿ]}}
|-
! Open
| {{IPA|am}} {{IPA|[aⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
|}

The Far Western Province uses a seven-vowel system:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Oral Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|[i]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|ɔ}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
|-
! Open
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[a]}}
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Nasal Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close-Mid
| {{IPA|im}} {{IPA|[ɪⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|em}} {{IPA|[ɛⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|om}} {{IPA|[ɔⁿ]}}
|-
! Open
| {{IPA|am}} {{IPA|[aⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
|}

The Far Eastern Province and the Lake have a slightly different seven-vowel system:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Oral Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|i}} {{IPA|[i]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|u}} {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|ɛ}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|ɔ}} {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
|-
! Open
|
| {{IPA|a}} {{IPA|[a]}}
|
|
|-
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Nasal Vowels
! Front
! Center
! Back Unrounded
! Back Rounds
|-
! Close
| {{IPA|im}} {{IPA|[iⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
! Close-Mid
|
|
|
| {{IPA|um}} {{IPA|[ʊⁿ]}}
|-
! Open Mid
| {{IPA|em}} {{IPA|[ɛⁿ]}}
|
|
| {{IPA|om}} {{IPA|[ɔⁿ]}}
|-
! Open
| {{IPA|am}} {{IPA|[aⁿ]}}
|
|
|
|-
|}

==Vowel Dominance==

Standard Siye vowels have a dominance system whereby one vowel eliminates an adjacent vowel rather than creating a long vowel or diphthong. Early Siye lacked this feature. The impact of vowel dominance in Siye is extensive, but many exceptions exist to avoid ambiguity. The dominance pattern follows a V-shape, starting in the high back, descending to low central, and ascending to high front. Thus the dominance hierarchy is as follows: /u/ > /o/ > /a/ > /e/ > /i/.

==Stress Placement==

Stress in Siye is trochaic-dactylic. Polysyllabic affixes can only receive stress on the initial syllable. The combination of the following rules creates a complex primary-secondary stress pattern. Some regularly trisyllabic suffixes have bisyllabic allomorphs to conform to this pattern.

A Siye verb receives primary stress on the first syllable of the verb root; thus the verb /pelekopuyammu/{{IPA|[pe.le.ˈkʰo.ɸu.ˌjæⁿ.mu]}} and /lekunasonima/ {{IPA|[ˈle.xu.so.ˌni.ma]}} receive primary stresses on /ko/ and /ku/.

The secondary stresses are distributed according to the following rules:

1) There is a minimum of one and maximum of two unstressed syllables between stressed syllable

2) Only the first syllable of a root or suffix can be stressed.

3) The sequence of preferred placements of secondary stresses are as follows: directional (D) suffix; causative suffix; adverbial suffix; pronominal number suffix; PAM/P (polarity-aspect-mood) suffix.

Siye Orthography

2019-03-25T18:44:04Z

LinguarumMagister:

The native Siye orthography, "Keno Siye", is an abugida with ninety basic characters (the superimposed nasal coda is not counted), the Modern Basic Syllabary, in which all series (except the w-series and the s-series) distinguish initial and medial (non-initial) characters. The Archaic Syllabary was not originally organized, but later the antecedents of the Guild of Scholars organized the characters in a matrix and modified some homographs. The change from Tide to Tiye to Siye required a reorganization of the matrix, which is now known as the Modern Basic Syllabary. There are no spaces in the script. Initial characters are transcribed in with a Roman capital letter, while medial characters are transcribed with a Roman lower case letter. The w- and s-series, which lack this distinction, are transcribed as lower case.

A character is composed of a "mother", the principal skeleton, and a "daughter", the smaller detached parts. Exceptions are < To > and < no >, which only have "daughters". The medial characters derive from prenasalized characters in earlier stages of the language, for which reason so many of them have the nasal dash. < Ta > and <na> differ only in the presence of the nasal dash. The mother is shared wit < Ta >, < na >, < ti >, and < Li >. The daughter is shared with < Ta >, < na >, < Te >, < ne >, < Ti >, < ni >, < To >, and < no >. This daughter is a mother in < Tu > and < nu >, while < na > uses this mother and the nasal dash. As stated above, the nasal dash occurs only in medial syllables, 35 of the total 90. The orphan daughters < To > and < no > have daughters of their own. Some half-size characters, such as < ya > and < Tu >, expand to full height, but < Yo > and < Ma > remain at half-height.

There are additional characters modified from the basic characters to indicate grammatical suffixes, distinguish cases hidden by vowel dominance, adjectival derivation, and providing scribal shortcuts, as well as an "alphabet" that allows for corrections, foreign pronunciations, and coda consonants. In these cases, the "daughter" is orthographically expressed in parentheses. It is permissible to only use characters from the Basic Syllabary, but the use of the additional characters makes Keno Siye text easier to parse and makes the writer appear better morally and grammatically.

The positional suffix < na > is a basic character, but the perfective positive realis suffix < na >, which is often adjacent to the positional suffix < ne (a) >, is the basic character < ne > modified by a "daughter" < a >. A noun such as < wino > is pronounced identically in the absolutive and vocative, but the second character of the vocative, < no (i) >, is the absolutive < no > modified by a "daughter" . The orthography's ability to represent foreign pronunciation is important to missionary work. Superscript consonants and vowels indicate a correction. Subscript consonants indicate codas. Subscript vowels indicate the second part of diphthongs. The subscript coda consonants, in particular, are important for accurate transcription of Ulok in Keno Siye.

The very name of the writing system is < Ke(i).no Si.ye(e) >.

Due to the complexities of Keno Siye, each affix in the main text of the grammar will have an indication of the character(s) used.

There are various Romanization schemes. The principal one (Standard), the one used in this document, hews close to the phonemic scheme of the native orthography. A Practical Orthography uses phonetics as its guiding principle. This system is rarer, but still common. Cyrillic and Hebrew orthographies also exist.

Siye Orthography

2019-03-25T18:33:36Z

LinguarumMagister:

The native Siye orthography, "Keno Siye", is an abugida with ninety basic characters (the superimposed nasal coda is not counted), the Modern Basic Syllabary, in which all series (except the w-series and the s-series) distinguish initial and medial (non-initial) characters. The Archaic Syllabary was not originally organized, but later the antecedents of the Guild of Scholars organized the characters in a matrix and modified some homographs. The change from Tide to Tiye to Siye required a reorganization of the matrix, which is now known as the Modern Basic Syllabary. There are no spaces in the script. Initial characters are transcribed in with a Roman capital letter, while medial characters are transcribed with a Roman lower case letter. The w- and s-series, which lack this distinction, are transcribed as lower case.

A character is composed of a "mother", the principal skeleton, and a "daughter", the smaller detached parts. "Daughters' are transcribed in parentheses. Exceptions are < To > and < no >, which only have "daughters". The medial characters derive from prenasalized characters in earlier stages of the language, for which reason so many of them have the nasal dash. < Ta > and <na> differ only in the presence of the nasal dash. The mother is shared wit < Ta >, < na >, < ti >, and < Li >. The daughter is shared with < Ta >, < na >, < Te >, < ne >, < Ti >, < ni >, < To >, and < no >. This daughter is a mother in < Tu > and < nu >, while < na > uses this mother and the nasal dash. As stated above, the nasal dash occurs only in medial syllables, 35 of the total 90. The orphan daughters < To > and < no > have daughters of their own. Some half-size characters, such as < ya > and < Tu >, expand to full height, but < Yo > and < Ma > remain at half-height.

There are additional characters modified from the basic characters to indicate grammatical suffixes, distinguish cases hidden by vowel dominance, adjectival derivation, and providing scribal shortcuts, as well as an "alphabet" that allows for corrections, foreign pronunciations, and coda consonants. The positional suffix < na > is a basic character, but the perfective positive realis suffix < na >, which is often adjacent to the positional suffix < na >, is the basic character < ne > modified by a "daughter" < a >. A noun such as < wino > is pronounced identically in the absolutive and vocative, but the second character of the vocative, < no >, is the absolutive < no > modified by a "daughter" . The orthography's ability to represent foreign pronunciation is important to missionary work. Superscript consonants and vowels indicate a correction. Subscript consonants indicate codas. Subscript vowels indicate the second part of diphthongs. The subscript coda consonants, in particular, are important for accurate transcription of Ulok in Keno Siye.

There are various Romanization schemes. The principal one (Standard), the one used in this document, hews close to the phonemic scheme of the native orthography. A Practical Orthography uses phonetics as its guiding principle. This system is rarer, but still common. Cyrillic and Hebrew orthographies also exist.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Orthography
! Standard
! Practical
|-
!
| pu
| fu
|-
!
| ki
| chi
|-
!
| ku
| hu
|-
!
| tu
| tsu
|-
!
| si
| shi
|-
!
| Vm
| Vng
|-
|}

Kandaxangg

2018-11-26T19:56:47Z

LinguarumMagister:

{|style="background:#f9f9f9; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; font-size:95%" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|- style="text-align: center;"
!colspan=2 style="background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; font-size: 110%;"| Kandaxangg (Kandexaungg)
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Pronounced: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| ['kɑ.ⁿdə.Ɂɑⁿg]
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Timeline and Universe: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Polycosm, Unknown World
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Species: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"|Humanoid
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Spoken: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Nangah-Riki (Nangauh-Ruku) Archipelago
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Total speakers: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| 10,000-13,000.
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Writing system: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| None
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Genealogy: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Kandaxangg-Pantavaamu Family?
|-
!colspan=2 style="background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Typology:
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphology: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Isolating
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphosyntax: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Nominative
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Word order: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| SVO
|-
!colspan=2 style="background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Credits
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Creator: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Linguarum Magister
|-
|style="width: 30%"| Created: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Spring, 2016 (updated Summer 2017)
|}

=Background=

Kandaxangg (Kaundexaungg) is the language of the Nggang (Nggaung), the human inhabitants of the Nangah-Riki (Nangauh-Ruku), the Northern Archipelago, who dwell in villages upon the shores while the fey Nggang-Angik (Nggaung-Anguk), the Predecessors, live within the mirror-world of the glaciers. Tangg-Nggang (Tangg-Nggaung) culture is paleolithic, animist, and illiterate. The Nggang hunt seals and sometimes birds (including the ptarmigan, 'kandaxang' (kondaxaung). Despite this nomadic lifestyle, Tangg-Nggang culture is highly unified in worship and ethics, valuing cooperation, honesty, and piety towards the triple goddess Handangangg (Haundengaungg), Iring (Irung), and Xanggah (Xaunggauh). Tangg-Nggang men have a cult of Nggang-Hindangg Handangand (Nggaung-Hundangg Haundengaund), Grandfather Sun, who stays long months in the sky in the summer months, but leaves on a hunting expedition in the winter. Nggang-Hindangg Nandang (Nggaung-Hundangg Nandeng), Grandmother Moon, presides over the cult of women and the left side of the tent.

Kandaxangg is a member of the proposed Kandaxangg-Pantaammu language family with Pantaammu, spoken in the Nampassii islands to the (immediate) south.

A favorite game of the Nggang is Tangahanggang Arangg, or Tangahanggang, a combination of Twenty (in this case fifteen) questions and Bingo.

=Phonology and Orthography=

==Consonants==

In phonotaxis, the consonants are divided into coronal and non-coronal consonants. The non-coronal consonants are further divided into glottal and non-glottal consonants.

There are three voiceless obstruents: coronal, velar, and glottal {{IPA|[t]}} {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|[k]}} {{IPA|/k/}}, and {{IPA|[Ɂ]}} {{IPA|/x/}}.

There are two voiced prenasalized obstruents: coronal and velar {{IPA|[ⁿd]}} {{IPA|/nd/}} and {{IPA|[ⁿg]}} {{IPA|/ngg/}}.

There are two nasals, coronal and velar {{IPA|[n]}} {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|[ŋ]}} {{IPA|/ng/}}

There is one fricative: glottal {{IPA|[h]}} {{IPA|/h/}}.

There is one lateral/rhotic: uvular {{IPA|[ᴚ]}} {{IPA|/r/}}. Whether{{IPA|/r/}} is grouped with non-coronal non-glottal or non-coronal glottal consonants, and therefore whether the vowel is nasalized or not, is a primarily isolect in Kandaxangg.

==Vowels==

In the original anthropological orthography, there are three vowels phonetically but two vowels orthographically.

{{IPA|[i]}} {{IPA|/i/}} is a close unrounded front vowel. It is considerably rarer than {{IPA|/a/}}.

{{IPA|[ɯ]}} is the close unrounded back allophone of {{IPA|[i]}} after a non-coronal consonant.

{{IPA|[ɯⁿ]}} is the close unrounded back nasalized allophone of {{IPA|[i]}} after a glottal consonant.

{{IPA|[ɐ]}} {{IPA|/a/}} is an mid open unrounded vowel.

{{IPA|[ɑ]}} is the mid open unrounded allophone of {{IPA|[ɐ]}} after a non-coronal consonant.

{{IPA|[ɑⁿ]}} is the mid open unrounded allophone of {{IPA|[ɑ]}} after a glottal consonant.

{{IPA|[ə]}} {{IPA|/a/}} is a true mid unrounded vowel, originally epenthetic.

{{IPA|[ʌ]}} is the true mid allophone of {{IPA|[ə]}} after a non-coronal consonant.

{{IPA|[ʌⁿ]}} is the true mid allophone of {{IPA|[ə]}} after a glottal consonant.

==Alternative Orthography==

Although most scholars of Kandaxangg use the orthography detailed above, an alternative orthography (Alternate Vowel Orthography or AVO) exists, based on the desire to more clearly distinguish the non-coronal allophones. In AVO, the non-coronal allophones of {{IPA|/i/}} are written as 'u' and those of {{IPA|/a/}} as 'o', and all allophones of {{IPA|/ə/}} as 'e'. The majority opinion objects to this because the orthographical presence of back vowels implies rounding which is not present in Kandaxangg, to which the minority opinion responds that the two-vowel orthographic system is unnecessarily confusing and does not adequately reflect the surface forms.

Although some scholars still use AVO, BVO is now more common. BVO renders {{IPA|[i]}} as {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} (oral and nasal) as {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|[ə]}} as {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|[ʌ]}} (oral and nasal) as {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|[ɐ]}} as {{IPA|/a/}, and {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (oral and nasal) as {{IPA|/au/}

=Nouns=

==Basic Nouns==

Kandaxangg lacks grammatical gender, although some nouns have a natural gender. If gender specification is needed, the following nouns are used:

nanggingg (nanggungg) man

nirangg (niraungg) woman

xanding (xaunding) a variation on xangganding (xanganding) stone

==Pronouns==

There are five basic personal pronouns in Kandaxangg

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! 1st
! 2nd familiar
! 2nd polite
! 3rd
! 4th (Obviative)
! Generic
|-
!
| nangg (nangg)
| hanggang (haunggaung)
| handang (haundang)
| andang (andang)
| ndanga (ndangau)
| nggang (nggaung)
|-
|}

4th person is used to differentiate two otherwise identical 3rd person arguments.

=Numbers=

Kandaxangg numbers are quinary. After the initial binary system (the Nggang have no concept of zero), the system operates with a central focus number flanked by two lesser subtractive numbers and two greater additive numbers. It is rare that a Nggang needs to count discrete objects higher than fifteen (15). Scholars of Kandaxangg hypothesize that the proto-Kandaxangg system was ternary, later expanded to quinary by subtraction and to the current system by subtraction and addition. Kandaxangg also possesses a detailed set of measurement words which ameliorates the paucity of the number system.

1 ndang (ndang)

2 kand (kaund)

3 kand kang randax (kaund kaung raundax)

4 ndang kang randax (ndang kaung raundax)

5 randax (raundax)

6 randax tandax ndang (raundax tandax ndang)

7 randax tandax kand (raundax tandax kaund)

8 kand kang nandik (kaund kaung nandik)

9 ndang kang nandik (ndang kaung nandik)

10 nandik (nandik)

11 nandik tandax ndang (nandik tandax ndang)

12 nandik tandax kand (nandik tandax kaund)

13 kand kang arangg (kond kaung araungg)

14 ndang kang arangg (ndang kaung araungg)

15 arangg (arongg)

16 arangg tandax ndang (araungg tandax ndang)

17 arangg tandax kand (arongg tandax kaund)

=Colors=

white - ndarand (ndarautnd)

black - tanggeningga (tanggoninggau)

red - randingg (raundingg)

blue/green - rahand (rauhaund)

yellow - ndirand (ndiraund)

=Animals=

cat - harangg (hauraungg)

fox - tandax (tandax)

gnat - nandahax (nandahaux)

mouse - nandah (nandah)

seal - hanggar (haunggaur)

=Birds=

flightless bird - handangand (haundangaund)

flying bird - ndahand (ndahaund)

ptarmigan - kandaxang (kaundexaung)

=Constellations=

Axihangg (Axuhaungg) - The Sea Dragon (Draco)

Hanggar Kand (Haunggaur Kaund)- The Seals (Ursa Major and Minor)

Ndakara (Ndakaura) - The Spear (Orion's Belt)

[[Category: Conlangs]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]

Kandaxangg

2018-11-26T19:53:40Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Basic Nouns */

{|style="background:#f9f9f9; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; font-size:95%" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|- style="text-align: center;"
!colspan=2 style="background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; font-size: 110%;"| Kandaxangg (Kandexaungg)
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Pronounced: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| ['kɑ.ⁿdə.Ɂɑⁿg]
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Timeline and Universe: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Polycosm, Unknown World
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Species: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"|Humanoid
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Spoken: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Nangah-Riki (Nangauh-Ruku) Archipelago
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Total speakers: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| 10,000-13,000.
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Writing system: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| None
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Genealogy: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Kandaxangg-Pantavaamu Family?
|-
!colspan=2 style="background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Typology:
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphology: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Isolating
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphosyntax: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Nominative
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Word order: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| SVO
|-
!colspan=2 style="background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Credits
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Creator: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Linguarum Magister
|-
|style="width: 30%"| Created: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Spring, 2016 (updated Summer 2017)
|}

=Background=

Kandaxangg (Kaundexaungg) is the language of the Nggang (Nggaung), the human inhabitants of the Nangah-Riki (Nangauh-Ruku), the Northern Archipelago, who dwell in villages upon the shores while the fey Nggang-Angik (Nggaung-Anguk), the Predecessors, live within the mirror-world of the glaciers. Tangg-Nggang (Tangg-Nggaung) culture is paleolithic, animist, and illiterate. The Nggang hunt seals and sometimes birds (including the ptarmigan, 'kandaxang' (kondaxaung). Despite this nomadic lifestyle, Tangg-Nggang culture is highly unified in worship and ethics, valuing cooperation, honesty, and piety towards the triple goddess Handangangg (Haundengaungg), Iring (Irung), and Xanggah (Xaunggauh). Tangg-Nggang men have a cult of Nggang-Hindangg Handangand (Nggong-Hundangg Haundengaund), Grandfather Sun, who stays long months in the sky in the summer months, but leaves on a hunting expedition in the winter. Nggang-Hindangg Nandang (Nggong-Hundangg Nandeng), Grandmother Moon, presides over the cult of women and the left side of the tent.

Kandaxangg is a member of the proposed Kandaxangg-Pantaammu language family with Pantaammu, spoken in the Nampassii islands to the (immediate) south.

A favorite game of the Nggang is Tangahanggang Arangg, or Tangahanggang, a combination of Twenty (in this case fifteen) questions and Bingo.

=Phonology and Orthography=

==Consonants==

In phonotaxis, the consonants are divided into coronal and non-coronal consonants. The non-coronal consonants are further divided into glottal and non-glottal consonants.

There are three voiceless obstruents: coronal, velar, and glottal {{IPA|[t]}} {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|[k]}} {{IPA|/k/}}, and {{IPA|[Ɂ]}} {{IPA|/x/}}.

There are two voiced prenasalized obstruents: coronal and velar {{IPA|[ⁿd]}} {{IPA|/nd/}} and {{IPA|[ⁿg]}} {{IPA|/ngg/}}.

There are two nasals, coronal and velar {{IPA|[n]}} {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|[ŋ]}} {{IPA|/ng/}}

There is one fricative: glottal {{IPA|[h]}} {{IPA|/h/}}.

There is one lateral/rhotic: uvular {{IPA|[ᴚ]}} {{IPA|/r/}}. Whether{{IPA|/r/}} is grouped with non-coronal non-glottal or non-coronal glottal consonants, and therefore whether the vowel is nasalized or not, is a primarily isolect in Kandaxangg.

==Vowels==

In the original anthropological orthography, there are three vowels phonetically but two vowels orthographically.

{{IPA|[i]}} {{IPA|/i/}} is a close unrounded front vowel. It is considerably rarer than {{IPA|/a/}}.

{{IPA|[ɯ]}} is the close unrounded back allophone of {{IPA|[i]}} after a non-coronal consonant.

{{IPA|[ɯⁿ]}} is the close unrounded back nasalized allophone of {{IPA|[i]}} after a glottal consonant.

{{IPA|[ɐ]}} {{IPA|/a/}} is an mid open unrounded vowel.

{{IPA|[ɑ]}} is the mid open unrounded allophone of {{IPA|[ɐ]}} after a non-coronal consonant.

{{IPA|[ɑⁿ]}} is the mid open unrounded allophone of {{IPA|[ɑ]}} after a glottal consonant.

{{IPA|[ə]}} {{IPA|/a/}} is a true mid unrounded vowel, originally epenthetic.

{{IPA|[ʌ]}} is the true mid allophone of {{IPA|[ə]}} after a non-coronal consonant.

{{IPA|[ʌⁿ]}} is the true mid allophone of {{IPA|[ə]}} after a glottal consonant.

==Alternative Orthography==

Although most scholars of Kandaxangg use the orthography detailed above, an alternative orthography (Alternate Vowel Orthography or AVO) exists, based on the desire to more clearly distinguish the non-coronal allophones. In AVO, the non-coronal allophones of {{IPA|/i/}} are written as 'u' and those of {{IPA|/a/}} as 'o', and all allophones of {{IPA|/ə/}} as 'e'. The majority opinion objects to this because the orthographical presence of back vowels implies rounding which is not present in Kandaxangg, to which the minority opinion responds that the two-vowel orthographic system is unnecessarily confusing and does not adequately reflect the surface forms.

Although some scholars still use AVO, BVO is now more common. BVO renders {{IPA|[i]}} as {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} (oral and nasal) as {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|[ə]}} as {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|[ʌ]}} (oral and nasal) as {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|[ɐ]}} as {{IPA|/a/}, and {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (oral and nasal) as {{IPA|/au/}

=Nouns=

==Basic Nouns==

Kandaxangg lacks grammatical gender, although some nouns have a natural gender. If gender specification is needed, the following nouns are used:

nanggingg (nanggungg) man

nirangg (niraungg) woman

xanding (xaunding) a variation on xangganding (xanganding) stone

==Pronouns==

There are five basic personal pronouns in Kandaxangg

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! 1st
! 2nd familiar
! 2nd polite
! 3rd
! 4th (Obviative)
! Generic
|-
!
| nangg (nangg)
| hanggang (haunggaung)
| handang (haundang)
| andang (andang)
| ndanga (ndangau)
| nggang (nggaung)
|-
|}

4th person is used to differentiate two otherwise identical 3rd person arguments.

=Numbers=

Kandaxangg numbers are quinary. After the initial binary system (the Nggang have no concept of zero), the system operates with a central focus number flanked by two lesser subtractive numbers and two greater additive numbers. It is rare that a Nggang needs to count discrete objects higher than fifteen (15). Scholars of Kandaxangg hypothesize that the proto-Kandaxangg system was ternary, later expanded to quinary by subtraction and to the current system by subtraction and addition. Kandaxangg also possesses a detailed set of measurement words which ameliorates the paucity of the number system.

1 ndang (ndang)

2 kand (kaund)

3 kand kang randax (kaund kaung raundax)

4 ndang kang randax (ndang kaung raundax)

5 randax (raundax)

6 randax tandax ndang (raundax tandax ndang)

7 randax tandax kand (raundax tandax kaund)

8 kand kang nandik (kaund kaung nandik)

9 ndang kang nandik (ndang kaung nandik)

10 nandik (nandik)

11 nandik tandax ndang (nandik tandax ndang)

12 nandik tandax kand (nandik tandax kaund)

13 kand kang arangg (kond kaung araungg)

14 ndang kang arangg (ndang kaung araungg)

15 arangg (arongg)

16 arangg tandax ndang (araungg tandax ndang)

17 arangg tandax kand (arongg tandax kaund)

=Colors=

white - ndarand (ndarautnd)

black - tanggeningga (tanggoninggau)

red - randingg (raundingg)

blue/green - rahand (rauhaund)

yellow - ndirand (ndiraund)

=Animals=

cat - harangg (hauraungg)

fox - tandax (tandax)

gnat - nandahax (nandahaux)

mouse - nandah (nandah)

seal - hanggar (haunggaur)

=Birds=

flightless bird - handangand (haundangaund)

flying bird - ndahand (ndahaund)

ptarmigan - kandaxang (kaundexaung)

=Constellations=

Axihangg (Axuhaungg) - The Sea Dragon (Draco)

Hanggar Kand (Haunggaur Kaund)- The Seals (Ursa Major and Minor)

Ndakara (Ndakaura) - The Spear (Orion's Belt)

[[Category: Conlangs]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]

Kandaxangg

2018-11-26T19:53:07Z

LinguarumMagister: /* Basic Nouns */

{|style="background:#f9f9f9; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; font-size:95%" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|- style="text-align: center;"
!colspan=2 style="background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; font-size: 110%;"| Kandaxangg (Kandexaungg)
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Pronounced: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| ['kɑ.ⁿdə.Ɂɑⁿg]
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Timeline and Universe: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Polycosm, Unknown World
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Species: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"|Humanoid
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Spoken: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Nangah-Riki (Nangauh-Ruku) Archipelago
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Total speakers: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| 10,000-13,000.
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Writing system: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| None
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Genealogy: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Kandaxangg-Pantavaamu Family?
|-
!colspan=2 style="background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Typology:
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphology: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Isolating
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Morphosyntax: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Nominative
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Word order: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| SVO
|-
!colspan=2 style="background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"| Credits
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%"| Creator: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Linguarum Magister
|-
|style="width: 30%"| Created: ||style="border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%"| Spring, 2016 (updated Summer 2017)
|}

=Background=

Kandaxangg (Kaundexaungg) is the language of the Nggang (Nggaung), the human inhabitants of the Nangah-Riki (Nangauh-Ruku), the Northern Archipelago, who dwell in villages upon the shores while the fey Nggang-Angik (Nggaung-Anguk), the Predecessors, live within the mirror-world of the glaciers. Tangg-Nggang (Tangg-Nggaung) culture is paleolithic, animist, and illiterate. The Nggang hunt seals and sometimes birds (including the ptarmigan, 'kandaxang' (kondaxaung). Despite this nomadic lifestyle, Tangg-Nggang culture is highly unified in worship and ethics, valuing cooperation, honesty, and piety towards the triple goddess Handangangg (Haundengaungg), Iring (Irung), and Xanggah (Xaunggauh). Tangg-Nggang men have a cult of Nggang-Hindangg Handangand (Nggong-Hundangg Haundengaund), Grandfather Sun, who stays long months in the sky in the summer months, but leaves on a hunting expedition in the winter. Nggang-Hindangg Nandang (Nggong-Hundangg Nandeng), Grandmother Moon, presides over the cult of women and the left side of the tent.

Kandaxangg is a member of the proposed Kandaxangg-Pantaammu language family with Pantaammu, spoken in the Nampassii islands to the (immediate) south.

A favorite game of the Nggang is Tangahanggang Arangg, or Tangahanggang, a combination of Twenty (in this case fifteen) questions and Bingo.

=Phonology and Orthography=

==Consonants==

In phonotaxis, the consonants are divided into coronal and non-coronal consonants. The non-coronal consonants are further divided into glottal and non-glottal consonants.

There are three voiceless obstruents: coronal, velar, and glottal {{IPA|[t]}} {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|[k]}} {{IPA|/k/}}, and {{IPA|[Ɂ]}} {{IPA|/x/}}.

There are two voiced prenasalized obstruents: coronal and velar {{IPA|[ⁿd]}} {{IPA|/nd/}} and {{IPA|[ⁿg]}} {{IPA|/ngg/}}.

There are two nasals, coronal and velar {{IPA|[n]}} {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|[ŋ]}} {{IPA|/ng/}}

There is one fricative: glottal {{IPA|[h]}} {{IPA|/h/}}.

There is one lateral/rhotic: uvular {{IPA|[ᴚ]}} {{IPA|/r/}}. Whether{{IPA|/r/}} is grouped with non-coronal non-glottal or non-coronal glottal consonants, and therefore whether the vowel is nasalized or not, is a primarily isolect in Kandaxangg.

==Vowels==

In the original anthropological orthography, there are three vowels phonetically but two vowels orthographically.

{{IPA|[i]}} {{IPA|/i/}} is a close unrounded front vowel. It is considerably rarer than {{IPA|/a/}}.

{{IPA|[ɯ]}} is the close unrounded back allophone of {{IPA|[i]}} after a non-coronal consonant.

{{IPA|[ɯⁿ]}} is the close unrounded back nasalized allophone of {{IPA|[i]}} after a glottal consonant.

{{IPA|[ɐ]}} {{IPA|/a/}} is an mid open unrounded vowel.

{{IPA|[ɑ]}} is the mid open unrounded allophone of {{IPA|[ɐ]}} after a non-coronal consonant.

{{IPA|[ɑⁿ]}} is the mid open unrounded allophone of {{IPA|[ɑ]}} after a glottal consonant.

{{IPA|[ə]}} {{IPA|/a/}} is a true mid unrounded vowel, originally epenthetic.

{{IPA|[ʌ]}} is the true mid allophone of {{IPA|[ə]}} after a non-coronal consonant.

{{IPA|[ʌⁿ]}} is the true mid allophone of {{IPA|[ə]}} after a glottal consonant.

==Alternative Orthography==

Although most scholars of Kandaxangg use the orthography detailed above, an alternative orthography (Alternate Vowel Orthography or AVO) exists, based on the desire to more clearly distinguish the non-coronal allophones. In AVO, the non-coronal allophones of {{IPA|/i/}} are written as 'u' and those of {{IPA|/a/}} as 'o', and all allophones of {{IPA|/ə/}} as 'e'. The majority opinion objects to this because the orthographical presence of back vowels implies rounding which is not present in Kandaxangg, to which the minority opinion responds that the two-vowel orthographic system is unnecessarily confusing and does not adequately reflect the surface forms.

Although some scholars still use AVO, BVO is now more common. BVO renders {{IPA|[i]}} as {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} (oral and nasal) as {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|[ə]}} as {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|[ʌ]}} (oral and nasal) as {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|[ɐ]}} as {{IPA|/a/}, and {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (oral and nasal) as {{IPA|/au/}

=Nouns=

==Basic Nouns==

Kandaxangg lacks grammatical gender, although some nouns have a natural gender. If gender specification is needed, the following nouns are used:

nanggingg (nanggungg) man

nirangg (niraungg) woman

xanding (xonding) a variation on xangganding (xanganding) stone

==Pronouns==

There are five basic personal pronouns in Kandaxangg

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Personal Pronouns
! 1st
! 2nd familiar
! 2nd polite
! 3rd
! 4th (Obviative)
! Generic
|-
!
| nangg (nangg)
| hanggang (haunggaung)
| handang (haundang)
| andang (andang)
| ndanga (ndangau)
| nggang (nggaung)
|-
|}

4th person is used to differentiate two otherwise identical 3rd person arguments.

=Numbers=

Kandaxangg numbers are quinary. After the initial binary system (the Nggang have no concept of zero), the system operates with a central focus number flanked by two lesser subtractive numbers and two greater additive numbers. It is rare that a Nggang needs to count discrete objects higher than fifteen (15). Scholars of Kandaxangg hypothesize that the proto-Kandaxangg system was ternary, later expanded to quinary by subtraction and to the current system by subtraction and addition. Kandaxangg also possesses a detailed set of measurement words which ameliorates the paucity of the number system.

1 ndang (ndang)

2 kand (kaund)

3 kand kang randax (kaund kaung raundax)

4 ndang kang randax (ndang kaung raundax)

5 randax (raundax)

6 randax tandax ndang (raundax tandax ndang)

7 randax tandax kand (raundax tandax kaund)

8 kand kang nandik (kaund kaung nandik)

9 ndang kang nandik (ndang kaung nandik)

10 nandik (nandik)

11 nandik tandax ndang (nandik tandax ndang)

12 nandik tandax kand (nandik tandax kaund)

13 kand kang arangg (kond kaung araungg)

14 ndang kang arangg (ndang kaung araungg)

15 arangg (arongg)

16 arangg tandax ndang (araungg tandax ndang)

17 arangg tandax kand (arongg tandax kaund)

=Colors=

white - ndarand (ndarautnd)

black - tanggeningga (tanggoninggau)

red - randingg (raundingg)

blue/green - rahand (rauhaund)

yellow - ndirand (ndiraund)

=Animals=

cat - harangg (hauraungg)

fox - tandax (tandax)

gnat - nandahax (nandahaux)

mouse - nandah (nandah)

seal - hanggar (haunggaur)

=Birds=

flightless bird - handangand (haundangaund)

flying bird - ndahand (ndahaund)

ptarmigan - kandaxang (kaundexaung)

=Constellations=

Axihangg (Axuhaungg) - The Sea Dragon (Draco)

Hanggar Kand (Haunggaur Kaund)- The Seals (Ursa Major and Minor)

Ndakara (Ndakaura) - The Spear (Orion's Belt)

[[Category: Conlangs]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]