https://www.frathwiki.com/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=FofofoFrathWiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-12T13:06:29ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.39.8https://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Experimental_page&diff=21607Gaaziketti: Experimental page2007-05-03T10:06:13Z<p>Fofofo: /* Infinitive and imperative constructions */</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is for experimenting with changes to the grammar of [[Gaaziketti]].<br />
<br />
===Infinitive and imperative constructions===<br />
The role of the inf. and imp. moods is not clear, given that verbs are supposed to be essentially verbal nouns. Does '''raazup!''' mean ''criticise!'' or does it mean ''make there be some criticising (by someone, not nec. you)''. If it meant the second thing, one could say '''Ve raazup''' to mean ''criticise!'' <br />
<br />
Similar questions surround the infinitive. <br />
<br />
Probably a solution is to have a short inflexible form, & a less compact, but more flexible alternative form (as with the relative pronoun).<br />
<br />
===[[Taaluketti]]===<br />
I am working on a new language, [[Taaluketti]], sharing many of the features of Gaaziketti (e.g. phonology, basic morphology, parsing markers, SOV word order) but with what I think is an improved syntax.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Gaaziketti]]</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=21606Taaluketti2007-05-03T10:04:07Z<p>Fofofo: /* Background */ context-setting remark</p>
<hr />
<div>= Background =<br />
<br />
'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. It is considered by its creator to be better than Gaaziketti at fulfilling the goals of grammatical generality and flexibility. The below is an outline of the structure of this language at its most general level. It remains to generate a lexicon of morphemes that would enable this structure to be applied to achieving the expressive capabilities of natural language.<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
== Parsing markers, modification, functors and phrases ==<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Each word-token is in fact a ''functor'', and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its ''arguments''. <br />
<br />
As functors, word-token always pick up their arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). So suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor. (The only parsing marker punctuating such a chain would be the ''null'' marker.) Then you would assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern - ''i.e.'' the default is that brackets cluster to the left. <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows. Parsing markers are shown in bold.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
== Various phrase types ==<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
A common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
== Example phrases ==<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=21605Taaluketti2007-05-03T09:55:16Z<p>Fofofo: </p>
<hr />
<div>= Background =<br />
<br />
'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. It is considered by its creator to be superior to Gaaziketti at fulfilling the goal of grammatical generality, elegance and flexibility.<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
== Parsing markers, modification, functors and phrases ==<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Each word-token is in fact a ''functor'', and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its ''arguments''. <br />
<br />
As functors, word-token always pick up their arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). So suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor. (The only parsing marker punctuating such a chain would be the ''null'' marker.) Then you would assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern - ''i.e.'' the default is that brackets cluster to the left. <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows. Parsing markers are shown in bold.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
== Various phrase types ==<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
A common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
== Example phrases ==<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6298Taaluketti2006-01-12T04:36:51Z<p>Fofofo: /* Various phrase types */ typo</p>
<hr />
<div>= Background =<br />
<br />
'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
== Parsing markers, modification, functors and phrases ==<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Each word-token is in fact a ''functor'', and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its ''arguments''. <br />
<br />
As functors, word-token always pick up their arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). So suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor. (The only parsing marker punctuating such a chain would be the ''null'' marker.) Then you would assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern - ''i.e.'' the default is that brackets cluster to the left. <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows. Parsing markers are shown in bold.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
== Various phrase types ==<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
A common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
== Example phrases ==<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6297Taaluketti2006-01-12T04:35:27Z<p>Fofofo: re-organised headings</p>
<hr />
<div>= Background =<br />
<br />
'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
== Parsing markers, modification, functors and phrases ==<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Each word-token is in fact a ''functor'', and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its ''arguments''. <br />
<br />
As functors, word-token always pick up their arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). So suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor. (The only parsing marker punctuating such a chain would be the ''null'' marker.) Then you would assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern - ''i.e.'' the default is that brackets cluster to the left. <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows. Parsing markers are shown in bold.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
== Various phrase types ==<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
== Example phrases ==<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6296Taaluketti2006-01-12T04:32:30Z<p>Fofofo: /* Syntax */ sub-headings</p>
<hr />
<div>= Taaluketti =<br />
<br />
'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
== Pronunciation and orthography ==<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers, modification, functors and phrases ===<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Each word-token is in fact a ''functor'', and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its ''arguments''. <br />
<br />
As functors, word-token always pick up their arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). So suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor. (The only parsing marker punctuating such a chain would be the ''null'' marker.) Then you would assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern - ''i.e.'' the default is that brackets cluster to the left. <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows. Parsing markers are shown in bold.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
=== Phrase types ===<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
== Example phrases ==<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6295Taaluketti2006-01-12T04:29:22Z<p>Fofofo: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Taaluketti =<br />
<br />
'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
== Pronunciation and orthography ==<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Each word-token is in fact a ''functor'', and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its ''arguments''. <br />
<br />
As functors, word-token always pick up their arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). So suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor. (The only parsing marker punctuating such a chain would be the ''null'' marker.) Then you would assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern - ''i.e.'' the default is that brackets cluster to the left. <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows. Parsing markers are shown in bold.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
== Example phrases ==<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6294Taaluketti2006-01-12T04:28:02Z<p>Fofofo: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Taaluketti =<br />
<br />
'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
== Pronunciation and orthography ==<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Each word-token is in fact a ''functor'', and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its ''arguments''. <br />
<br />
As functors, word-token always pick up their arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). So suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor. (The only parsing marker punctuating such a chain would be the ''null'' marker.) Then you would assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern - ''i.e.'' the default is that brackets cluster to the left. <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
== Example phrases ==<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6293Taaluketti2006-01-12T04:27:20Z<p>Fofofo: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Taaluketti =<br />
<br />
'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
== Pronunciation and orthography ==<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Each word-token is in fact a ''functor'', and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its ''arguments''. <br />
<br />
As functors, word-token always pick up their arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). So suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor. (The only parsing marker punctuating such a chain would be the ''null'' marker.) Then you would assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern - ''i.e.'' the default is that brackets would cluster to the left. <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
== Example phrases ==<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=6252Gaaziketti2006-01-10T03:13:04Z<p>Fofofo: /* Background */</p>
<hr />
<div>Note: Gaaziketti will probably not continue to be developed. Its creator's energies are likely in future to be directed instead towards its offshoot, [[Taaluketti]], which he regards as having a more satisfying syntax than Gaaziketti. However the lexicon of Gaaziketti will very likely be inherited by [[Taaluketti]], as well as certain features such as "parsing markers", and SOV structure.<br />
<br />
See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
[[Taaluketti]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) (see below) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
''The imperative and infinitive constructions are currently under review. See [[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]].''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I now regard [[Taaluketti]] as satisfying the above goals better than Gaaziketti did, mainly in virtue of [[Taaluketti]]'s seemingly more elegant and flexible syntactical structure. Having said this, [[Taaluketti]] is still in a pretty early stage of development.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=6251Gaaziketti2006-01-10T03:12:40Z<p>Fofofo: /* Background */</p>
<hr />
<div>Note: Gaaziketti will probably not continue to be developed. Its creator's energies are likely in future to be directed instead towards its offshoot, [[Taaluketti]], which he regards as having a more satisfying syntax than Gaaziketti. However the lexicon of Gaaziketti will very likely be inherited by [[Taaluketti]], as well as certain features such as "parsing markers", and SOV structure.<br />
<br />
See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
[[Taaluketti]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) (see below) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
''The imperative and infinitive constructions are currently under review. See [[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]].''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I now regard [[Taaluketti]] as satisfying the above goals better than [[Gaaziketti]] did, mainly in virtue of [[Taaluketti]]'s seemingly more elegant and flexible syntactical structure. Having said this, [[Taaluketti]] is still in a pretty early stage of development.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=6250Gaaziketti2006-01-10T03:08:11Z<p>Fofofo: </p>
<hr />
<div>Note: Gaaziketti will probably not continue to be developed. Its creator's energies are likely in future to be directed instead towards its offshoot, [[Taaluketti]], which he regards as having a more satisfying syntax than Gaaziketti. However the lexicon of Gaaziketti will very likely be inherited by [[Taaluketti]], as well as certain features such as "parsing markers", and SOV structure.<br />
<br />
See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
[[Taaluketti]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) (see below) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
''The imperative and infinitive constructions are currently under review. See [[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]].''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=List_of_conlangs&diff=6249List of conlangs2006-01-10T02:56:34Z<p>Fofofo: /* Conlangs on FrathWiki */ added Taaluketti</p>
<hr />
<div>==Conlangs on FrathWiki==<br />
*[[Âdlantki]]<br />
*[[Albic]]<br />
*[[Atlantic]]<br />
*[[Baazraamani|Bâzrâmani]]<br />
*[[Ch-m- Tlondor]]<br />
*[[Dele]]<br />
*[[Gaaziketti]]<br />
*[[Germanech]]<br />
*[[Henaudute]]<br />
*[[Ibran]]<br />
*[[Jamastulu]]<br />
*[[Kasin]]<br />
*[[Kirumb]]<br />
*[[Knoshke|Knòškè]]<br />
*[[Kobold]]<br />
*[[Kosi_grammar|Kosi]]<br />
*[[Kythish]]<br />
*[[Lara]]<br />
*[[Maerik|Mærik]]<br />
*[[Nordaþ language|Nordaþ]]<br />
*[[Noric]]<br />
*[[Panslavien]]<br />
*[[Qanao language|Qanao]]<br />
*[[Senyecan]]<br />
*[[Sirius]]<br />
*[[Sisiwön]]<br />
*[[Slevan]] (Slvanjec)<br />
*[[Sohlob]]<br />
*[[Taalen]]<br />
*[[Taaluketti]]<br />
*[[Telarian]]<br />
*[[Thagojian]]<br />
*[[Tilawa]]<br />
*[[Trentish]]<br />
*[[Vixen]]<br />
*[[Yasaro]]<br />
<br />
==Conlangs on other wikis==<br />
*[[Conlangcity:Interlecto|Interlecto]]<br />
*[[LFNwiki:Lingua Franca Nova|Lingua Franca Nova]]<br />
*[[Conlangcity:Tokcir|Tokcir]], the New Generation Language<br />
<br />
==Conlangs on other sites==<br />
*Mercator's [http://www.xapia.com/andanese/index.php Andanese]<br />
*Ahribar's [http://www.geocities.com/zarathustra47/conlang.html Arêndron]<br />
*Arthaey Angosii's [http://arthaey.mine.nu:8080/~arthaey/conlang/ Asha'ille]<br />
*Eddy the Great's [http://terp.bravehost.com/conworld/tpconlang.html Bp&#664;x&#8217;ã&#816;àókxá&#816;]<br />
*[http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/introduction.html Brithenig]<br />
*Matt Arriola's [http://z500.8m.net/conlangs/index.html Igur, Noth, Erog, Seduk]<br />
*[http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Ithkuil/ Ithkuil]<br />
*[http://www.kli.org/ Klingon]<br />
*[http://www.eskimo.com/~ram/Ladekwa/ Ladekwa] (''formerly Latenkwa, Nasendi and Katanda'')<br />
*[http://www.lojban.org/ Lojban]<br />
*Maknas' [http://www.xapia.com/serakus/language/malknarh/grammar.html Malknarh]<br />
*Maknas' [http://www.xapia.com/serakus/language/mekhael/grammar.html Mekhael]<br />
*[http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling]'s [http://www.theiling.de/conlang/s7/ Qthyn|gai]<br />
*[http://www.tokipona.org/ Toki Pona]<br />
*'''Mark Rosenfelder's Verduria'''<br />
::''Taëse''<br />
:::''Eastern'' &#8212; [http://www.zompist.com/eastern2.html Proto-Eastern]<br />
::::''Karazi''<br />
:::::''Cuzeian''<br />
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/cuezi.htm Cuêzi]<br />
::::''Central''<br />
:::::''Ca&#271;inor''<br />
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/native.htm Ca&#271;inor]<br />
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/verdurian.htm Verdurian]<br />
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/bara.htm Barakhinei]<br />
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/ismain.htm Ismaîn]<br />
::::''Axunaic''<br />
::::*[http://www.zompist.com/axunashin.htm Axuna&#353;in]<br />
:::::''Modern Axunaic''<br />
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/xurnash.htm Xurná&#353;]<br />
::::''[http://www.zompist.com/naviu.htm Naviu]''<br />
::::''[http://www.zompist.com/chia.htm &#268;ia-&#352;a]''<br />
:::''Monkhayic''<br />
::::''Me&#357;aiun''<br />
::::*[http://www.zompist.com/kebreni.htm Kebreni]<br />
:::''Wede:i-Mei''<br />
:::*[http://www.zompist.com/wedei.html Wede:i]<br />
::''Non-Human''<br />
::*[http://www.zompist.com/elkaril.htm Elkarîl]<br />
::*[http://www.zompist.com/flaidish.htm Flaidish]<br />
<br />
:''This list is incomplete. Please add to it.''</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6248Taaluketti2006-01-10T02:51:51Z<p>Fofofo: </p>
<hr />
<div>= Taaluketti =<br />
<br />
'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
== Pronunciation and orthography ==<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. <br />
<br />
When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
== Example phrases ==<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6247Taaluketti2006-01-10T02:50:04Z<p>Fofofo: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. <br />
<br />
When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
= Example phrases =<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6246Taaluketti2006-01-10T02:49:18Z<p>Fofofo: /* Syntax */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. <br />
<br />
When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' denotes the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.<br />
<br />
= Example phrases =<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6245Taaluketti2006-01-10T02:44:59Z<p>Fofofo: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. <br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. <br />
<br />
When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.<br />
<br />
= Example phrases =<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6244Taaluketti2006-01-10T02:42:01Z<p>Fofofo: /* Example phrases */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. <br />
<br />
When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.<br />
<br />
= Example phrases =<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' <> the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' <> the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' <> the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' <> the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' <> The hill is climbed.<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara le hecci.''' <> The woman climbs.<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' <> the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' <> The woman climbs the hill.<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' <> the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Hecci le haara.''' <> The one that climbs is a woman.<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' <> the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' <> the one which the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6243Taaluketti2006-01-10T02:34:20Z<p>Fofofo: added example phrases and explained 'ko'</p>
<hr />
<div>= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. <br />
<br />
When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. <br />
<br />
An common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. <br />
<br />
In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – "the". A phrase of the form "Y '''le'''" ("Y" being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning "the (single) person/object x such that "x Y" would be a true sentence", i.e. "the x which satisfies "Y" ". If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.<br />
<br />
= Example phrases =<br />
<br />
Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le''' the (one that is a) woman<br />
<br />
(haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le''' the one that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''heccis haaran le''' the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs<br />
<br />
(hecci.haara)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''ko hecci le''' the one that is climbed<br />
<br />
((ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci''' the hill is climbed<br />
<br />
(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara le hecci''' the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((haara)le)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' the one that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''haara les gaazi le kon hecci''' the woman climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci<br />
<br />
<br />
'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' the woman that climbs the hill<br />
<br />
((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le <br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' the hill the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''hecci le haara''' the one that climbs is a woman<br />
<br />
((hecci)le)haara<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' the hill which the one that climbs climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le<br />
<br />
<br />
'''kos haara len hecci le''' the one that the woman climbs<br />
<br />
((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6242Taaluketti2006-01-10T02:23:50Z<p>Fofofo: added pronunciation and orthography</p>
<hr />
<div>= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Syntax =<br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. <br />
<br />
When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – ‘the’. A phrase of the form ‘Y le’ (‘Y’ being some phrase that is an argument of ‘le’) is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning ‘the (single) person/object x such that ‘x Y’ would be a true sentence’, i.e. ‘the x which satisfies ‘Y’ ’. If many Ys each modify le, then le denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6217Taaluketti2006-01-08T14:26:16Z<p>Fofofo: </p>
<hr />
<div>This page is in a very early stage of development.<br />
<br />
Taaluketti is like Gaaziketti in many respects. <br />
<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) "leftmost and only argument of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-s''' "leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-n''' "final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
'''-k''' "neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase"<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. <br />
<br />
When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows.<br />
<br />
The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. <br />
<br />
Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. <br />
<br />
Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: "y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1 y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: "x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y".<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – ‘the’. A phrase of the form ‘Y le’ (‘Y’ being some phrase that is an argument of ‘le’) is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning ‘the (single) person/object x such that ‘x Y’ would be a true sentence’, i.e. ‘the x which satisfies ‘Y’ ’. If many Ys each modify le, then le denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6197Taaluketti2006-01-08T03:48:00Z<p>Fofofo: /* Phrases and classes of phrases */ made explanation clearer</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is in a very early stage of development.<br />
<br />
Taaluketti is like Gaaziketti in many respects. <br />
<br />
==Parsing markers and modification==<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) gather one, modify next<br />
<br />
'''-s''' gather one, do not modify next<br />
<br />
'''-n''' gather two, modify next<br />
<br />
'''-k''' gather two, do not modify next<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
==Phrases and classes of phrases==<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. <br />
<br />
When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). Two basic types are the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. <br />
<br />
The notation “[x…x>y]” means that an item of the type [x...x>y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x>y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x>y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].<br />
<br />
Words of the class [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. We can use the symbol "[Pc]" as an abbreviation for "[Ap…Ap>S]". A predicate-core is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a predicate-core will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what are called noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – ‘the’. A phrase of the form ‘Y le’ (‘Y’ being some phrase that is an argument of ‘le’) is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning ‘the (single) person/object x such that ‘x Y’ would be a true sentence’, i.e. ‘the x which satisfies ‘Y’ ’. If many Ys each modify le, then le denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6196Taaluketti2006-01-08T03:35:15Z<p>Fofofo: /* Parsing markers and modification */</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is in a very early stage of development.<br />
<br />
Taaluketti is like Gaaziketti in many respects. <br />
<br />
==Parsing markers and modification==<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) gather one, modify next<br />
<br />
'''-s''' gather one, do not modify next<br />
<br />
'''-n''' gather two, modify next<br />
<br />
'''-k''' gather two, do not modify next<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
==Phrases and classes of phrases==<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor together with its arguments forms a phrase. The functor is the head of the phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which that functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
Words and phrases may may divided into types. We begin with the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. The notation “[x…x>y]” means that a certain word is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, constitutes a phrase of class y. The class of such a functor, that is, is [x…x>y]. <br />
<br />
Words of the class [Pc] =df [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. A predicate-core is kind of like a predicate in Loglan, except it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0). Each of its arguments will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what I will call noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – ‘the’. A phrase of the form ‘Y le’ (‘Y’ being some phrase that is an argument of ‘le’) is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning ‘the (single) person/object x such that ‘x Y’ would be a true sentence’, i.e. ‘the x which satisfies ‘Y’ ’. If many Ys each modify le, then le denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6195Taaluketti2006-01-08T03:32:20Z<p>Fofofo: /* Parsing markers and modification */</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is in a very early stage of development.<br />
<br />
Taaluketti is like Gaaziketti in many respects. <br />
<br />
==Parsing markers and modification==<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) gather one, modify next<br />
<br />
'''-s''' gather one, do not modify next<br />
<br />
'''-n''' gather two, modify next<br />
<br />
'''-k''' gather two, do not modify next<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token may be modified by some number (possible zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
==Phrases and classes of phrases==<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor together with its arguments forms a phrase. The functor is the head of the phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which that functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
Words and phrases may may divided into types. We begin with the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. The notation “[x…x>y]” means that a certain word is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, constitutes a phrase of class y. The class of such a functor, that is, is [x…x>y]. <br />
<br />
Words of the class [Pc] =df [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. A predicate-core is kind of like a predicate in Loglan, except it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0). Each of its arguments will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what I will call noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – ‘the’. A phrase of the form ‘Y le’ (‘Y’ being some phrase that is an argument of ‘le’) is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning ‘the (single) person/object x such that ‘x Y’ would be a true sentence’, i.e. ‘the x which satisfies ‘Y’ ’. If many Ys each modify le, then le denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Experimental_page&diff=6194Gaaziketti: Experimental page2006-01-08T03:30:41Z<p>Fofofo: /* Taaluketti */</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is for experimenting with changes to the grammar of [[Gaaziketti]].<br />
<br />
===Infinitive and imperative constructions===<br />
The role of the inf. and imp. moods is not clear, given that verbs are supposed to be essentially verbal nouns. Does '''raazup!''' means ''criticise!'' or does it mean ''make there be some criticising (by someone, not nec. you)''. If it meant the second thing, one could say '''Ve raazup''' to mean ''criticise!'' <br />
<br />
Similar questions surround the infinitive. <br />
<br />
Probably a solution is to have a short inflexible form, & a less compact, but more flexible alternative form (as with the relative pronoun).<br />
<br />
===[[Taaluketti]]===<br />
I am working on a new language, [[Taaluketti]], sharing many of the features of Gaaziketti (e.g. phonology, basic morphology, parsing markers, SOV word order) but with what I think is an improved syntax.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6193Taaluketti2006-01-08T03:27:51Z<p>Fofofo: /* Parsing markers and modification */</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is in a very early stage of development.<br />
<br />
Taaluketti is like Gaaziketti in many respects. <br />
<br />
==Parsing markers and modification==<br />
Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) gather one, modify next<br />
<br />
-s gather one, do not modify next<br />
<br />
-n gather two, modify next<br />
<br />
-k gather two, do not modify next<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token may be modified by some number (possible zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
==Phrases and classes of phrases==<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor together with its arguments forms a phrase. The functor is the head of the phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which that functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
Words and phrases may may divided into types. We begin with the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. The notation “[x…x>y]” means that a certain word is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, constitutes a phrase of class y. The class of such a functor, that is, is [x…x>y]. <br />
<br />
Words of the class [Pc] =df [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. A predicate-core is kind of like a predicate in Loglan, except it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0). Each of its arguments will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what I will call noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – ‘the’. A phrase of the form ‘Y le’ (‘Y’ being some phrase that is an argument of ‘le’) is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning ‘the (single) person/object x such that ‘x Y’ would be a true sentence’, i.e. ‘the x which satisfies ‘Y’ ’. If many Ys each modify le, then le denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6192Taaluketti2006-01-08T03:27:03Z<p>Fofofo: /* Parsing markers and modification */</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is in a very early stage of development.<br />
<br />
Taaluketti is like Gaaziketti in many respects. <br />
<br />
==Parsing markers and modification==<br />
Every word will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) gather one, modify next<br />
<br />
-s gather one, do not modify next<br />
<br />
-n gather two, modify next<br />
<br />
-k gather two, do not modify next<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence), and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token may be modified by some number (possible zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.<br />
<br />
==Phrases and classes of phrases==<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor together with its arguments forms a phrase. The functor is the head of the phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which that functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
Words and phrases may may divided into types. We begin with the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. The notation “[x…x>y]” means that a certain word is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, constitutes a phrase of class y. The class of such a functor, that is, is [x…x>y]. <br />
<br />
Words of the class [Pc] =df [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. A predicate-core is kind of like a predicate in Loglan, except it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0). Each of its arguments will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what I will call noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – ‘the’. A phrase of the form ‘Y le’ (‘Y’ being some phrase that is an argument of ‘le’) is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning ‘the (single) person/object x such that ‘x Y’ would be a true sentence’, i.e. ‘the x which satisfies ‘Y’ ’. If many Ys each modify le, then le denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taaluketti&diff=6191Taaluketti2006-01-08T03:26:32Z<p>Fofofo: basic grammar</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is in a very early stage of development.<br />
<br />
Taaluketti is like Gaaziketti in many respects. <br />
<br />
==Parsing markers and modification==<br />
Every word will take one of four ''parsing markers'':<br />
<br />
(null) gather one, modify next<br />
-s gather one, do not modify next<br />
-n gather two, modify next<br />
-k gather two, do not modify next<br />
<br />
Parsing markers are not treated as words – they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be words of type [Pc] – see below.)<br />
<br />
Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence), and another. <br />
<br />
Each word-token may be modified by some number (possible zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left. <br />
<br />
==Phrases and classes of phrases==<br />
Modification is a relation between word-tokens. But what about higher phrasal etc. syntactic relations? Well, suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor? Well, you assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern. Always. This is because each word is in fact a functor, and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its arguments. Functors always pick up arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). <br />
<br />
A functor together with its arguments forms a phrase. The functor is the head of the phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which that functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.<br />
<br />
Words and phrases may may divided into types. We begin with the type [Ap], or adverbial phrase, and the type [S], or statement. The notation “[x…x>y]” means that a certain word is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, constitutes a phrase of class y. The class of such a functor, that is, is [x…x>y]. <br />
<br />
Words of the class [Pc] =df [Ap…Ap>S] are called “predicate-cores”. A predicate-core is kind of like a predicate in Loglan, except it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure. Syntactically speaking, a predicate-core can take any number of arguments (including 0). Each of its arguments will be an adverbial phrase [Ap]. <br />
<br />
There are two kinds of adverbial phrase [Ap]. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [Np]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [Np] and form a phrase of class [Ap], i.e. postpositions are of class [Np>Ap]. In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase. <br />
<br />
To make noun-phrases [Np], you’ve got a bunch of what I will call noun-heads [Nh]. The commonest noun-head is '''le''', meaning – roughly – ‘the’. A phrase of the form ‘Y le’ (‘Y’ being some phrase that is an argument of ‘le’) is a noun-phrase [Np], meaning ‘the (single) person/object x such that ‘x Y’ would be a true sentence’, i.e. ‘the x which satisfies ‘Y’ ’. If many Ys each modify le, then le denotes the x that satisfies all of those Ys.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Experimental_page&diff=6190Gaaziketti: Experimental page2006-01-08T03:10:49Z<p>Fofofo: /* Taaluketti */</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is for experimenting with changes to the grammar of [[Gaaziketti]].<br />
<br />
===Infinitive and imperative constructions===<br />
The role of the inf. and imp. moods is not clear, given that verbs are supposed to be essentially verbal nouns. Does '''raazup!''' means ''criticise!'' or does it mean ''make there be some criticising (by someone, not nec. you)''. If it meant the second thing, one could say '''Ve raazup''' to mean ''criticise!'' <br />
<br />
Similar questions surround the infinitive. <br />
<br />
Probably a solution is to have a short inflexible form, & a less compact, but more flexible alternative form (as with the relative pronoun).<br />
<br />
===[[Taaluketti]]===<br />
I am working on a new language, [[Taaluketti]], sharing many of the features of Gaaziketti (e.g. phonology, basic morphology, parsing markers, SOV word order) but with what I think is an improved syntax. Taaluketti is more of a "logical language" than Gaaziketti - but I think it's also more intuitive and less rigid than Loglan / Lojban. Having said this, it might be some time before I get around to putting it up online. It still needs some work.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Experimental_page&diff=5976Gaaziketti: Experimental page2006-01-02T06:16:23Z<p>Fofofo: /* Infinitive and imperative constructions */ Taaluketti</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is for experimenting with changes to the grammar of [[Gaaziketti]].<br />
<br />
===Infinitive and imperative constructions===<br />
The role of the inf. and imp. moods is not clear, given that verbs are supposed to be essentially verbal nouns. Does '''raazup!''' means ''criticise!'' or does it mean ''make there be some criticising (by someone, not nec. you)''. If it meant the second thing, one could say '''Ve raazup''' to mean ''criticise!'' <br />
<br />
Similar questions surround the infinitive. <br />
<br />
Probably a solution is to have a short inflexible form, & a less compact, but more flexible alternative form (as with the relative pronoun).<br />
<br />
===Taaluketti===<br />
I am working on a new language, Taaluketti, sharing many of the features of Gaaziketti (e.g. phonology, basic morphology, parsing markers, SOV word order) but with what I think is an improved syntax. Taaluketti is more of a "logical language" than Gaaziketti - but I think it's also more intuitive and less rigid than Loglan / Lojban. Having said this, it might be some time before I get around to putting it up online. It still needs some work.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5551Gaaziketti2005-11-17T13:05:00Z<p>Fofofo: /* Pronunciation and orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) (see below) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
''The imperative and infinitive constructions are currently under review. See [[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]].''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5550Gaaziketti2005-11-17T13:04:28Z<p>Fofofo: /* Pronunciation and orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in '''spot''', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) (see below) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
''The imperative and infinitive constructions are currently under review. See [[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]].''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5549Gaaziketti2005-11-17T13:02:28Z<p>Fofofo: /* Pronunciation */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation and orthography =<br />
<br />
The following Roman letters are used.<br />
<br />
'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''<br />
<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'''r''' is rolled<br />
<br />
'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) (see below) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
''The imperative and infinitive constructions are currently under review. See [[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]].''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Experimental_page&diff=5478Gaaziketti: Experimental page2005-11-10T16:24:10Z<p>Fofofo: </p>
<hr />
<div>This page is for experimenting with changes to the grammar of [[Gaaziketti]].<br />
<br />
===Infinitive and imperative constructions===<br />
The role of the inf. and imp. moods is not clear, given that verbs are supposed to be essentially verbal nouns. Does '''raazup!''' means ''criticise!'' or does it mean ''make there be some criticising (by someone, not nec. you)''. If it meant the second thing, one could say '''Ve raazup''' to mean ''criticise!'' <br />
<br />
Similar questions surround the infinitive. <br />
<br />
Probably a solution is to have a short inflexible form, & a less compact, but more flexible alternative form (as with the relative pronoun).</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Experimental_page&diff=5477Gaaziketti: Experimental page2005-11-10T16:18:15Z<p>Fofofo: abandoned experiment with plural ending</p>
<hr />
<div></div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5476Gaaziketti2005-11-10T16:17:11Z<p>Fofofo: /* Verbal endings */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation =<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'q' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'c' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'n' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'ng' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'ai' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'au' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) (see below) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
''The imperative and infinitive constructions are currently under review. See [[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]].''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5475Gaaziketti2005-11-10T15:34:56Z<p>Fofofo: /* Pronunciation */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation =<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'q' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'c' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'n' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'ng' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'ai' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'au' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5474Gaaziketti2005-11-10T10:16:14Z<p>Fofofo: /* Postpositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation =<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'q' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'c' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'n' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'ng' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'ai' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'au' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced consonants are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5473Gaaziketti2005-11-10T10:12:32Z<p>Fofofo: /* Postpositions */ case rule regularised</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation =<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'q' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'c' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'n' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'ng' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'ai' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'au' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced consonants are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' in, at<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Lexicon&diff=5472Gaaziketti: Lexicon2005-11-10T10:09:36Z<p>Fofofo: /* Postpositions */ more added, case regularised</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
This started out as a completely random sample from the lexicon. But I've started deliberately adding some of the more useful words to it and hope to add more over time. <br />
<br />
Almost all morphemes are disyllabic, with a long syllable followed by a short syllable, though some very common words are monosyllabic, or even consist of only one phoneme (e.g. '''l''' meaning 'the' (singular)).<br />
<br />
You can form compound words by juxtaposition, head word last. E.g. a '''moogimotti''' is an ant-egg. '''Kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' - literally "jewel-worker".<br />
<br />
= Frequently used words =<br />
=== Copula ===<br />
*'''paa''' to be (Only used for linking two '''noun phrases''', both of which are put in the nominative. Do not use for adjectives.)<br />
<br />
=== Demonstratives ===<br />
*'''taa''' that, those. N. B. you need to add a (case-inflected) article. As adjective, comes after noun, before article (rather than before the noun like most adjectives). As a pronoun, just add the article. E.g.: '''Kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nom.). '''Taa le''', ''that'' (as pronoun). '''Taa ke''', ''those'' (nom.). '''Kooba taa se''', ''one of those jackets'' (nom.). <br />
*''' nii ''' this, these. You need to add an article: same rules as for '''taa''', ''that''.<br />
<br />
=== Postpositions ===<br />
All govern the genitive/accusative case<br />
<br />
*'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.<br />
*'''bii''' in<br />
*'''coo''' for, for the benefit of, for the purpose of<br />
*'''daaqi''' near, close to<br />
*'''meepi''' like, similar to<br />
*'''nuuta''' on<br />
*'''zaa''' at<br />
<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These are placed ''after'' their nouns, and declined for case ('''-e, -o, -ai''' for nominative, accusative/genitive, and dative, respectively.) <br />
<br />
*'''le, lo, lai''' the (singular)<br />
*'''ke, ko, hai''' the (plural)<br />
*'''se, so, sai''' (indefinite singular article)<br />
*'''me, mo, mai''' (indefinite plural article)<br />
<br />
= Less frequently used words =<br />
*''' beetu ''' garden<br />
*''' booru ''' to drown (intrans.)<br />
*''' cainu ''' mustard<br />
*'''cecca''' soldier<br />
*''' ceeza ''' army<br />
*'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
*''' cuuku ''' wife<br />
*''' daubu ''' organ (of body)<br />
*'''deela''' enemy<br />
*''' gooma ''' referee, umpire<br />
*''' haiga''' movie<br />
*''' hauka ''' curtain<br />
*'''kaidu''' worker<br />
*''' kauna ''' populace<br />
*''' kooba ''' jacket<br />
*'''kossa''' jewel<br />
*'''kuubu''' slave<br />
*''' luudi ''' goat<br />
*''' luuli ''' pan, frying pan<br />
*'''mennu''' name (n.)<br />
*''' moogi ''' ant<br />
*''' motti ''' egg<br />
*''' naapa ''' cotton<br />
*'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
*''' paumu''' person<br />
*''' pauqa ''' sign (as in a streetsign or public notice)<br />
*''' qassi''' to have<br />
*''' qeetu ''' mirror<br />
*''' qocci ''' beard<br />
*''' raalu ''' arrow<br />
*'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
*''' raucu ''' wealthy, rich<br />
*''' riigu ''' scale (as in measuring device)<br />
*''' sombi ''' to run<br />
*''' tiicu ''' pig<br />
*''' tuuza ''' helmet</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Lexicon&diff=5471Gaaziketti: Lexicon2005-11-10T10:00:20Z<p>Fofofo: /* Postpositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
This started out as a completely random sample from the lexicon. But I've started deliberately adding some of the more useful words to it and hope to add more over time. <br />
<br />
Almost all morphemes are disyllabic, with a long syllable followed by a short syllable, though some very common words are monosyllabic, or even consist of only one phoneme (e.g. '''l''' meaning 'the' (singular)).<br />
<br />
You can form compound words by juxtaposition, head word last. E.g. a '''moogimotti''' is an ant-egg. '''Kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' - literally "jewel-worker".<br />
<br />
= Frequently used words =<br />
=== Copula ===<br />
*'''paa''' to be (Only used for linking two '''noun phrases''', both of which are put in the nominative. Do not use for adjectives.)<br />
<br />
=== Demonstratives ===<br />
*'''taa''' that, those. N. B. you need to add a (case-inflected) article. As adjective, comes after noun, before article (rather than before the noun like most adjectives). As a pronoun, just add the article. E.g.: '''Kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nom.). '''Taa le''', ''that'' (as pronoun). '''Taa ke''', ''those'' (nom.). '''Kooba taa se''', ''one of those jackets'' (nom.). <br />
*''' nii ''' this, these. You need to add an article: same rules as for '''taa''', ''that''.<br />
<br />
=== Postpositions ===<br />
*'''baa''' (governs genitive) with, using, via, by means of.<br />
*'''bii''' (governs dative) in<br />
*'''nuuta''' (governs dative) on<br />
<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These are placed ''after'' their nouns, and declined for case ('''-e, -o, -ai''' for nominative, accusative/genitive, and dative, respectively.) <br />
<br />
*'''le, lo, lai''' the (singular)<br />
*'''ke, ko, hai''' the (plural)<br />
*'''se, so, sai''' (indefinite singular article)<br />
*'''me, mo, mai''' (indefinite plural article)<br />
<br />
= Less frequently used words =<br />
*''' beetu ''' garden<br />
*''' booru ''' to drown (intrans.)<br />
*''' cainu ''' mustard<br />
*'''cecca''' soldier<br />
*''' ceeza ''' army<br />
*'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
*''' cuuku ''' wife<br />
*''' daubu ''' organ (of body)<br />
*'''deela''' enemy<br />
*''' gooma ''' referee, umpire<br />
*''' haiga''' movie<br />
*''' hauka ''' curtain<br />
*'''kaidu''' worker<br />
*''' kauna ''' populace<br />
*''' kooba ''' jacket<br />
*'''kossa''' jewel<br />
*'''kuubu''' slave<br />
*''' luudi ''' goat<br />
*''' luuli ''' pan, frying pan<br />
*'''mennu''' name (n.)<br />
*''' moogi ''' ant<br />
*''' motti ''' egg<br />
*''' naapa ''' cotton<br />
*'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
*''' paumu''' person<br />
*''' pauqa ''' sign (as in a streetsign or public notice)<br />
*''' qassi''' to have<br />
*''' qeetu ''' mirror<br />
*''' qocci ''' beard<br />
*''' raalu ''' arrow<br />
*'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
*''' raucu ''' wealthy, rich<br />
*''' riigu ''' scale (as in measuring device)<br />
*''' sombi ''' to run<br />
*''' tiicu ''' pig<br />
*''' tuuza ''' helmet</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5470Gaaziketti2005-11-10T09:57:33Z<p>Fofofo: </p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation =<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'q' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'c' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'n' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'ng' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'ai' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'au' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced consonants are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deelu''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in a case appropriate to the postposition.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' (governs genitive) with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' (governs dative) in, at<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' (governs dative) on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5468Gaaziketti2005-11-10T03:39:54Z<p>Fofofo: /* Pronunciation */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation =<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'q' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'c' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'n' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'ng' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.<br />
<br />
'ai' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'au' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced consonants are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deela''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in a case appropriate to the postposition.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' (governs genitive) with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' (governs dative) in, at<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' (governs dative) on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deela les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Fofofo&diff=5466User:Fofofo2005-11-09T06:49:20Z<p>Fofofo: /* Common words (adapted from Swadesh list) */</p>
<hr />
<div>=== Common words (adapted from Swadesh list) ===<br />
<br />
= (Work in progress) =<br />
<br />
I/me/my/mine ''qe, -o, -ai'' you/your/yours ''ve, -o, -ai'' he/she/it-animate/him/her/his/hers/its-animate ''te, -o, -ai'' we/us/our/ours ''goqe, -o, -ai'' you/your/yours-singular '''ve, -o, -ai''' you/your/yours-plural '''gove, -o, -ai''' <br />
<br />
they, them, their, theirs, '''he, -o, -ai''' <br />
<br />
this, these, '''nii''' (takes inflected article)<br />
<br />
that, those, '''taa''' (takes inflected article)<br />
<br />
here, '''liiga''' (takes inflected article) <br />
<br />
there, '''cooda''' (takes inflected article)<br />
<br />
who, .... <br />
<br />
what, ... <br />
<br />
where, ... <br />
<br />
when, ... <br />
<br />
how, ... <br />
<br />
not, '''qau''' (follows indicative verb)<br />
<br />
all, ... <br />
<br />
many, ... <br />
<br />
some, '''me, -o, -ai''' <br />
<br />
few, ...<br />
<br />
other, ...<br />
<br />
zero, '''celli''' <br />
<br />
one, ... <br />
<br />
two, '''gaulu''' <br />
<br />
three, '''liiru''' <br />
<br />
four, '''qendu'''<br />
<br />
five, '''seppu'''<br />
<br />
six, '''tuuma'''<br />
<br />
seven, '''niimu'''<br />
<br />
eight, '''kaupa'''<br />
<br />
kaati, '''nine'''<br />
<br />
heebu, '''ten''' <br />
<br />
big, ... <br />
<br />
<br />
long <br />
wide <br />
thick <br />
heavy <br />
small <br />
short <br />
narrow <br />
thin <br />
woman <br />
man <br />
person <br />
child <br />
wife <br />
husband <br />
mother <br />
father <br />
animal ''coocu'' <br />
fish <br />
bird <br />
dog <br />
louse <br />
snake <br />
worm <br />
tree <br />
forest <br />
stick <br />
fruit <br />
seed <br />
leaf <br />
root <br />
bark <br />
flower <br />
grass <br />
rope <br />
skin <br />
meat <br />
blood <br />
bone <br />
fat (n.) <br />
egg ''motti'' <br />
horn <br />
tail <br />
feather <br />
hair <br />
head <br />
ear <br />
eye ''mombi'' <br />
nose <br />
mouth <br />
tooth <br />
tongue<br />
face '' <br />
fingernail <br />
foot <br />
leg <br />
knee ''gooti'' <br />
hand <br />
wing <br />
belly <br />
guts <br />
neck <br />
back <br />
breast <br />
heart <br />
liver ''neenu'' <br />
drink <br />
eat <br />
bite <br />
suck <br />
spit <br />
vomit <br />
blow <br />
breathe <br />
laugh <br />
see <br />
hear <br />
know <br />
think <br />
smell <br />
fear <br />
sleep <br />
live <br />
die <br />
kill <br />
fight <br />
hunt <br />
hit <br />
cut <br />
split <br />
stab <br />
scratch <br />
dig <br />
swim <br />
fly (v.) <br />
walk <br />
come <br />
lie <br />
sit <br />
stand <br />
turn <br />
fall <br />
give <br />
hold <br />
squeeze <br />
rub <br />
wash <br />
wipe <br />
pull <br />
push <br />
throw <br />
tie <br />
sew <br />
count <br />
say <br />
sing <br />
play <br />
float <br />
flow <br />
freeze <br />
swell <br />
sun ''laada'' <br />
moon ''naaki''<br />
star ''taazu''<br />
water <br />
rain ''siina''<br />
river <br />
lake ''kammu''<br />
sea ''bellu''<br />
salt <br />
stone <br />
sand <br />
dust <br />
earth ''mallu''<br />
cloud <br />
fog ''qaapi''<br />
sky <br />
wind <br />
snow <br />
ice <br />
smoke <br />
fire <br />
ashes <br />
burn <br />
road <br />
mountain ''rotta''<br />
red <br />
green <br />
yellow <br />
white <br />
black <br />
night <br />
day <br />
year <br />
warm <br />
cold <br />
full <br />
new <br />
old <br />
good <br />
bad <br />
rotten <br />
dirty <br />
straight <br />
round <br />
sharp <br />
dull <br />
smooth <br />
wet <br />
dry <br />
correct <br />
near <br />
far <br />
right <br />
left <br />
at <br />
in <br />
with <br />
and <br />
if <br />
because <br />
name</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Fofofo&diff=5465User:Fofofo2005-11-09T06:32:48Z<p>Fofofo: /* Swadesh list of 207 common words */</p>
<hr />
<div>==== Common words (adapted from Swadesh list) ====<br />
I, me, my, mine, '''qe, -o, -ai'''<br />
<br />
thou, thee, thy, thine, you, your, yours, '''ve, -o, -ai'''<br />
<br />
he, she, it (animate), him, her, his, hers, its (animate), '''te, -o, -ai'''<br />
<br />
we, us, our, ours, '''goqe, -o, -ai''' <br />
<br />
you, your, yours (singular), '''ve, -o, -ai'''<br />
<br />
you, your, yours (plural), '''gove, -o, -ai''' <br />
<br />
they, them, their, theirs, '''he, -o, -ai''' <br />
<br />
this, these, '''nii''' (takes inflected article)<br />
<br />
that, those, '''taa''' (takes inflected article)<br />
<br />
here, '''liiga''' (takes inflected article) <br />
<br />
there, '''cooda''' (takes inflected article)<br />
<br />
who, .... <br />
<br />
what, ... <br />
<br />
where, ... <br />
<br />
when, ... <br />
<br />
how, ... <br />
<br />
not, '''qau''' (follows indicative verb)<br />
<br />
all, ... <br />
<br />
many, ... <br />
<br />
some, '''me, -o, -ai''' <br />
<br />
few, ...<br />
<br />
other, ...<br />
<br />
zero, '''celli''' <br />
<br />
one, ... <br />
<br />
two, '''gaulu''' <br />
<br />
three, '''liiru''' <br />
<br />
four, '''qendu'''<br />
<br />
five, '''seppu'''<br />
<br />
six, '''tuuma'''<br />
<br />
seven, '''niimu'''<br />
<br />
eight, '''kaupa'''<br />
<br />
kaati, '''nine'''<br />
<br />
heebu, '''ten''' <br />
<br />
big, ... <br />
<br />
<br />
long <br />
wide <br />
thick <br />
heavy <br />
small <br />
short <br />
narrow <br />
thin <br />
woman <br />
man <br />
person <br />
child <br />
wife <br />
husband <br />
mother <br />
father <br />
animal <br />
fish <br />
bird <br />
dog <br />
louse <br />
snake <br />
worm <br />
tree <br />
forest <br />
stick <br />
fruit <br />
seed <br />
leaf <br />
root <br />
bark <br />
flower <br />
grass <br />
rope <br />
skin <br />
meat <br />
blood <br />
bone <br />
fat (n.) <br />
egg <br />
horn <br />
tail <br />
feather <br />
hair <br />
head <br />
ear <br />
eye <br />
nose <br />
mouth <br />
tooth <br />
tongue <br />
fingernail <br />
foot <br />
leg <br />
knee <br />
hand <br />
wing <br />
belly <br />
guts <br />
neck <br />
back <br />
breast <br />
heart <br />
liver <br />
drink <br />
eat <br />
bite <br />
suck <br />
spit <br />
vomit <br />
blow <br />
breathe <br />
laugh <br />
see <br />
hear <br />
know <br />
think <br />
smell <br />
fear <br />
sleep <br />
live <br />
die <br />
kill <br />
fight <br />
hunt <br />
hit <br />
cut <br />
split <br />
stab <br />
scratch <br />
dig <br />
swim <br />
fly (v.) <br />
walk <br />
come <br />
lie <br />
sit <br />
stand <br />
turn <br />
fall <br />
give <br />
hold <br />
squeeze <br />
rub <br />
wash <br />
wipe <br />
pull <br />
push <br />
throw <br />
tie <br />
sew <br />
count <br />
say <br />
sing <br />
play <br />
float <br />
flow <br />
freeze <br />
swell <br />
sun <br />
moon <br />
star <br />
water <br />
rain <br />
river <br />
lake <br />
sea <br />
salt <br />
stone <br />
sand <br />
dust <br />
earth <br />
cloud <br />
fog <br />
sky <br />
wind <br />
snow <br />
ice <br />
smoke <br />
fire <br />
ashes <br />
burn <br />
road <br />
mountain <br />
red <br />
green <br />
yellow <br />
white <br />
black <br />
night <br />
day <br />
year <br />
warm <br />
cold <br />
full <br />
new <br />
old <br />
good <br />
bad <br />
rotten <br />
dirty <br />
straight <br />
round <br />
sharp <br />
dull <br />
smooth <br />
wet <br />
dry <br />
correct <br />
near <br />
far <br />
right <br />
left <br />
at <br />
in <br />
with <br />
and <br />
if <br />
because <br />
name</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Lexicon&diff=5464Gaaziketti: Lexicon2005-11-09T04:07:17Z<p>Fofofo: /* Frequently used words */ added copula</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
This started out as a completely random sample from the lexicon. But I've started deliberately adding some of the more useful words to it and hope to add more over time. <br />
<br />
Almost all morphemes are disyllabic, with a long syllable followed by a short syllable, though some very common words are monosyllabic, or even consist of only one phoneme (e.g. '''l''' meaning 'the' (singular)).<br />
<br />
You can form compound words by juxtaposition, head word last. E.g. a '''moogimotti''' is an ant-egg. '''Kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' - literally "jewel-worker".<br />
<br />
= Frequently used words =<br />
=== Copula ===<br />
*'''paa''' to be (Only used for linking two '''noun phrases''', both of which are put in the nominative. Do not use for adjectives.)<br />
<br />
=== Demonstratives ===<br />
*'''taa''' that, those. N. B. you need to add a (case-inflected) article. As adjective, comes after noun, before article (rather than before the noun like most adjectives). As a pronoun, just add the article. E.g.: '''Kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nom.). '''Taa le''', ''that'' (as pronoun). '''Taa ke''', ''those'' (nom.). '''Kooba taa se''', ''one of those jackets'' (nom.). <br />
*''' nii ''' this, these. You need to add an article: same rules as for '''taa''', ''that''.<br />
<br />
=== Postpositions ===<br />
*'''baa''' (governs genitive) with, using, via, by means of.<br />
*'''bii''' (governs dative) in, at<br />
*'''nuuta''' (governs dative) on<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These are placed ''after'' their nouns, and declined for case ('''-e, -o, -ai''' for nominative, accusative/genitive, and dative, respectively.) <br />
<br />
*'''le, lo, lai''' the (singular)<br />
*'''ke, ko, hai''' the (plural)<br />
*'''se, so, sai''' (indefinite singular article)<br />
*'''me, mo, mai''' (indefinite plural article)<br />
<br />
= Less frequently used words =<br />
*''' beetu ''' garden<br />
*''' booru ''' to drown (intrans.)<br />
*''' cainu ''' mustard<br />
*'''cecca''' soldier<br />
*''' ceeza ''' army<br />
*'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
*''' cuuku ''' wife<br />
*''' daubu ''' organ (of body)<br />
*'''deela''' enemy<br />
*''' gooma ''' referee, umpire<br />
*''' haiga''' movie<br />
*''' hauka ''' curtain<br />
*'''kaidu''' worker<br />
*''' kauna ''' populace<br />
*''' kooba ''' jacket<br />
*'''kossa''' jewel<br />
*'''kuubu''' slave<br />
*''' luudi ''' goat<br />
*''' luuli ''' pan, frying pan<br />
*'''mennu''' name (n.)<br />
*''' moogi ''' ant<br />
*''' motti ''' egg<br />
*''' naapa ''' cotton<br />
*'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
*''' paumu''' person<br />
*''' pauqa ''' sign (as in a streetsign or public notice)<br />
*''' qassi''' to have<br />
*''' qeetu ''' mirror<br />
*''' qocci ''' beard<br />
*''' raalu ''' arrow<br />
*'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
*''' raucu ''' wealthy, rich<br />
*''' riigu ''' scale (as in measuring device)<br />
*''' sombi ''' to run<br />
*''' tiicu ''' pig<br />
*''' tuuza ''' helmet</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti:_Lexicon&diff=5463Gaaziketti: Lexicon2005-11-09T04:05:01Z<p>Fofofo: /* Demonstratives */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
This started out as a completely random sample from the lexicon. But I've started deliberately adding some of the more useful words to it and hope to add more over time. <br />
<br />
Almost all morphemes are disyllabic, with a long syllable followed by a short syllable, though some very common words are monosyllabic, or even consist of only one phoneme (e.g. '''l''' meaning 'the' (singular)).<br />
<br />
You can form compound words by juxtaposition, head word last. E.g. a '''moogimotti''' is an ant-egg. '''Kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' - literally "jewel-worker".<br />
<br />
= Frequently used words =<br />
=== Demonstratives ===<br />
*'''taa''' that, those. N. B. you need to add a (case-inflected) article. As adjective, comes after noun, before article (rather than before the noun like most adjectives). As a pronoun, just add the article. E.g.: '''Kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nom.). '''Taa le''', ''that'' (as pronoun). '''Taa ke''', ''those'' (nom.). '''Kooba taa se''', ''one of those jackets'' (nom.). <br />
*''' nii ''' this, these. You need to add an article: same rules as for '''taa''', ''that''.<br />
<br />
=== Postpositions ===<br />
*'''baa''' (governs genitive) with, using, via, by means of.<br />
*'''bii''' (governs dative) in, at<br />
*'''nuuta''' (governs dative) on<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These are placed ''after'' their nouns, and declined for case ('''-e, -o, -ai''' for nominative, accusative/genitive, and dative, respectively.) <br />
<br />
*'''le, lo, lai''' the (singular)<br />
*'''ke, ko, hai''' the (plural)<br />
*'''se, so, sai''' (indefinite singular article)<br />
*'''me, mo, mai''' (indefinite plural article)<br />
<br />
= Less frequently used words =<br />
*''' beetu ''' garden<br />
*''' booru ''' to drown (intrans.)<br />
*''' cainu ''' mustard<br />
*'''cecca''' soldier<br />
*''' ceeza ''' army<br />
*'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
*''' cuuku ''' wife<br />
*''' daubu ''' organ (of body)<br />
*'''deela''' enemy<br />
*''' gooma ''' referee, umpire<br />
*''' haiga''' movie<br />
*''' hauka ''' curtain<br />
*'''kaidu''' worker<br />
*''' kauna ''' populace<br />
*''' kooba ''' jacket<br />
*'''kossa''' jewel<br />
*'''kuubu''' slave<br />
*''' luudi ''' goat<br />
*''' luuli ''' pan, frying pan<br />
*'''mennu''' name (n.)<br />
*''' moogi ''' ant<br />
*''' motti ''' egg<br />
*''' naapa ''' cotton<br />
*'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
*''' paumu''' person<br />
*''' pauqa ''' sign (as in a streetsign or public notice)<br />
*''' qassi''' to have<br />
*''' qeetu ''' mirror<br />
*''' qocci ''' beard<br />
*''' raalu ''' arrow<br />
*'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
*''' raucu ''' wealthy, rich<br />
*''' riigu ''' scale (as in measuring device)<br />
*''' sombi ''' to run<br />
*''' tiicu ''' pig<br />
*''' tuuza ''' helmet</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5462Gaaziketti2005-11-09T03:59:13Z<p>Fofofo: /* Personal pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation =<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'q' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'c' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'n' when at the ''end'' of a word, is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'ai' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'au' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced consonants are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deela''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in a case appropriate to the postposition.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' (governs genitive) with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' (governs dative) in, at<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' (governs dative) on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deela les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5461Gaaziketti2005-11-09T03:49:30Z<p>Fofofo: /* Verbal endings */ typo</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation =<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'q' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'c' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'n' when at the ''end'' of a word, is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'ai' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'au' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced consonants are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deela''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''gotos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural: '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''gote, goto, gotai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''goze, gozo, gozai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in a case appropriate to the postposition.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' (governs genitive) with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' (governs dative) in, at<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' (governs dative) on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deela les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofohttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gaaziketti&diff=5460Gaaziketti2005-11-09T03:46:59Z<p>Fofofo: /* Parsing markers */</p>
<hr />
<div>See also: <br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]<br />
<br />
= Pronunciation =<br />
The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.<br />
<br />
'q' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.<br />
<br />
'c' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.<br />
<br />
'n' when at the ''end'' of a word, is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.<br />
<br />
'ai' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.<br />
<br />
'au' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.<br />
<br />
Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced consonants are not aspirated. E.g. 'p' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.<br />
<br />
In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.<br />
<br />
= Sample lexicon =<br />
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. <br />
<br />
'''kossakaidu''' jeweller<br />
<br />
'''nauzu''' to be original<br />
<br />
'''mennu''' name<br />
<br />
'''raazu''' to criticise<br />
<br />
'''cooqi''' to be silent<br />
<br />
'''haiga''' movie<br />
<br />
'''kuubu''' slave<br />
<br />
'''deela''' enemy<br />
<br />
'''cecca''' soldier<br />
<br />
'''paa''' to be (only for linking noun phrases)<br />
<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Basic syntax ==<br />
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.<br />
<br />
But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' <br />
<br />
Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'<br />
<br />
But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.<br />
<br />
Thus " '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' " can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'<br />
<br />
Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an "adjective" (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.<br />
<br />
The syntax tends to be agglutinative.<br />
<br />
=== Parsing markers ===<br />
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).<br />
<br />
Gather one element, modify next element '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Gather one element, do not modify next element '''-s'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, modify next element '''-n'''<br />
<br />
Gather two elements, do not modify next element '''-k'''<br />
<br />
These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to "gather" W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no "next" element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).<br />
<br />
=== Word order ===<br />
SOV (usual)<br />
<br />
or<br />
<br />
OSV<br />
<br />
In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.<br />
<br />
== Noun phrases ==<br />
=== Articles ===<br />
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.<br />
<br />
(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as "modifying" its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) <br />
<br />
Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. <br />
<br />
Sing. def. '''l'''<br />
<br />
Pl. def. '''k'''<br />
<br />
Sing. indef. '''s'''<br />
<br />
Pl. indef. '''m'''<br />
<br />
=== Case endings ===<br />
nominative '''-e'''<br />
<br />
accusative/ genitive '''-o'''<br />
<br />
dative '''-ai'''<br />
<br />
Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.<br />
<br />
== Verbal endings ==<br />
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
These come last of all.<br />
<br />
Indicative “there is” '''(nil)'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (informal) '''-p'''<br />
<br />
Imperative (formal) '''-vaa'''<br />
<br />
Infinitive '''-ce'''<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
These come just before the mood marker.<br />
<br />
Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''<br />
<br />
Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''<br />
<br />
Future '''-tau-'''<br />
<br />
=== Aspect ===<br />
These come just before the tense marker.<br />
<br />
simple '''(nil)''' <br />
<br />
habitual '''-baa-'''<br />
<br />
continuous '''-nii-'''<br />
<br />
perfect '''-haa-'''<br />
<br />
future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)<br />
<br />
=== Examples ===<br />
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''<br />
<br />
'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''<br />
<br />
'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
For demonstratives, see the next section.<br />
<br />
=== Personal pronouns ===<br />
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''gotos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.<br />
<br />
1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural: '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.<br />
<br />
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. <br />
<br />
3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''gote, goto, gotai'''.<br />
<br />
3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''goze, gozo, gozai'''.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronouns ===<br />
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. <br />
<br />
There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The concise option'': '''d-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.<br />
<br />
<br />
''The flexible option'': '''siim-'''<br />
<br />
Declined according to case within relative clause.<br />
<br />
Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.<br />
<br />
The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.<br />
<br />
== Demonstratives ==<br />
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.<br />
<br />
'''taa''' that, those <br />
<br />
''' nii ''' this, these <br />
<br />
E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).<br />
<br />
== Postpositions ==<br />
These come after the article, which must be in a case appropriate to the postposition.<br />
<br />
'''baa''' (governs genitive) with, using, via, by means of.<br />
<br />
'''bii''' (governs dative) in, at<br />
<br />
'''nuuta''' (governs dative) on<br />
<br />
== Some illustrative sentences ==<br />
'''Kuubu lo deela les cecca sen paa.'''<br />
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' <br />
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''<br />
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.<br />
<br />
'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''<br />
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.<br />
<br />
'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''<br />
The silent jeweller critises the movie.<br />
<br />
'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''<br />
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.<br />
(Can be read as: "There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.)<br />
<br />
= Lexicon =<br />
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few "sub-rules". Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and "automatic"). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language "universals" that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages. <br />
<br />
Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.<br />
<br />
There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the "small" words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.<br />
<br />
I hope to add to this page gradually as I work out more of the details.</div>Fofofo