https://www.frathwiki.com/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=DenihilonihilFrathWiki - User contributions [en]2026-05-16T18:29:47ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.39.8https://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Issol_A%27i&diff=52087Issol A'i2010-03-01T01:21:27Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Modern international relations */</p>
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<div>The '''Issol A'i''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] {{IPA|['issœl 'a.i]}}) or '''Strait of A'i''' is a narrow strip of water at the eastern edge of the [[Chisthian Sea]] separating the continents of [[Marcasia]] and [[Arophania]]. Measuring approximately 62km in length but only 16km across from [[Cape Beytes]] on its north shores to [[Cape Somorra]] on its south at its narrowest point, the 330m-deep strait is a rich fishing ground and a vital passage on the main trading routes between Marcasia, Arophania and [[Istheusia]]; it was by way of this strait that the [[Areth]] first arrived in [[Calagia]] from [[Erdia]].<br />
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Within 50km of the Issol A'i lie three historically very significant cities: on Cape Somorra, directly overlooking the strait, is [[Isphea]], the ancient [[Lazeian Empire|imperial]] capital; some kilometres up the [[Taphae-Nes river]] delta lies [[Lazea]], the Areth political, economic and cultural centre; on the opposite bank, little after the point where the strait opens into the [[Denurean Sea]], is the old city of [[Tannea]], fortress capital of the province of [[Tannaea (province)|Tannaea]].<br />
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==Names==<br />
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The '''Issol A'i''' is also called the '''Deis Atherris''' {{IPA|['ðe.is 'aθəris]}} in [[Dethric language|Dethric]], or the '''Kunpaana Sieka''' {{IPA|[kum'pa:na si.'eka]}} in [[Tannaean language|Tannaean]], both of which mean "Strait of Constriction" in the respective languages. In most other [[languages of Ilethes]], the name of the strait is simply borrowed or derived from the [[Arithide language|Arithide]]. The Arithide etymology of the name is uncertain.<br />
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==Formation==<br />
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The geological history of the Issol A'i is closely tied to that of the [[Western Boundary Mountain System]], along whose route it is sited. As the [[Maellorian plate]] pushed up against the [[Marcasian plate|Marcasian]] and [[Arophanian plate]]s to form the [[Iryagi]] and [[Alerryagi]] respectively, the crustal level around the location of the strait today rose significantly. The Marcasian and Arophanian plates subsequently accelerated their divergence, and the mountains at the plate boundary sank to form a narrow isthmus connecting the two continents. When sea levels rose due to the [[Iletheride warming]] 13 million years ago, the isthmus was submerged to form the Issol A'i, as the now submarine mountains sank further due to waterlogging and the weight of the sea on them, deepening the strait, which eventually reached its present depth of 330m. <br />
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==Strategic significance & importance==<br />
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Due to its strategic location at the centre of the three [[Old World (Ilethes)|Old World]] continents, [[Marcasia]], [[Arophania]] and [[Istheusia]], and as the only eastern exit from the [[Chisthian Sea]], the Issol A'i has played very significant and important roles throughout history.<br />
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===Rise of the Areth===<br />
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The [[Areth]], having very early settled on both shores of the Chisthian, by way of the strait, naturally came to dominate the area. The lack of large expanses of arable land pressured the Areth to turn to the sea, and the rich fishing grounds of the Issol A'i provided them with a natural centre of settlement. Subsequently realising the value of their location astride the major transport routes, the Areth capitalised heavily on it through developing, encouraging and stimulating trade, which was to be the mainstay of their economy for many years to come.<br />
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===Feudal struggle for control===<br />
{{main|Battles of the Strait}}<br />
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In the years after the fall of the [[Lazeian Empire]], the successor feudal states fought frequently, and occasionally with disastrous results, over the Issol A'i and for control of the lucrative trade routes passing through it. Such battles usually involved tussles over the two most proximate and important cities, [[Isphea]] and [[Lazea]], and at the end of the first century after the imperial demise, the two cities had together been besieged 8 times, and attacked 14 times. For a brief period of 38 years, the strait was held by the invading [[Andu]] empire from the north, which had overrun the empire's [[Marcasia]]n holdings in its last days, and captured Isphea and Lazea.<br />
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===Modern international relations===<br />
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Situated at a shipping lane bottleneck, the strait has at times served as a very useful tool in international diplomacy.<br />
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*In the [[Zesou Crisis]] of 1935 [[CIE]], [[Arithia]] successfully averted a potentially catastrophic invasion of its ally, [[Zesou]], by closing the strait to ships, military or otherwise, belonging to, registered in or flying the flags of the states party to the [[Cordial Alliance]], which was orchestrating the aggression. The blockade lasted for almost 11 months, during which the Arithide navy sank 29 merchant ships, as well as 5 military vessels of the Alliance in three separate naval battles. The closure was lifted when hostilities ended and a peace treaty was signed, and modern historians estimate the cost of the blockade to the Alliance members to have been between 4 and 7% of GDP.<br />
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{{stub}}<br />
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[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arophania]]<br />
[[Category: Marcasia]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Zesou_Crisis&diff=52086Zesou Crisis2010-03-01T01:13:33Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Blockade of the Issol A'i */</p>
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<div>The '''Zesou Crisis of 1935''' was a key flashpoint in the hostile relations between the [[Pisex Alliance]], dominated by [[Arithia]], and the [[Cordial Alliance]].<br />
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==Background==<br />
<br />
==Catalyst==<br />
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==Declaration of War on Zesou==<br />
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==Arithian intervention==<br />
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Three days after the [[Cordial Alliance]] officially declared war on [[Zesou]], Arithia, in fulfilment of its obligations under the [[Pisex Treaty]], announced the beginning of a series of retaliatory actions, but stopped short of declaring war. The Arithian parliament passed a motion to impose a trade embargo on the members of the Cordial Alliance, and in the subsequent weeks rallied a considerable number of other countries to join in the effort. At the same time, while, by law, the army could not be fully mobilised without an express declaration of war and the consent of parliament, the Arithian army sent part of its rotational always-on forces to the Zesovian capital, [[Andirs]], as an overt warning to potential belligerents.<br />
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===Blockade of the Issol A'i===<br />
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The most major of the actions was the closure of the [[Issol A'i]] to ships, military or otherwise, belonging to, registered in or flying the flags of the states party to the Alliance, beginning on [[Athebian calendar|Dynisis]] 9. This blockade lasted for almost 11 months, during which the Arithian navy sank 29 merchant ships, as well as 5 military vessels of the Alliance in three separate naval battles, although the politicians of neither side made any move to formalise or suppress hostilities throughout the entirety of the blockade. <br />
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The first of these battles took place in [[Athebian calendar|Helakis]] 16, more than a month after the beginning of the blockade. The battle, known by some as the '''First Battle of the Strait''', stemmed from the sinking by the Arithian navy over the previous month of various Alliance civilian vessels that had attempted to pass the Strait from the [[Denurean Sea]] using forged [[Ecyria]]n passports and documents, and that had further attempted to force their way past the Coast Guard when their trick was exposed. A total of 8 cargo ships had been sunk, and a passenger cruiser (the ''[[Okurant]]'') detained, which caused much consternation in Alliance political circles, and the ''Okurant'' became the subject of much media debate for more than a week, before she was eventually released, "out of goodwill" (Arithian Prime Minister [[Jedes Mithakoris]]), on condition that she turn back to [[Sarbassy]] through the Denurean. The passengers had previously been deported to Sarbassy under military detention. On the day of the battle, a Sarbassian destroyer, flanked by two cruisers, tried to pass off as friendly [[Ritavia]]n vessels on the way to [[Zesou]], and, upon being discovered, promptly fired two torpedoes at passing cargo vessels, sinking one genuinely Ritavian ship and severely damaging the other, Arithian one. The ensuing gun battle killed 36 sailors on both sides, damaging an Arithian frigate and prompting the navy to deploy a submarine to the effort, which ultimately sank the offending destroyer through, according to official sources, a misaimed torpedo which missed the main body of the destroyer but ripped the hull lengthwise before exploding. Eyewitness accounts confirm that the two flanking cruisers fled from the scene after the destroyer was sunk.<br />
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The '''Second Battle of the Strait''' took place again on the [[Denurean Sea]], this time involving a spyboat from the [[Aphyschelles]], which was discovered 61km off the east [[Calagia]]n coast at [[Time on Ilethes|35:30]] (approx. 2:10pm Earth-equivalent) on [[Athebian calendar|Nēbes]] 4, and ordered to halt. Arithian military reports filed indicate that the spyboat had refused to stop and surrender when ordered to, but instead turned to flee, and sporadically fired at the pursuing Arithian Coast Guard, which retaliated and sunk the intruding boat. Arithia broke off diplomatic relations with the Aphyschelles, and the other members of the [[Pisex Alliance]] followed suit within days. Arithian Foreign Minister [[Katrosta Ipsīes]] warned at the press conference announcing the recall of the Arithian envoy to [[Carges]] that any subsequent "hostile action" would trigger "massive retaliation".<br />
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The ''Third Battle of the Strait'' --<br />
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The blockade, like the rest of the punitive motions, was lifted with the conclusion of the [[Meroclean Treaty]] on [[Athebian calendar|Meroklis]] 23, and modern historians estimate the cost to the Alliance members to have been between 4 and 7% of GDP.<br />
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==Cessation of hostilities & the Meroclean Treaty==<br />
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{{stub}}<br />
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[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Conlang_Relay_17&diff=52068Conlang Relay 172010-02-27T01:17:09Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
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<div>Conlang Relay 17 is currently happening. [[User:DCliche|Kenner Gordon]] is running it.<br />
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Schedule:<br />
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{|<br />
|- align="left"<br />
! !! Ring A !! Ring B !! Ring C !! Ring D<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 14<br />
| Kenner Gordon - ''[[Theadisch]]'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 16<br />
| Padraic Brown - ''[[Kerno]]'' || || Tony Harris - ''[[Alurhsa]]'' || Lars Finsen - ''[[Azurian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 18<br />
| Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Karrev]]'' || John Quijada - ''[[Ithkuil]]'' || Peter Bleackley - ''[[Iljena]]'' || <br />
|-<br />
! Feb 20<br />
| Sean Anderson - ''[http://westgermanic.co.uk West Germanic]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Classical Arithide]]'' || Amanda Furrow - ''[[Mirexu]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Vozgian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 22<br />
| Peter Bleackley - ''[[Khangaþyagon]]'' || Henrik Theiling - ''[[Tirkunan]]'' || Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Lhenazi]]'' || Sylvia Sotomayor - ''[[Kēlen]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 24<br />
| David E - ''[[Feayran]]'' || Danny Bowman - ''[[Angosey]]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' || '''@''' Padraic Brown - ''[[Talarian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 26<br />
| Mechthild Czapp - ''[http://gist.github.com/101728 Rejistanian]'' || loftyd - ''[[Şärsâ]]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Zesovian]]'' || Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Vašt î Kûvik]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 28<br />
| Doug Ball - ''[http://skerre.conlang.org/conlangs/skerre/skerremain.html Skerre]'' || '''@'''Jim Taylor - ''[[Xara]]'' || '''@''' Kevin Urbanczyk - ''[[Proto-Drem]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Tvern El]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 2<br />
| [[User:Dedalvs|David Peterson]] - ''[[Kamakawi]]'' || Tony Harris - ''[[Tariatta]]'' || Andrej Šuc - ''[[Laefèvëši]]'' || Roger Mills - ''[[Prevli]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 4<br />
| Jeffrey Jones - ''[[SIAL]]'' || G.V. Pieterson - ''[[Neimalu]]'' || Clayton Cardoso - ''[[Mabri]]'' || Elliott Lash - ''[[Silindion]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 6<br />
| '''@''' Carsten Becker - ''[[Ayeri]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Carrajena]]'' || René Uittenbogaard - ''[http://www.joekewoud.nl/ruittenb/calennawn/ Calénnawn]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Ndok Aisô]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 8<br />
| Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Asha'ille]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Wenedyk]]'' || Jeffrey Jones - ''[[K'tlê]]'' || Tony Hogard - ''[[Nesheti]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 10<br />
| Herman Miller - ''[[Tirelat]]'' || Puey McCleary - ''[[Babel]]'' || Deiniol Jones - ''[[Sxirati]]''<br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
<div style="clear:both" /><br />
<br />
== See also: ==<br />
* [[Conlang relay]]<br />
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[[Category:Conlang relays]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=51988Classical Arithide declension2010-02-21T23:39:22Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* First declension -os */</p>
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<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
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Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
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==Declension classes==<br />
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Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
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'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
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'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
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'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
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'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
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'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
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These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
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===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
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Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
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The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
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It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
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''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
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The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
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For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
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==Grammatical cases==<br />
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Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
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*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
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{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
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Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
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==First declension ''-os''==<br />
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Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftios'' "temptation":<br />
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{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftios<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''oi'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēā''' <*thiftiēiae<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōm''' <*thiftioum<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēum'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tis'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ētūs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''e''', thifti-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē''', thifti'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} As seen, vowel-stem nouns lose the thematic ''-o-'' in the instrumental singular. Consonant-stem nouns, however, retain the vowel: ''klevos'' "force" becomes ''klevotis''.<br />
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==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
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Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftias'' "place of temptation":<br />
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{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ās'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''ior'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''iēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ātis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''aitis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a''', thifti'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai''', thifti'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings are ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir'', ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from the older ''-ydr̩'', i.e. they were originally considered part of the Old Arithide [[Old Arithide declension|"Society & Culture" declension]], but regular phonological erosion has made it a separate declension class of its own. Sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' "evil" (Class III-a) is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokirēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''au'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''īs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ium'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''iē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''e''', vokir-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''a''', vokir'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Class III-b nouns (ending in ''-rir'') take the same endings, but with ''-id-'' in the stem rather than ''-ir-'' as the preceding ''r-'' blocks rhotacism.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-a''==<br />
<br />
''Steima'' "measurement'' illustrates the declension paradigm for Class IV nouns:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeia<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēi''' <*steimaii<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aira'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ibas'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aibas'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''āī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aie''', steim'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-ra''==<br />
<br />
''Theler'' "neighbour" and ''agnon'' "doer" are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agneis{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-eis'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nominatives==<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi''; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō''; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness" > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
<br />
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Conlang_Relay_17&diff=51971Conlang Relay 172010-02-21T01:11:04Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>Conlang Relay 17 is currently happening. [[User:DCliche|Kenner Gordon]] is running it.<br />
<br />
<br />
Schedule:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- align="left"<br />
! !! Ring A !! Ring B !! Ring C !! Ring D<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 14<br />
| Kenner Gordon - ''[[Theadisch]]'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 16<br />
| Padraic Brown - ''[[Kerno]]'' || || Tony Harris - ''[[Alurhsa]]'' || Lars Finsen - ''[[Azurian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 18<br />
| Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Karrev]]'' || John Quijada - ''[[Ithkuil]]'' || Peter Bleackley - ''[[Iljena]]'' || <br />
|-<br />
! Feb 20<br />
| Sean Anderson - ''[http://westgermanic.co.uk West Germanic]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Classical Arithide]]'' || '''@''' Amanda Furrow - ''[[Mirexu]]'' || '''@''' Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Vozgian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 22<br />
| Peter Bleackley - ''[[Khangaþyagon]]'' || '''@''' Henrik Theiling - ''[[Tirkunan]]'' || Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Lhenazi]]'' || Sylvia Sotomayor - ''[[Kēlen]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 24<br />
| David E - ''[[Feayran]]'' || Danny Bowman - ''[[Angosey]]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' || Padraic Brown - ''[[Talarian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 26<br />
| Mechthild Czapp - ''[http://gist.github.com/101728 Rejistanian]'' || loftyd - ''[[Şärsâ]]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Zesovian]]'' || Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Vašt î Kûvik]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 28<br />
| '''@''' Doug Ball - ''[http://skerre.conlang.org/conlangs/skerre/skerremain.html Skerre]'' || Jim Taylor - ''[[Xara]]'' || Kevin Urbanczyk - ''[[Proto-Drem]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Tvern El]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 2<br />
| David Peterson - ''[[Kamakawi]]'' || Tony Harris - ''[[Tariatta]]'' || Andrej Šuc - ''[[Laefèvëši]]'' || Roger Mills - ''[[Prevli]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 4<br />
| Jeffrey Jones - ''[[SIAL]]'' || G.V. Pieterson - ''[[Neimalu]]'' || Clayton Cardoso - ''[[Mabri]]'' || Elliott Lash - ''[[Silindion]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 6<br />
| Carsten Becker - ''[[Ayeri]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Carrajena]]'' || René Uittenbogaard - ''[http://www.joekewoud.nl/ruittenb/calennawn/ Calénnawn]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Ndok Aisô]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 8<br />
| Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Asha'ille]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Wenedyk]]'' || Jeffrey Jones - ''[[K'tlê]]'' || Tony Hogard - ''[[Nesheti]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 10<br />
| Herman Miller - ''[[Tirelat]]'' || Puey McCleary - ''[[Babel]]'' || Deiniol Jones - ''[[Sxirati]]''<br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
<div style="clear:both" /><br />
<br />
== See also: ==<br />
* [[Conlang relay]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlang relays]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_grammar&diff=51970Classical Arithide grammar2010-02-20T23:34:11Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''grammar of Classical Arithide''' is characterised by a degree of inflection unseen in most modern tongues, and notably absent from its own [[Modern Arithide|modern descendant]]. Due to this inflectionary tendency, [[Classical Arithide]] possesses considerably free word order, especially in poetry, but syntax commonly and usually retains the traditional order of Subject Object Verb. Classical Arithide is a topic-prominent language, left-branching, prepositional (on the rare occasions where prepositions are employed), verb-framed, pro-drop and lexically-classed; it does not use articles. While some of these characteristics, such as its pro-drop and genderless character, simplify the learning process, the task is invariably complicated by the complexity of the language's inflection.<br />
<br />
The [[Classical Arithide]] inflection system involves 5 declension classes of nouns, each inflected for 11 cases and two numbers; two classes of verbs, each conjugated in five voices, three aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, and which each produce an assortment of various derivative forms; two classes of adjectives, the nominal behaving like regular nouns, and the verbal behaving like regular verbs; adverbs, the most common of which are generally indeclinable but most of which are derivations of adjectives and hence declined as per their class. Such ambivalence in the language's adjectives and adverbs led classical scholars and grammarians to overlay a dichotomous Nominal-Verbal differentiation on the language; in modern times, however, this [[traditional Arithide grammar]] has been replaced by a semantically-based part-of-speech grammar system not unlike the Indo-European.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide declension}}<br />
<br />
The use in [[Classical Arithide]] of lexical classing in nouns means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, Classical Arithide nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
The 11 noun cases of Classical Arithide are:<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''syn'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + appendent [[Classical Arithide adpositions|adposition]]) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these cases, the connective and essive in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases.<br />
<br />
==Adpositions==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide adpositions}}<br />
<br />
Due to the extensive inflectionary marking in [[Classical Arithide]], the number of adpositions in common use is very few, although for purposes of scansion, some archaic ones can still be seen in poetry, sometimes in redundancy; the adpositions were revived, however, in [[Modern Arithide]], as postpositions. Most adpositions govern a designated case or several designated cases; the latter situation indicates multiple, usually related, meanings canvassed under the adposition concerned.<br />
<br />
Besides the standalone adpositions, more common are the appendent adpositions (or postpositions), so called because they are appended to the connective case of nouns, most of the time forming a separate noun on their own, carrying a specific positional or lative meaning.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide conjugation}}<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs are divided into eight conjugation patterns based on whether their stems end in any of the six vowels or a consonant; a small group of consonant-stem verbs that take the vowel-stem verb endings make up the last, mixed conjugation.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for five voices, three basic aspects, four derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense:<br />
<br />
*'''Voices:''' active/transitive, middle/intransitive, passive, causative, potentive<br />
*'''Aspects:''' imperfective, perfective, perfect, habitual/generic, inceptive, frequentative, protractive<br />
*'''Moods:''' indicative, subjunctive, optative/desiderative, jussive, imperative, cohortative, [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Negation|negative]] (also the interrogative)<br />
*'''Tenses:''' future<br />
<br />
Notes:<br />
#There is no progressive/continuous tense as the tense overlaps semantically with the imperfective aspect, which is used instead.<br />
#The interrogative mood is marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''.<br />
#Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
Verbs can also form a large array of other derivatives, which can turn the verb into practically any part of speech: adjective and adverb, via the aspectual participles; noun, via various suffixes indicating agency, instrument or the supine, etc.; another verb, via the processes of compounding, modification etc.<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide adjectives}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] had two classes of word, of roughly equal ubiquity, that qualified as adjectives: the '''nominal adjectives''' and the '''verbal adjectives''', which, as their names indicate, either decline as do nouns, or conjugate as do verbs.<br />
<br />
===Nominal class===<br />
<br />
The nominal class of adjectives, as befits its name, behaves like nouns. Each adjective has a fixed declension class according to which it is declined for case and number; certain are of a variable declension class, i.e. they adopt the declension class of the particular noun they are modifying at the time, and decline accordingly. The nominal class adjectives are listed in dictionaries by their nominative singular, the variable-declension adjectives in the first declension nominative singular.<br />
<br />
Many adjectives in the nominal class tend to be concerned with appearance, e.g. ''oluros'' "ugly, out-of-shape", ''vobulos'' "pitch-dark", ''nassos'' "deepest, ulterior, core". Exceptions include all the adjectives of colour, which are morphologically derived from the names of the individual colours by affixing the general-purpose adjectivaliser ''-nai'', and are hence verbal in nature.<br />
<br />
Nominal-class adjectives, when used predicatively, usually take the copula ''hē''; in certain not-very-common cases, the adjective suffixes ''-nai''.<br />
<br />
===Verbal class===<br />
<br />
The predicative use of such verbs as adjectives is expected, but the attributive use grew out of a grammatical device, now largely disused, of making verbs into modifiers by displacing them to the front of nouns rather than behind them, as is the usual SOV order.<br />
<br />
Verbal-class or verbal adjectives, owing to their nature as stative verbs, behave like verbs, and may thus conjugate in two tenses, present and past, denoting the present and past states of the noun modified:<br />
<br />
*''Viringa nissa.'' vs. ''Viringa nistēn.''<br>The car (sedan) is fast. ''vs.'' The car was fast.<br />
*''Nīstena viringa'' vs. ''Nistena viringa''<br>The fast car ''vs.'' The car that was fast (i.e. used to be but no longer)<br />
<br />
The future tense is not used with adjectives. Rather, to describe "a car that will be black", the adjective is compounded with the verb ''hallān'' "to become", which semi-cliticises to give ''-allān'', giving ''egnallī viringa'', for example.<br />
<br />
When attributively used, all adjectives are, like nouns, declined, in order to avoid ambiguity arising from the liberal word order of the language; adjectives take the declension of the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
<br />
===Invariable adverbs===<br />
<br />
As with every language, there are certain adverbs that are always invariable, e.g. ''lum'' "now".<br />
<br />
==Determiners & pro-forms==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide determiners}}<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide pro-forms}}<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide determiners and pro-forms can be separated into two distinct types: the declined and the indeclinable. To the former group belong words with declinable antecedents: personal pronouns (''des'' "I"), demonstrative pronouns (''sitetis'' "with that"), relative pronouns (''zōos'' "that which"), pro-adjectives, pro-sentences, as well as interrogative words (''andae'' "to whom"). To the latter group belong words with indeclinable antecedents: pro-verbs (which are verbs and hence conjugated instead), pro-adverbs (''sē'' "like that") and demonstrative adjectives (''ok ither'' "this person"). Of these, demonstrative adjectives are always placed directly before their referents.<br />
<br />
===Numerals & measure words===<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide numerals}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide&diff=51969Classical Arithide2010-02-20T23:29:09Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Verbal class */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Classical Arithide''' is an ancient [[Arophanic languages|Arophanic language]] of the [[Arithidic languages|Arithidic branch]], originally spoken in [[Calagia]], the coastal region in northeast [[Arophania]] immediately bordering the [[Issol A'i]] and surrounding the ancient capital of [[Isphea]]. It was the formal administrative language of the [[Lazeian Empire]], and later adopted as the liturgical language of [[Acian Pheism]]. The language is highly inflecting, relying on morphological affixes instead of word order for its grammatical structure.<br />
<br />
Today, despite being universally acknowledged as a dead language, with very few fluent and no native speakers, Classical Arithide is still significant in fields such as science, academia and law, providing many terms and neologistic roots, and as a subject (variously as "Classics", "Classical studies" and the like) it is still widely studied in schools across [[Ilethes]], reflecting its enduring importance as the major international language of the historical world. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
{{main|History of Classical Arithide}}<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide is the common appellation of the highly stylised Isphean dialect of the [[Arithide language]] in the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|classical age]], which, by virtue of Isphea's situation as a political, cultural and economic centre, had been exposed to and influenced by various other dialects and languages of the early [[Lazeian Empire]].<br />
<br />
The language developed from [[Ancient Arithide]], the oldest form of the language spoken by some of the earliest settlers in [[Calagia]], records of which have been found inscribed on pottery and drawn on paintings. Whereas the ancient language was written with a mixed system (see [[Koeta inscriptions]]) of a syllabary interspersed with ideographical symbols for certain special words or phrases, by the establishment of the empire a well-developed alphabet had already been in use for a while, though the details of this advancement are sketchy at best.<br />
<br />
By virtue of its position as the dialect of the capital, Classical Arithide was spoken in the courts of the Lazeian Empire, and, with this bolstering prestige, gained widespread currency through the Empire's [[Exploratory Delegations of the Lazeian Agia Dynasty|trade and exploratory expeditions]], [[Cultural influence of the Areth|cultural influence]], and establishment of colonies, tributaries and vassal states across a large swathe of the [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|western world]]. It hence served also as the language of learning, throughout antiquity to the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]]. With its rich vocabulary and many expressive possibilities, it was the dominant literary language even in areas outside the Empire, influencing such tongues as [[Dethric language|Dethric]], and it remains an important source of neologistic roots today. Classical Arithide is also the primary liturgical language of the [[Pheide]] faith.<br />
<br />
For more than a thousand years, Classical Arithide served as the ''lingua franca'' in trade, diplomacy, history, literature and many other fields besides. While most records found from that period&mdash;with its multiple golden ages of literature&mdash;are written almost uniformly in the elaborate literary form used in the courts, evidence suggests that centuries of common and daily use had eroded much of the classical tongue away by phonological changes and semantic shifts, resulting in a dichotomy between the written Classical Arithide, and [[Vulgar Arithide]] as actually spoken by subjects of the empire.<br />
<br />
At the same time, given its long lifetime as the primary international auxiliary language in the [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|western Ilethes]], Classical Arithide also developed, in parallel, into [[Koine Arithide]], an alternative, albeit less highly-regarded, lingua franca. While the koine came to be widely used in the spheres of trade, missionary work, and other assorted forms of low-level contact, high-level international discourse in diplomacy, conferences and the like continued to be held in the classical tongue, and treaties, laws, contracts and other legally, politically or symbolically significant documents were still written therein.<br />
<br />
In the years leading up to and following the collapse of the [[Lazeian Empire]] in 1187 [[CIE]], the use of literary Classical Arithide waned sharply, while the vulgar dialects gained in local use, and accelerated their divergence both from the classical tongue and from one another, as the gradual disappearance of the written standard removed a common benchmark, such that the language of the middle and upper classes slowly merged with that of the plebeian masses. The [[Koine Arithide|koine]] managed to sustain itself for considerably longer, due to its nature as an auxiliary language, which favoured linguistic stability. As other trading nations rose in prominence, however, and the [[Areth]] started to fade, use of the koine also dropped, in favour of [[Dethric language|Dethric]], [[Kanandu language|Kanandu]] and various other languages.<br />
<br />
This ebb in the fortunes of Classical Arithide would last through the [[Dethria]]n rise to economic power, till the 16th century [[CIE]], when the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] created an impetus for its revival in the need to create numerous new terms and expressions that followed the rapid scientific advances and other social developments of the age. Classical roots were borrowed and reborrowed in the coining of new terms, classical terms were accorded new meanings as they were loaned directly into the vernaculars, creating doublets. Interest in classical studies also soared, as scientists looked to the past for noteworthy theories and inventions that had fallen out of the collective consciousness, composers tried to revive the classical musical flavour, the new aristocrats sought to recreate imperial grandeur in architecture and cityscape, and poets romanticised the old empire in their verses.<br />
<br />
As the relative isolation of the [[Mediaeval Age (Ilethes)|Middle Ages]] turned into the increased international contact, the need for a politically neutral language for use in diplomacy and negotiation triggered the revival of Classical Arithide, albeit with modified pronunciation and a widely expanded vocabulary, known as [[Renaissance Arithide]]. This language enjoyed a brief spread to general use, but quickly fell out of favour as national vernaculars continued to absorb large numbers of classical coinages, and expediency as well as pragmatism prompted the eventual adoption of those languages, notable among them modern Arithide, even as the classical tongue grew in importance in academia as a widely-understood auxiliary language in which to publish papers.<br />
<br />
===Legacy & contemporary use===<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide phrases in contemporary use}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide roots}}<br />
<br />
Ever since the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] up till modern times, Classical Arithide has reemerged as a significant language&mdash;no longer in people's homes or in the marketplace, but in academic, especially scientific, circles, where the language remains an important source of roots for neologisms, across many different tongues from [[Modern Arithide]] to [[Dethric language|Dethric]] to [[Finean language|Finean]] and even, directly or indirectly, [[Kiryeb language|Carabaean]].<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=13 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || <span style="color: #c0c0c0">{{IPA|ŋ}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || || <span style="color: #c0c0c0">{{IPA|dz}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center; float: left;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; margin-right: 12px;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Short vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|y}} || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low-mid || || || <span style="color: #c0c0c0">{{IPA|ɛ}}</span> || || || || || || || <span style="color: #c0c0c0">{{IPA|ɔ}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Long vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i:}} || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e:}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low-mid || || || || || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a:}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Romanisation===<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
The grammar of Classical Arithide, though in modern times based on a system not unlike the European one based on parts of speech, was [[Traditional Arithide grammar|traditionally]] centred on the dichotomy between a class of words which underwent declension (the Nominal class), and one which underwent conjugation (the Verbal class). This distinction had blurred by the height of the Equora dynasty, with the adoption of declension in certain cases for the Verbal class, for example, and is almost certainly not definitive in the Classical Arithide studied today, which is the literary language of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Nominal class===<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide declension}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, Classical Arithide nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular. Each noun is declined for 11 cases, in the singular and plural.<br />
<br />
The 11 cases of Classical Arithide are:<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''syn'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city"<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
===Verbal class===<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide conjugation}}<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbals are divided into five conjugation patterns based on whether their stems end in any of the six vowels or a consonant; a small group of consonant-stems that take the vowel-stem verb endings make up the last, mixed conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each class is conjugated for four voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and three tenses:<br />
<br />
*'''Voices:''' active, middle, passive, causative, potentive<br />
*'''Aspects:''' imperfective, perfective, perfect, habitual/generic, inceptive, frequentative, protractive<br />
*'''Moods:''' indicative, subjunctive, optative/desiderative, jussive, imperative, cohortative, [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Negation|negative]]<br />
**The interrogative mood is marked by a following particle.<br />
*'''Tenses:''' Only the future tense is explicitly marked, independently of aspect. <br />
<br />
The predicative use of certain verbs as adjectives is expected, but the attributive use grew out of a grammatical device, now largely disused, of making verbs into modifiers by displacing them to the front of nouns rather than behind them, as is the usual SOV order.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide roots]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide poetry]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide phrases in contemporary use]]<br />
*[[Arithide Sample Text Corpus]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Arophania]]<br />
[[Category:Marcasia]]<br />
[[Category:Eresphria]]<br />
[[Category:Canthres]]<br />
[[Category:Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=51968Main Page2010-02-20T23:25:52Z<p>Denihilonihil: Adding Relay 17 Banner</p>
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<div style="padding: 4px; background: #ffc0ff; font: bold 14pt Arial, Helvetica">The [[Conlang Relay 17|17th CONLANG-L Translation Relay]] is now under way!<br><br />
Check the link for the position of the Torch, a list of participants and other information.</div><br />
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<!--</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Conlang_Relay_17&diff=51967Conlang Relay 172010-02-20T23:25:30Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>Conlang Relay 17 is currently happening. [[User:DCliche|Kenner Gordon]] is running it.<br />
<br />
<br />
Schedule:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- align="left"<br />
! !! Ring A !! Ring B !! Ring C !! Ring D<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 14<br />
| Kenner Gordon - ''[[Theadisch]]'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 16<br />
| Padraic Brown - ''[[Kerno]]'' || || Tony Harris - ''[[Alurhsa]]'' || Lars Finsen - ''[[Azurian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 18<br />
| Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Karrev]]'' || John Quijada - ''[[Ithkuil]]'' || Peter Bleackley - ''[[Iljena]]'' || <br />
|-<br />
! Feb 20<br />
| Sean Anderson - ''[http://westgermanic.co.uk West Germanic]'' || '''@''' Eugene Oh - ''[[Classical Arithide]]'' || '''@''' Amanda Furrow - ''[[Mirexu]]'' || '''@''' Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Vozgian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 22<br />
| Peter Bleackley - ''[[Khangaþyagon]]'' || Henrik Theiling - ''[[Tirkunan]]'' || Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Lhenazi]]'' || Sylvia Sotomayor - ''[[Kēlen]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 24<br />
| David E - ''[[Feayran]]'' || Danny Bowman - ''[[Angosey]]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' || Padraic Brown - ''[[Talarian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 26<br />
| Mechthild Czapp - ''[http://gist.github.com/101728 Rejistanian]'' || loftyd - ''[[Şärsâ]]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Zesovian]]'' || Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Vašt î Kûvik]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 28<br />
| '''@''' Doug Ball - ''[http://skerre.conlang.org/conlangs/skerre/skerremain.html Skerre]'' || Jim Taylor - ''[[Xara]]'' || Kevin Urbanczyk - ''[[Proto-Drem]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Tvern El]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 2<br />
| David Peterson - ''[[Kamakawi]]'' || Tony Harris - ''[[Tariatta]]'' || Andrej Šuc - ''[[Laefèvëši]]'' || Roger Mills - ''[[Prevli]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 4<br />
| Jeffrey Jones - ''[[SIAL]]'' || G.V. Pieterson - ''[[Neimalu]]'' || Clayton Cardoso - ''[[Mabri]]'' || Elliott Lash - ''[[Silindion]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 6<br />
| Carsten Becker - ''[[Ayeri]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Carrajena]]'' || René Uittenbogaard - ''[http://www.joekewoud.nl/ruittenb/calennawn/ Calénnawn]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Ndok Aisô]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 8<br />
| Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Asha'ille]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Wenedyk]]'' || Jeffrey Jones - ''[[K'tlê]]'' || Tony Hogard - ''[[Nesheti]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 10<br />
| Herman Miller - ''[[Tirelat]]'' || Puey McCleary - ''[[Babel]]'' || Deiniol Jones - ''[[Sxirati]]''<br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
<div style="clear:both" /><br />
<br />
== See also: ==<br />
* [[Conlang relay]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlang relays]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Conlang_Relay_17&diff=51718Conlang Relay 172010-02-04T23:41:33Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>Conlang Relay 17 is currently being organized. [[User:DCliche|Kenner Gordon]] is running it.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested schedule (places where the timing appears too tight have been marked in <span style="background-color: red; color: white;">white text on a red background</span>):<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- align="left"<br />
! !! Ring A !! Ring B !! Ring C !! Ring D<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 14<br />
| Kenner Gordon - ''[[Theadisch]]'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 16<br />
| Padraic Brown - ''[[Kerno]]'' || || Tony Harris - ''[[Alurhsa]]'' || Lars Finsen - ''[[Azurian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 18<br />
| Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Karrev]]'' || John Quijada - ''[[Ithkuil]]'' || Peter Bleackley - ''[[Iljena]]'' || <br />
|-<br />
! Feb 20<br />
| Sean Anderson - ''[[West Germanic]]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Classical Arithide]]'' || Amanda Furrow - ''[[Mirexu]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Vozgian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 22<br />
| Peter Bleackley - ''[[Khangaþyagon]]'' || Henrik Theiling - ''[[Tirkunan]]'' || Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Lhenazi]]'' || Sylvia Sotomayor - ''[[Kēlen]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 24<br />
| David E - ''[[Feayran]]'' || Danny Bowman - ''[[Angosey]]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' || Padraic Brown - ''[[Talarian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 26<br />
| Mechthild Czapp - ''[[Rejistanian]]'' || loftyd - ''[[Şärsâ]]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Zesovian]]'' || Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Vašt î Kûvik]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 28<br />
| Douglas Ball - ''[[Skerre]]'' || Jim Taylor - ''[[Xara]]'' || Kevin Urbanczyk - ''[[Proto-Drem]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Tvern El]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 2<br />
| David Peterson - ''[[Kamakawi]]'' || Tony Harris - ''[[Tariatta]]'' || Andrej Šuc - ''[[Laefèvëši]]'' || Roger Mills - ''[[Prevli]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 4<br />
| Jeffrey Jones - ''[[SIAL]]'' || G.V. Pieterson - ''[[Neimalu]]'' || Clayton Cardoso - ''[[Mabri]]'' || Elliott Lash - ''[[Silindion]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 6<br />
| Carsten Becker - ''[[Ayeri]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Carrajena]]'' || René Uittenbogaard - ''[[Calénnawn]]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Ndok Aisô]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 8<br />
| Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Asha'ille]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Wenedyk]]'' || Jeffrey Jones - ''[[K'tlê]]'' || Tony Hogard - ''[[Nesheti]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 10<br />
| Herman Miller - ''[[Tirelat]]'' || Puey McCleary - ''[[Babel]]'' || Deiniol Jones - ''[[Sxirati]]''<br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
<div style="clear:both" /><br />
<br />
== See also: ==<br />
* [[Conlang relay]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlang relays]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Conlang_Relay_17&diff=51717Conlang Relay 172010-02-04T23:40:57Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>Conlang Relay 17 is currently being organized. [[User:DCliche|Kenner Gordon]] is running it.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested schedule (places where the timing appears too tight have been marked in <span style="background-color: red; color: white;">white text on a red background</span>):<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- align="left"<br />
! !! Ring A !! Ring B !! Ring C !! Ring D<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 14<br />
| Kenner Gordon - ''[[Theadisch]]'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 16<br />
| Padraic Brown - ''[[Kerno]]'' || || Tony Harris - ''[[Alurhsa]]'' || Lars Finsen - ''[[Azurian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 18<br />
| Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Karrev]]'' || John Quijada - ''[[Ithkuil]]'' || Peter Bleackley - ''[[Iljena]]'' || <br />
|-<br />
! Feb 20<br />
| Sean Anderson - ''[[West Germanic]]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Classical Arithide]]'' || Amanda Furrow - ''[[Mirexu]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Vozgian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 22<br />
| Peter Bleackley - ''[[Khangaþyagon]]'' || Henrik Theiling - ''[[Tirkunan]]'' || Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Lhenazi]]'' || Sylvia Sotomayor - ''[[Kēlen]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 24<br />
| David E - ''[[Feayran]]'' || Danny Bowman - ''[[Angosey]]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' || Padraic Brown - ''[[Talarian']]'<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 26<br />
| Mechthild Czapp - ''[[Rejistanian]]'' || loftyd - ''[[Şärsâ]]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Zesovian]]'' || Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Vašt î Kûvik]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 28<br />
| Douglas Ball - ''[[Skerre]]'' || Jim Taylor - ''[[Xara]]'' || Kevin Urbanczyk - ''[[Proto-Drem]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Tvern El]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 2<br />
| David Peterson - ''[[Kamakawi]]'' || Tony Harris - ''[[Tariatta]]'' || Andrej Šuc - ''[[Laefèvëši]]'' || Roger Mills - ''[[Prevli]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 4<br />
| Jeffrey Jones - ''[[SIAL]]'' || G.V. Pieterson - ''[[Neimalu]]'' || Clayton Cardoso - ''[[Mabri]]'' || Elliott Lash - ''[[Silindion]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 6<br />
| Carsten Becker - ''[[Ayeri]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Carrajena]]'' || René Uittenbogaard - ''[[Calénnawn]]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Ndok Aisô]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 8<br />
| Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Asha'ille]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Wenedyk]]'' || Jeffrey Jones - ''[[K'tlê]]'' || Tony Hogard - ''[[Nesheti]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 10<br />
| Herman Miller - ''[[Tirelat]]'' || Puey McCleary - ''[[Babel]]'' || Deiniol Jones - ''[[Sxirati]]''<br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
<div style="clear:both" /><br />
<br />
== See also: ==<br />
* [[Conlang relay]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlang relays]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Conlang_Relay_17&diff=51716Conlang Relay 172010-02-04T23:39:14Z<p>Denihilonihil: wikify</p>
<hr />
<div>Conlang Relay 17 is currently being organized. [[User:DCliche|Kenner Gordon]] is running it.<br />
<br />
<br />
Suggested schedule (places where the timing appears too tight have been marked in <span style="color:red">red</span>):<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|- align="left"<br />
! !! Ring A !! Ring B !! Ring C !! Ring D<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 14<br />
| Kenner Gordon - ''[[Theadisch]]'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch'' || Kenner Gordon - ''Theadisch''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 16<br />
| Padraic Brown - ''[[Kerno]]'' || || Tony Harris - ''[[Alurhsa]]'' || Lars Finsen - ''[[Azurian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 18<br />
| Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Karrev]]'' || John Quijada - ''[[Ithkuil]]'' || Peter Bleackley - ''[[Iljena]]'' || <br />
|-<br />
! Feb 20<br />
| Sean Anderson - ''[[West Germanic]]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Classical Arithide]]'' || Amanda Furrow - ''[[Mirexu]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Vozgian]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 22<br />
| Peter Bleackley - ''[[Khangaþyagon]]'' || Henrik Theiling - ''[[Tirkunan]]'' || Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Lhenazi]]'' || Sylvia Sotomayor - ''[[Kēlen]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 24<br />
| David E - ''[[Feayran]]'' || Danny Bowman - ''[[Angosey]]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Buruya Nzaysa]]'' || Padraic Brown - ''[[Talarian']]'<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 26<br />
| Mechthild Czapp - ''[[Rejistanian]]'' || loftyd - ''[[Şärsâ]]'' || Eugene Oh - ''[[Zesovian]]'' || Kelvin Jackson - ''[[Vašt î Kûvik]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Feb 28<br />
| Douglas Ball - ''[[Skerre]]'' || Jim Taylor - ''[[Xara]]'' || Kevin Urbanczyk - ''[[Proto-Drem]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Tvern El]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 2<br />
| David Peterson - ''[[Kamakawi]]'' || Tony Harris - ''[[Tariatta]]'' || Andrej Šuc - ''[[Laefèvëši]]'' || Roger Mills - ''[[Prevli]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 4<br />
| Jeffrey Jones - ''[[SIAL]]'' || G.V. Pieterson - ''[[Neimalu]]'' || Clayton Cardoso - ''[[Mabri]]'' || Elliott Lash - ''[[Silindion]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 6<br />
| Carsten Becker - ''[[Ayeri]]'' || Adam Walker - ''[[Carrajena]]'' || René Uittenbogaard - ''[[Calénnawn]]'' || Jan Strasser - ''[[Ndok Aisô]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 8<br />
| Arthaey Angosii - ''[[Asha'ille]]'' || Jan van Steenbergen - ''[[Wenedyk]]'' || Jeffrey Jones - ''[[K'tlê]]'' || Tony Hogard - ''[[Nesheti]]''<br />
|-<br />
! Mar 10<br />
| Herman Miller - ''[[Tirelat]]'' || Puey McCleary - ''[[Babel]]'' || Deiniol Jones - ''[[Sxirati]]''<br />
|-<br />
|} <br />
<div style="clear:both" /><br />
<br />
== See also: ==<br />
* [[Conlang relay]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlang relays]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=51173Classical Arithide conjugation2009-12-27T23:46:38Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Voice and transitivity */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
==Voice and transitivity==<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: the "weak verbs" (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs that change voice with suffixes, analogously to the Germanic "weak verbs"; the "strong verbs" (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same change. Within both groups are verbs whose roots are active, and inflect to middlise/intransitivise; as well as verbs whose roots are middle-voice, and inflect to activise.<br />
<br />
===Weak verb voice changes===<br />
<br />
When changing voice, weak verbs take various endings, which are not governed by systematic rules and have to be learnt by memory. However, analogical levelling has meant the preponderance of one or two endings productively, with the rest surviving mostly in fossilised form, albeit usually in the most commonly used verbs.<br />
<br />
Active-root weak verbs can take the following endings to become middle-voice:<br />
*Verbs with stems ending in ''-r'', or ''-r'' and a vowel, generally take '''''-erai'''''<br />
*Certain rare verbs use '''''-atai''''', '''''-ōsai''''', '''''-ēsai''''' or '''''-ēmai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-(o)nai'''''<br />
<br />
Middle-voice weak verbs can take the following endings to become active-voice:<br />
*Where the verb takes the infix ''-on-'' (which occurs frequently with some monosyllabic roots), use '''''-erēn'''''<br />
*The following endings are rarer: '''''-airēn''''', '''''-ourēn''''' (whose ''-r-'' disappears in every other inflection), '''''-eirēn''''' <br />
*All other situations employ '''''-(o)idēn'''''<br />
<br />
===Passive===<br />
<br />
The biggest morphological difference between the "active" and "middle" verbs, naturally, is the fact that the former category can take on the '''passive voice''', while the latter cannot. The passive in Classical Arithide is formed with the prefix (unusually for a generally suffixing language) ''h(e)(n)-''. The curiously complicated citation form of this prefix is due to the fact that while the usual form used is ''he-'', as with verbs beginning with a consonant, those that begin with a vowel take either the simple ''h-'' or the longer ''hen-''. There appears to be no fast rule governing which prefix each verb takes, and the passive form of each verb beginning with a vowel must learnt by heart.<br />
<br />
===Causative===<br />
<br />
In addition to the '''active''', '''middle''' and '''passive''' voices, there is also the '''causative''' voice, which denotes agent A ''causing'' agent B to commit a particular action, and can be applied to verbs in any of the other three voices previously mentioned, e.g. :<br />
<br />
*''Mādou saī lydārēn.'' "Mother made sister eat."<br>Here ''lydai'' "to eat" is a middle-voice/intransitive verb causativised by the suffix ''-ārēn''. N.B. ''saī'' "sister" is always in the dative case as she is the target (i.e. indirect object) of the causative.<br />
*''Mādou saī mele lydārēn.'' "Mother made sister eat the apple."<br>Here ''lydēn'' is an active-voice/transitive verb causativised by the same suffix, resulting in the same causative form for both verbs.<br />
*''Mādou meli helydārēn.'' "Mother made the apple be eaten."<br>Here ''helydai'' is a passive verb, causativised by exactly the same suffix as before.<br />
<br />
The causative can be applied to verbs in their original aspect only, e.g. one can only causativise ''lydēn'' "to eat" in this original perfective aspect and not the imperfective ''luīdēn'' that can be derived from it; likewise causativisation happens to ''vagonai'' "to go, impf." and not ''vaktai'' "to go, prfv." or ''vaksa'' "to have gone, perf.". The reason is that only the semantic value of the root verb is carried over to the causative, and all further conjugation, aspectual, modal or otherwise, is carried out on the causative suffix ''-ārēn''.<br />
<br />
===Potentive===<br />
<br />
A fifth voice, the '''potentive''' voice with suffix ''-ētai'', is used to express the physical ability (as opposed to permission) of an agent to commit the action in question. This voice can be appended to verbs in any of the other four voices, e.g. the following sentences:<br />
<br />
*''Mādou lydētai.'' "Mother can eat."<br />
*''Mādou mele lydētai.'' "Mother can eat an apple."<br>N.B. the potentive forms of the transitive and intransitive forms of verbs that do not take an extra infix when changing voice are identical.<br />
*''Meleu helydētai.'' "The apple can (has a physical ability to) be eaten."<br />
*''Mādou saī mele lydārētai.'' "Mother can make sister eat the apple."<br />
*''Mādou meli helydārētai.'' "Mother can make the apple be eaten."<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalān'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebīn'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'', ''-u'' and ''-y''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal and infixed between the verb stem and its voice endings: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-iz-'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eus-'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-nd-'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oum-'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ss-' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-sp- "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōn-''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, infixing ''-mn-'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''pth'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''pth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''kth'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''kth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''tth'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''tth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''tth'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''tth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''sth'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''sth'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nth'''os || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lth'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''sth'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpth'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mpth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''pth'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''nth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rkth'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rkth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmpth'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lnth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''lth'''os{{footnote|1}} || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rreth'''os{{footnote|1}} || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''breth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''sseth'''os{{footnote|1}} || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for all consonants form their verbal nouns by adding an epenthetic ''-e-'', i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stammethos'' etc. The only exception is with ''-ll-'', which nominalises identically to verbs in a single ''-l-''.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fi'''n'''ai, fin-, fi'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || fi''gn''ai, fign-, fi''gnes''ei<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roisāī''', sōpedāī tholthae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br><br />
''roimēn'', stem ''roim-'', perfect aspect ''roisa'', perf. participle ''rois-'', perf. ptcp. class-V pl. ''roisāī''<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorasthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorasthon'' "the person who has held (him) back", from ''sthorasos'' "having held back", from ''sthorasa'' "has held back, to hold back", in turn from ''sthorān'' "to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension V endings by replacing the ending ''-os'' with ''-on'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores solai'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''solai ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fraignāī sōpedāī'' (with impf. aspect) "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fraksāī sōpedāī'' (with perf. aspect) "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''fragnāī sōpedāī'' (with prfv. aspect) "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezusser Ganymēder'' (perf.) "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezunner Ganymēder'' (prfv.) has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezyrer Ganymēder'' (impf.).<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
===Future tense===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide has an odd, anomalous tense in its morphological system, namely the future tense, with ending ''-ma/-mai''. The use of this tense is very limited, being restricted to only the literal meaning of "ahead of time", and is used like a relative tense. I.e. even when speaking about the past, this future tense can still be used as long as the action in question took place ''after'' the point of time reference, e.g. ''Mena labi'''mai'''tho derēisa.'' "I had hoped that she would call for me." As may be observed, here where Classical Arithide uses the simple future, English with its absolute tense system uses the future perfect.<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaktho raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaktho '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaktho raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzēn, valeusēn, valindēn, valoumēn<br>valossēn, valospēn, valōnēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valthos<br>''loc.'' valthas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valthera, valon<br>''pat.'' valthis, valthion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''nos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''nethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vail'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vail'''nos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vail'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''sa'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''sos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''sthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''ārēn''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzēn, senneusēn, sennindēn, sennoumēn<br>sennossēn, sennospēn, sennōnēn <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sennethos<br>''loc.'' sennethas<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sennethera, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''emos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''enthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seinn'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seinn'''emos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seinn'''enthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''esa'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''esos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''esthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ema''', seinn'''ema'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''emos''', seinn'''emos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''enthos''', seinn'''enthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''ārēn''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{WIP}}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalēusai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalētai, kalatārēn, hegalanai, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | veriētai, veretārēn, heverenai, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebitārēn, hezebinai (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henironai, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''ārēn''', (aur'''eirēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''anai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrārēn, (thōrairēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''enai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | pariētai, pariārēn, (pareirēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''inai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiārēn, (ankieirēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigārēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=50499Classical Arithide declension2009-11-13T21:43:46Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
<br />
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
==Grammatical cases==<br />
<br />
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftios'' "temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftios<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''oi'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēā''' <*thiftiēiae<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōm''' <*thiftioum<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēum'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tis'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tūs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''e''', thifti-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē''', thifti'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftias'' "place of temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ās'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''ior'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''iēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ātis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''aitis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a''', thifti'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai''', thifti'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings are ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir'', ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from the older ''-ydr̩'', i.e. they were originally considered part of the Old Arithide [[Old Arithide declension|"Society & Culture" declension]], but regular phonological erosion has made it a separate declension class of its own. Sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' "evil" (Class III-a) is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokirēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''au'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''īs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ium'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''iē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''e''', vokir-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''a''', vokir'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Class III-b nouns (ending in ''-rir'') take the same endings, but with ''-id-'' in the stem rather than ''-ir-'' as the preceding ''r-'' blocks rhotacism.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-a''==<br />
<br />
''Steima'' "measurement'' illustrates the declension paradigm for Class IV nouns:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeia<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēi''' <*steimaii<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aira'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ibas'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aibas'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''āī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aie''', steim'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-ra''==<br />
<br />
''Theler'' "neighbour" and ''agnon'' "doer" are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agneis{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-eis'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nominatives==<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi''; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō''; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness" > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
<br />
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=50497Classical Arithide declension2009-11-13T21:28:57Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Fifth declension -ra */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WIP}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
<br />
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
==Grammatical cases==<br />
<br />
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftios'' "temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftios<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''oi'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēā''' <*thiftiēiae<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōm''' <*thiftioum<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēum'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tis'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tūs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''e''', thifti-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē''', thifti'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftias'' "place of temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ās'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''ior'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''iēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ātis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''aitis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a''', thifti'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai''', thifti'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings are ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir'', ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from the older ''-ydr̩'', i.e. they were originally considered part of the Old Arithide [[Old Arithide declension|"Society & Culture" declension]], but regular phonological erosion has made it a separate declension class of its own. Sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' "evil" (Class III-a) is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokirēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''au'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''īs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ium'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''iē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''e''', vokir-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''a''', vokir'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Class III-b nouns (ending in ''-rir'') take the same endings, but with ''-id-'' in the stem rather than ''-ir-'' as the preceding ''r-'' blocks rhotacism.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-a''==<br />
<br />
''Steima'' "measurement'' illustrates the declension paradigm for Class IV nouns:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeia<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēi''' <*steimaii<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aira'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ibas'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aibas'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''āī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aie''', steim'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-ra''==<br />
<br />
''Theler'' "neighbour" and ''agnon'' "doer" are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agneis{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-eis'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nominatives==<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi''; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō''; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness" > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
<br />
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Modern_Arithide&diff=49348Modern Arithide2009-09-23T20:25:09Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{main|Arithide language}}<br />
<br />
'''Modern Arithide''' (Arithide '''''Arithīde Oreris''''' {{IPA|[arɯ'θi:de 'orəris]}}) refers to the varieties of the [[Arithide language]] spoken in the modern era. Arithide is spoken as a first language by over 580 million people in [[Arithia]] and another 170 million across 14 other states in [[Marcasia]] where the language has official status, and of these, more than 600 million are native, ethnic [[Areth]] speakers. A further estimated 350 million speak it as a second or third language, mainly centred in and around [[Dethria]] and southern [[Marcasia]] where the sociocultural influence of the [[Lazeian Empire]] is still felt, bringing the total number of speakers of Arithide to approximately 1.1 billion people today across the world.<br />
<br />
The standard and official language of [[Arithia]] is '''Standard Modern Arithide''', essentially the speech of modern [[Lazea]], the capital, but which incorporates and preserves various regional elements, as well as reviving certain [[classicism]]s. The Arithide spoken outside [[Arithia]] is generally the standard tongue, except in the southern [[Marcasia]]n states, where holdover local dialects from the imperial era are strongly rooted. In [[Arithia]] itself, however, there exists a significant diglossia, particularly in the historic cities of northeastern [[Cadaeria]], between the written language, which is universally the standard form, and the spoken one, which is usually the local dialect. Further west and south, however, especially in secondary, regional cities, another phenomenon is prominent: the erosion of the local dialect in favour of the more prestigious standard.<br />
<br />
As the standard tongue came into being ''de facto'', by virtue of being the langauge of the capital of the [[Arithia]]n republic, and not through the efforts of any standardisation body, there is no official regulatory body charged with standardising usage, vocabulary, grammar and orthography. Similarly to [[Modern English|English]], however, the language regulates itself through the standardising effects of the print and broadcast media, particularly through the authority of four major dictionaries, the ''[[Renquau Dictionary of the Arithide Language|Renquau]]'', ''[[Anvers Comprehensive Dictionary|Anvers]]'', ''[[Caema Compendium|Caema]]'' and ''[[Complete Dictionary of Modern Arithide|Līs]]''. The first three are compiled and published by eponymous universities, while the last is published by the [[Lazea]]n broadsheet ''[[Līs Ōrēs]]'' (hence the common appellation).<br />
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==Phonological system==<br />
<br />
The phonology of Modern Arithide is notable for its large numbers of both consonants and vowels, although its phonemic repertoire is smaller due to the high degree of allophony.<br />
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===Consonants===<br />
<br />
The table below represents the sounds present in the standard Modern Arithide, secondarily distinguishing between the 22 phonemic consonants, which are in black, and the 9 non-phonemic (purely allophonic) consonants, which are greyed out. The distinction between the aspirated and unaspirated voiceless plosives (i.e. ''pʰ, tʰ, kʰ'' vs. ''p, t, k''), although not phonemically distinguished&mdash;the former set appears before front vowels, and the latter before others&mdash;is notable for its recreation of the [[Ancient Arithide]] aspirate-unaspirate distinction.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="margin-left: 50px; text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=19 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɱ}}</span> || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɲ}}</span> || || {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|pʰ}}</span> || || || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|tʰ}}</span> || || || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|kʰ}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʒ}} || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɣ}}</span> || <span style="color: #afafaf;">χ</span> || <span style="color: #afafaf;">ʁ</span> || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|dz}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || {{IPA|w}} || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Regressive assimilation of frication and phonation====<br />
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<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
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Whereas Modern Arithide has 11 vowel letters, the short ''a e i o u y'' and the long ''ā ē ī ō ū'', the true number of its phonemic vowels is twenty, plus 4 vowels occurring only in unstressed position, and 12 diphthongs.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center; float: left;"><br />
<br />
{| style="margin-left: 50px; margin-right: 50px; text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Short Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|y}} || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ʉ}}</span> || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɯ}}</span> || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-high || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɪ}}</span> || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ʏ}}</span> || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ʊ}}</span> || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ə}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low-mid || || || {{IPA|ɛ}} || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|œ}}</span> || || || || || || {{IPA|ɔ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-low<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center; float: left;"><br />
<br />
{| style="margin-right: 50px;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Long Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i:}} || {{IPA|y:}} || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ʉ:}}</span> || || || || {{IPA|u:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-high || || || {{IPA|ɪ:}} || {{IPA|ʏ:}} || || || || {{IPA|ʊ:}} || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e:}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low-mid || || || {{IPA|ɛ:}} || {{IPA|œ:}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɔ:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-low<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a:}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
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<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Diphthongs<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| Palatal terminus || Palatal onset || Labial terminus || Labial onset <br />
|-<br />
| ai, aj || ja || au || wa<br />
|-<br />
| ei, ej || je, jɛ || eu || we<br />
|-<br />
| ɔi || jo, jɔ || ou, ow, əʉ<br />
|-<br />
| || ju, jʉ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div style="clear: left;"></div><br />
<br />
====Vowel gradation and reductionism====<br />
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===Phonotactics===<br />
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==Orthography==<br />
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===Lazeic Alphabet===<br />
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====New letters====<br />
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===Romanisation===<br />
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The official, and most ubiquitous, romanisation of Arithide is based strictly on the rule of a 1:1 correspondence in orthography between the Roman and Lazeic alphabets, such that any transcript is fully reversible; besides ignoring sound-changes that have occurred since the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]], this also leads occasionally to pronunciations strange to the Earthling ear. Alternative romanisations are mainly phonetically-based, and involve less mind-work in pronunciation.<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound<br />
|-<br />
| p || [p~pʰ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || f || [f] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| b || [b] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || v || [v, f] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || m || [m, ɱ]<br />
|-<br />
| t || [t~tʰ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || th || [θ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| d || [d, ð] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || dh || [ð, θ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || n || [n, ŋ]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || s || [s] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || z || [z, dz] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| ti, ch{{footnote|1}} || [ʧ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || sj, sh{{footnote|1}} || [ʃ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| di{{footnote|2}} || [ʤ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || gi{{footnote|1}} || [ʒ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| k || [k~kʰ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || h || [h] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| g{{footnote|3}} || [g, j, w] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || gn, ng{{footnote|4}} || [ŋ]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || r{{footnote|5}} || [r, ʁ, s, :]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || l{{footnote|5}} || [l]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || j{{footnote|6}} || [j]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || w{{footnote|6}} || [w]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{{footnote|1}} Diphthongal sequences of ''[ti], [tj] + vowel'' gave rise to the new phoneme /ʧ/, which received its own letter in the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] period; similarly, from ''[si], [sj] + vowel'' developed /ʃ/, which also gained its own letter at the same time. The new letters are used to indicate the /ʧ/ and /ʃ/ sounds where not historically derived, such as in loanwords; or where the conditioning vowel has been lost, especially at the ends of words. Additionally, [ʃ] deriving from a word- or syllable-finally devoiced /ʒ/ is written with &lt;sh&gt; instead of &lt;gi&gt;.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} The sound /ʤ/ only occurs in syllable-initial position due to historical reasons: it arose from the diphthongal sequence ''[di], [dj] + vowel''. When &lt;di&gt; occurs without a subsequent vowel the value of the digraph is the consonant+vowel combination [di].<br />
<br />
{{footnote|3}} The post-vocalic [g]-lenition that began in the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] with [g] &gt; [ɣ] proceeded further in the modern era to give [j] after [a], [e], [i] (as well as modifying the vowel qualities) and [w] after [o]. Etymological orthographic rules dictate the preservation of &lt;g&gt; in such cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|4}} From the [gn] and [ng] sequences developed the /ŋ/ phoneme, in the former case by nasalising the [g], and in the latter by velarising the [n] and losing the [g]. Whereas historical [ng] has since received its own letter and is written with it unless the [g] was preserved by a succeeding vowel (in which case the orthographical sequence &lt;ng&gt; is retained), historical [gn] has been preserved in spelling due to the strong retentiveness of the latter [n] element, even where the sequence has coalesced to a simple [ŋ].<br />
<br />
{{footnote|5}} In combination with preceding vowels, [r] has been lost, instead giving rise to a host of (mostly) rounded long vowels; the new sounds have retained the traditional orthography using &lt;r&gt;. Analogically, a similar scenario has occurred with [l], albeit without loss of the [l] sound, resulting merely in altered vowel qualities. <br />
<br />
{{footnote|6}} The devocalisation of pre-vocalic [i] to [j] and [u] to [w] that occurred during the [[Mediaeval Age (Ilethes)|mediaeval period]] necessitated two new letters due to syllabification ambiguity and stress shifts.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
Monographs represent monophthongs; each letter may be read in up to four different ways depending on its surrounding letters and its level of stress. In the table below, the variants are listed in order of occurrence, then precedence. The last value of each always represents the unstressed realisation of the vowel concerned.<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound<br />
|-<br />
| a || [a, ɔ, ə] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ā || [a:, a]<br />
|-<br />
| e || [e, ɛ, ə] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ē || [e:~jɛ, e]<br />
|-<br />
| i || [i, ɪ, ɯ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ī || [i:, ɪ]<br />
|-<br />
| o || [o, ɔ, œ, ə] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ō || [o:, œ:, o]<br />
|-<br />
| u || [u, ʉ, ɯ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ū || [y:, ʏ]<br />
|-<br />
| y || [y, ʏ]{{footnote|1}} <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Prevocalically, &lt;y&gt; has devocalised to [j] uniformly. This proceeded through an intermediate stage where it was pronounced [ɥ]. Postvocalically, it coalesced with its precedent to diphthongise, for which see the following table<br />
<br />
Digraphs generally indicate diphthongs. Across the board, however, spelling fossilisation has occurred, leading to irregular sound-letter correspondences even in the native script, such as &lt;oi&gt;:[ei]. [ja] &lt;ja&gt; is the only sound not to have changed at all; besides it, regularly pronounced digraphs, i.e. &lt;eu&gt;, &lt;jo&gt;, &lt;ju&gt;, &lt;ua&gt;, &lt;we&gt; and non-post-consonantal &lt;je&gt; are the result of recent spelling reforms, as is the fact that ''w''-headed digraphs occur only at the beginnings of words, while the post-consonantal allographic equivalent is ''u''-headed.<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound<br />
|-<br />
| ae || [ai] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ea{{footnote|2}} || [a:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ja || [ja] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || {{footnote|5}} || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ua, wa || [wa] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ay || [au]<br />
|-<br />
| ai || [e:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ei || [i:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || je || [je, e:]{{footnote|4}} || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || oe || [oi] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ue, we || [we] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ey || [ei]<br />
|-<br />
| {{footnote|1}} || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || {{footnote|3}} || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || jo || [jo] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || oi || [ei] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || {{footnote|6}} || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || oy || [ou, əʉ]<br />
|-<br />
| au || [o:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || eu || [eu~jo] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ju || [ju] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ou || [u:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || uo, wo || [o:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || {{footnote|7}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} &lt;ao&gt; came to be uniformly spelt with the homophonic &lt;ay&gt; [au] by the early Modern period<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} In certain proper names, e.g. of cities, the original diphthong was split into two syllables to preserve the distinct [ea] ending<br />
<br />
{{footnote|3}} [eo] &lt;eo&gt;merged with [jo] and hence &lt;jo&gt;<br />
<br />
{{footnote|4}} In combination with [s], the result is [ʃe:], an amalgam of the ''s''-palatalisation and the siphthong simplification<br />
<br />
{{footnote|5}} Where &lt;ua&gt; occurs, it is the result of a spelling reform that replaced all &lt;oa&gt; [ua] with <br />
<br />
{{footnote|6}} [ui] &lt;ui&gt; became [y] and never again arose subsequently<br />
<br />
{{footnote|7}} [uy] &lt;uy&gt; merged with [y:] &lt;ū&gt;<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Arithide language]]<br />
*[[Arithide Sample Text Corpus]]<br />
<br />
===Dialects of Arithide===<br />
<br />
*[[Ajatian langauge]]<br />
*[[Charian language]]<br />
*[[Docau]]<br />
*[[Erdian language]]<br />
*[[Gambrian language]]<br />
*[[Nimaean language]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Arophania]]<br />
[[Category:Marcasia]]<br />
[[Category:Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_grammar&diff=49347Classical Arithide grammar2009-09-23T20:24:47Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''grammar of Classical Arithide''' is characterised by a degree of inflection unseen in most modern tongues, and notably absent from its own [[Modern Arithide|modern descendant]]. Due to this inflectionary tendency, [[Classical Arithide]] possesses considerably free word order, especially in poetry, but syntax commonly and usually retains the traditional order of Subject Object Verb. Classical Arithide is a topic-prominent language, left-branching, prepositional (on the rare occasions where prepositions are employed), verb-framed, pro-drop and lexically-classed; it does not use articles. While some of these characteristics, such as its pro-drop and genderless character, simplify the learning process, the task is invariably complicated by the complexity of the language's inflection.<br />
<br />
The [[Classical Arithide]] inflection system involves 5 declension classes of nouns, each inflected for 11 cases and two numbers; two classes of verbs, each conjugated in five voices, three aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, and which each produce an assortment of various derivative forms; two classes of adjectives, the nominal behaving like regular nouns, and the verbal behaving like regular verbs; adverbs, the most common of which are generally indeclinable but most of which are derivations of adjectives and hence declined as per their class. Such ambivalence in the language's adjectives and adverbs led classical scholars and grammarians to overlay a dichotomous Nominal-Verbal differentiation on the language; in modern times, however, this [[traditional Arithide grammar]] has been replaced by a semantically-based part-of-speech grammar system not unlike the Indo-European.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide declension}}<br />
<br />
The use in [[Classical Arithide]] of lexical classing in nouns means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, Classical Arithide nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
The 11 noun cases of Classical Arithide are:<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''syn'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + appendent [[Classical Arithide adpositions|adposition]]) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these cases, the connective and essive in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases.<br />
<br />
==Adpositions==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide adpositions}}<br />
<br />
Due to the extensive inflectionary marking in [[Classical Arithide]], the number of adpositions in common use is very few, although for purposes of scansion, some archaic ones can still be seen in poetry, sometimes in redundancy; the adpositions were revived, however, in [[Modern Arithide]], as postpositions. Most adpositions govern a designated case or several designated cases; the latter situation indicates multiple, usually related, meanings canvassed under the adposition concerned.<br />
<br />
Besides the standalone adpositions, more common are the appendent adpositions (or postpositions), so called because they are appended to the connective case of nouns, most of the time forming a separate noun on their own, carrying a specific positional or lative meaning.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide conjugation}}<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs are divided into five conjugation patterns based on whether their stems end in ''-a'', ''-e'', ''-i'' or a consonant; a small group of consonant-stem verbs that take the vowel-stem verb endings make up the last, mixed conjugation.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense:<br />
<br />
*'''Voices:''' active/transitive, middle/intransitive, passive, causative, potentive<br />
*'''Aspects:''' imperfective, perfective, perfect, habitual/generic, perfective habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive<br />
*'''Moods:''' indicative, subjunctive, optative, jussive, imperative, cohortative, [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Negation|negative]] (also the interrogative)<br />
*'''Tenses:''' future<br />
<br />
Notes:<br />
#There is no progressive/continuous tense as the tense overlaps semantically with the imperfective aspect, which is used instead.<br />
#The interrogative mood is marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''.<br />
#Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
Verbs can also form a large array of other derivatives, which can turn the verb into practically any part of speech: adjective and adverb, via the aspectual participles; noun, via various suffixes indicating agency, instrument or the supine, etc.; another verb, via the processes of compounding, modification etc.<br />
<br />
==Adjectives==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide adjectives}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] had two classes of word, of roughly equal ubiquity, that qualified as adjectives: the '''nominal adjectives''' and the '''verbal adjectives''', which, as their names indicate, either decline as do nouns, or conjugate as do verbs.<br />
<br />
===Nominal class===<br />
<br />
The nominal class of adjectives, as befits its name, behaves like nouns. Each adjective has a fixed declension class according to which it is declined for case and number; certain are of a variable declension class, i.e. they adopt the declension class of the particular noun they are modifying at the time, and decline accordingly. The nominal class adjectives are listed in dictionaries by their nominative singular, the variable-declension adjectives in the first declension nominative singular.<br />
<br />
Many adjectives in the nominal class tend to be concerned with appearance, e.g. ''oluros'' "ugly, out-of-shape", ''vobulos'' "pitch-dark", ''nassos'' "deepest, ulterior, core". Exceptions include all the adjectives of colour, which are morphologically derived from the names of the individual colours by affixing the general-purpose adjectivaliser ''-nai'', and are hence verbal in nature.<br />
<br />
Nominal-class adjectives, when used predicatively, usually take the copula ''hē''; in certain not-very-common cases, the adjective suffixes ''-nai''.<br />
<br />
===Verbal class===<br />
<br />
The predicative use of such verbs as adjectives is expected, but the attributive use grew out of a grammatical device, now largely disused, of making verbs into modifiers by displacing them to the front of nouns rather than behind them, as is the usual SOV order.<br />
<br />
Verbal-class or verbal adjectives, owing to their nature as stative verbs, behave like verbs, and may thus conjugate in two tenses, present and past, denoting the present and past states of the noun modified:<br />
<br />
*''Viringa nissa.'' vs. ''Viringa nistēn.''<br>The car (sedan) is fast. ''vs.'' The car was fast.<br />
*''Nīstena viringa'' vs. ''Nistena viringa''<br>The fast car ''vs.'' The car that was fast (i.e. used to be but no longer)<br />
<br />
The future tense is not used with adjectives. Rather, to describe "a car that will be black", the adjective is compounded with the verb ''hallān'' "to become", which semi-cliticises to give ''-allān'', giving ''egnallī viringa'', for example.<br />
<br />
When attributively used, all adjectives are, like nouns, declined, in order to avoid ambiguity arising from the liberal word order of the language; adjectives take the declension of the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
<br />
===Invariable adverbs===<br />
<br />
As with every language, there are certain adverbs that are always invariable, e.g. ''lum'' "now".<br />
<br />
==Determiners & pro-forms==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide determiners}}<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide pro-forms}}<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide determiners and pro-forms can be separated into two distinct types: the declined and the indeclinable. To the former group belong words with declinable antecedents: personal pronouns (''des'' "I"), demonstrative pronouns (''sitetis'' "with that"), relative pronouns (''zōos'' "that which"), pro-adjectives, pro-sentences, as well as interrogative words (''andae'' "to whom"). To the latter group belong words with indeclinable antecedents: pro-verbs (which are verbs and hence conjugated instead), pro-adverbs (''sē'' "like that") and demonstrative adjectives (''ok ither'' "this person"). Of these, demonstrative adjectives are always placed directly before their referents.<br />
<br />
===Numerals & measure words===<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide numerals}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide&diff=49346Classical Arithide2009-09-23T20:20:13Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Nominal class */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Classical Arithide''' is an ancient [[Arophanic languages|Arophanic language]] of the [[Arithidic languages|Arithidic branch]], originally spoken in [[Calagia]], the coastal region in northeast [[Arophania]] immediately bordering the [[Issol A'i]] and surrounding the ancient capital of [[Isphea]]. It was the formal administrative language of the [[Lazeian Empire]], and later adopted as the liturgical language of [[Acian Pheism]]. The language is highly inflecting, relying on morphological affixes instead of word order for its grammatical structure.<br />
<br />
Today, despite being universally acknowledged as a dead language, with very few fluent and no native speakers, Classical Arithide is still significant in fields such as science, academia and law, providing many terms and neologistic roots, and as a subject (variously as "Classics", "Classical studies" and the like) it is still widely studied in schools across [[Ilethes]], reflecting its enduring importance as the major international language of the historical world. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
{{main|History of Classical Arithide}}<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide is the common appellation of the highly stylised Isphean dialect of the [[Arithide language]] in the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|classical age]], which, by virtue of Isphea's situation as a political, cultural and economic centre, had been exposed to and influenced by various other dialects and languages of the early [[Lazeian Empire]].<br />
<br />
The language developed from [[Ancient Arithide]], the oldest form of the language spoken by some of the earliest settlers in [[Calagia]], records of which have been found inscribed on pottery and drawn on paintings. Whereas the ancient language was written with a mixed system (see [[Koeta inscriptions]]) of a syllabary interspersed with ideographical symbols for certain special words or phrases, by the establishment of the empire a well-developed alphabet had already been in use for a while, though the details of this advancement are sketchy at best.<br />
<br />
By virtue of its position as the dialect of the capital, Classical Arithide was spoken in the courts of the Lazeian Empire, and, with this bolstering prestige, gained widespread currency through the Empire's [[Exploratory Delegations of the Lazeian Agia Dynasty|trade and exploratory expeditions]], [[Cultural influence of the Areth|cultural influence]], and establishment of colonies, tributaries and vassal states across a large swathe of the [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|western world]]. It hence served also as the language of learning, throughout antiquity to the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]]. With its rich vocabulary and many expressive possibilities, it was the dominant literary language even in areas outside the Empire, influencing such tongues as [[Dethric language|Dethric]], and it remains an important source of neologistic roots today. Classical Arithide is also the primary liturgical language of the [[Pheide]] faith.<br />
<br />
For more than a thousand years, Classical Arithide served as the ''lingua franca'' in trade, diplomacy, history, literature and many other fields besides. While most records found from that period&mdash;with its multiple golden ages of literature&mdash;are written almost uniformly in the elaborate literary form used in the courts, evidence suggests that centuries of common and daily use had eroded much of the classical tongue away by phonological changes and semantic shifts, resulting in a dichotomy between the written Classical Arithide, and [[Vulgar Arithide]] as actually spoken by subjects of the empire.<br />
<br />
At the same time, given its long lifetime as the primary international auxiliary language in the [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|western Ilethes]], Classical Arithide also developed, in parallel, into [[Koine Arithide]], an alternative, albeit less highly-regarded, lingua franca. While the koine came to be widely used in the spheres of trade, missionary work, and other assorted forms of low-level contact, high-level international discourse in diplomacy, conferences and the like continued to be held in the classical tongue, and treaties, laws, contracts and other legally, politically or symbolically significant documents were still written therein.<br />
<br />
In the years leading up to and following the collapse of the [[Lazeian Empire]] in 1187 [[CIE]], the use of literary Classical Arithide waned sharply, while the vulgar dialects gained in local use, and accelerated their divergence both from the classical tongue and from one another, as the gradual disappearance of the written standard removed a common benchmark, such that the language of the middle and upper classes slowly merged with that of the plebeian masses. The [[Koine Arithide|koine]] managed to sustain itself for considerably longer, due to its nature as an auxiliary language, which favoured linguistic stability. As other trading nations rose in prominence, however, and the [[Areth]] started to fade, use of the koine also dropped, in favour of [[Dethric language|Dethric]], [[Kanandu language|Kanandu]] and various other languages.<br />
<br />
This ebb in the fortunes of Classical Arithide would last through the [[Dethria]]n rise to economic power, till the 16th century [[CIE]], when the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] created an impetus for its revival in the need to create numerous new terms and expressions that followed the rapid scientific advances and other social developments of the age. Classical roots were borrowed and reborrowed in the coining of new terms, classical terms were accorded new meanings as they were loaned directly into the vernaculars, creating doublets. Interest in classical studies also soared, as scientists looked to the past for noteworthy theories and inventions that had fallen out of the collective consciousness, composers tried to revive the classical musical flavour, the new aristocrats sought to recreate imperial grandeur in architecture and cityscape, and poets romanticised the old empire in their verses.<br />
<br />
As the relative isolation of the [[Mediaeval Age (Ilethes)|Middle Ages]] turned into the increased international contact, the need for a politically neutral language for use in diplomacy and negotiation triggered the revival of Classical Arithide, albeit with modified pronunciation and a widely expanded vocabulary, known as [[Renaissance Arithide]]. This language enjoyed a brief spread to general use, but quickly fell out of favour as national vernaculars continued to absorb large numbers of classical coinages, and expediency as well as pragmatism prompted the eventual adoption of those languages, notable among them modern Arithide, even as the classical tongue grew in importance in academia as a widely-understood auxiliary language in which to publish papers.<br />
<br />
===Legacy & contemporary use===<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide phrases in contemporary use}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide roots}}<br />
<br />
Ever since the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] up till modern times, Classical Arithide has reemerged as a significant language&mdash;no longer in people's homes or in the marketplace, but in academic, especially scientific, circles, where the language remains an important source of roots for neologisms, across many different tongues from [[Modern Arithide]] to [[Dethric language|Dethric]] to [[Finean language|Finean]] and even, directly or indirectly, [[Kiryeb language|Carabaean]].<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=13 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || <span style="color: #c0c0c0">{{IPA|ŋ}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || || <span style="color: #c0c0c0">{{IPA|dz}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center; float: left;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; margin-right: 12px;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Short vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|y}} || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low-mid || || || <span style="color: #c0c0c0">{{IPA|ɛ}}</span> || || || || || || || <span style="color: #c0c0c0">{{IPA|ɔ}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Long vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i:}} || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e:}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low-mid || || || || || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a:}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Romanisation===<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
The grammar of Classical Arithide, though in modern times based on a system not unlike the European one based on parts of speech, was [[Traditional Arithide grammar|traditionally]] centred on the dichotomy between a class of words which underwent declension (the Nominal class), and one which underwent conjugation (the Verbal class). This distinction had blurred by the height of the Equora dynasty, with the adoption of declension in certain cases for the Verbal class, for example, and is almost certainly not definitive in the Classical Arithide studied today, which is the literary language of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Nominal class===<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide declension}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, Classical Arithide nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular. Each noun is declined for 11 cases, in the singular and plural.<br />
<br />
The 11 cases of Classical Arithide are:<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''syn'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city"<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
===Verbal class===<br />
<br />
{{main|Classical Arithide conjugation}}<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbals are divided into five conjugation patterns based on whether their stems end in ''-a'', ''-e'', ''-i'' or a consonant; a small group of consonant-stems that take the vowel-stem verb endings make up the last, mixed conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each class is conjugated for four voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and three tenses:<br />
<br />
*'''Voices:''' active, passive, causative, potentive<br />
*'''Aspects:''' imperfective, perfective, perfect, habitual/generic, perfective habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive<br />
*'''Moods:''' indicative, subjunctive, optative, jussive, imperative, cohortative, [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Negation|negative]] (also the interrogative)<br />
*'''Tenses:''' present, past, future<br />
<br />
The predicative use of certain verbs as adjectives is expected, but the attributive use grew out of a grammatical device, now largely disused, of making verbs into modifiers by displacing them to the front of nouns rather than behind them, as is the usual SOV order. Verbal-class or verbal adjectives, owing to their nature as stative verbs, may conjugate in two tenses, present and past, denoting the present and past states of the noun modified.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide roots]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide poetry]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide phrases in contemporary use]]<br />
*[[Arithide Sample Text Corpus]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Arophania]]<br />
[[Category:Marcasia]]<br />
[[Category:Eresphria]]<br />
[[Category:Canthres]]<br />
[[Category:Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Parseltongue-inspired&diff=49345Parseltongue-inspired2009-09-23T20:08:05Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox|name=Parseltongue-inspired (Fispa)|pronounce=ˈfispa:|tu=''Harry Potter'' world|species=Ophidic<br/>(snakes and snake-likes)|in=All over the HP world|no=''unknown''|script=''n.a.''|tree=Isolate|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=July 2005}}<br />
<br />
The '''Parseltongue''' referred to in this article refers to '''Parseltongue-inspired''', a hypothetical form of [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Parseltongue]]. Because the tongue has no written form, the text samples appearing hereafter are in romanised form. This language is an inflecting accusative language with a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
Being a language spoken by snakes and the like, Parseltongue, while having the complete basic plosive repertoire ({{IPA|[p]/[b] [t]/[d], [k]/[g]}}), is rich in sibilants and other fricatives, which occur at a far higher frequency. Plosives also assimilate frequently to neighbouring fricatives or sonorants. <br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=13 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiodental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|dz}} || || {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || {{IPA|ʍ}} || {{IPA|w}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Assimilation====<br />
<br />
Due to the inherent tendency of snakes (and hence their human inheritors of Parsetongue) to fricativise sounds, plosives commonly assimilate to neighbouring continuants (including aspirate stops), even across word boundaries, except where plosives are geminate. Regressive assimilation is the most common, and changes of the following types have been observed:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[p]}} + ''fricative'' = labialised fricative (''e.g.'' '''pf''' = '''f<sup>w</sup>''') except /ps/ > [ps]<br />
*{{IPA|[b]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[v]}} + voiced fricative (''e.g.'' '''bth''' = '''vð''')<br />
**Occasionally, complete assimilation occurs, e.g. '''vð''' becomes '''ðð'''.<br />
*{{IPA|[t]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[d]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate voice fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[k]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[x]}} + fricative = geminate fricative in certain cases<br />
<br />
When followed by a {{IPA|[h]}}, whether or not separated by a vowel or diphthong, plosives are aspirated, eliding the {{IPA|[h]}}, and in some progressive dialects fricativise.<br />
<br />
*E.g. {{IPA|[t]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = {{IPA|[tʰ]}} or {{IPA|[θ]}}<br />
<br />
The velar plosives exhibit a slightly irregular pattern of fricativisation, and examples as illustrated below have been noted:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[k/k]}} (i.e. across word boundaries) = {{IPA|[χ]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[g]}} is frequently elided<br />
<br />
With sonorants, devoicing frequently occurs before a fricative:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[m]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''m'''''<br />
*{{IPA|[r]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''r''''' or {{IPA|[hr]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[l]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''l''''' or {{IPA|[hl]}}<br />
**{{IPA|[l]}} + ''fricative'' sometimes causes the {{IPA|[l]}} to vocalise to an {{IPA|[u]}}<br />
<br />
Frequently, intervocalic {{IPA|[h]}} is elided.<br />
<br />
In the construction of the past tense (''see also [[#Verbs|Verbs]] below''), assimilation takes place regularly with consonant-stem verbs. In the text example provided [[#Example passage|below]], the past tense of "to like" is ''hinneis''; the stem of the verb is actually ''hil-'', but with the adding of the past tense suffix ''-n-'', the ''-l-'' of the stem completely assimilates, resulting in a geminate ''nn''.<br />
<br />
{{Seealso|#Diphthongs}}<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue vowels are generally ''voiceless'', unless preceded or followed by a nasal({{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}) or liquid ({{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}). They also have phonemic length, but the distinction is not usually made as speakers generally lengthen and shorten vowels at will, or elide them; only lengthening is substantially common, however, given the tendency of Parseltongue speakers to speak slowly. Occasionally, when two identical vowels occur consecutively (which happens only when they are across a word boundary or when an intermediate consonant, usually {{IPA|[h]}}, has been elided), the resulting sound may be four times as long as normally due to such arbitrary lengthening.<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=9 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
The above table shows the phonemic vowels in Parseltongue. Among them, {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} have allophones of {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} respectively.<br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had four diphthongs, {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[ei]}}, {{IPA|[ao]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}. In modern times, only {{IPA|[ai]}} has remained unchanged over the years, while {{IPA|[ei]}} has become {{IPA|[e:]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} has become {{IPA|[o:]}} and {{IPA|[ao]}} has taken the place of {{IPA|[au]}}, leaving only two.<br />
<br />
Diphthongs, like monophthongs, can also be lengthened, albeit in their case only for the first component vowel. For example, when {{IPA|[ai]}} is so lengthened, the resulting sound combination (no longer a diphthong, but two separate syllables) is {{IPA|[a:.i]}}.<br />
<br />
Arbitrary lengthening sometimes also alters the quality of Parseltongue diphthongs, when the next vowel (irrespective of whether there is an intervening consonant) is identical to the second component in the diphthong. E.g. ''arsiæ hinneis'' "my sister liked" {{IPA|[ar.si.ˈai ˈhin.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:i ˈhi.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:.hi.ne:s]}} (as though one word).<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue, having no native script, is romanised with English consonants and Italian vowels.<br />
<br />
Vowels that cannot be reduced or elided are marked with an acute accent ( ́), while stress is normally unmarked. In the rare cases where a vowel is prohibited from arbitrary lengthening, a breve is used to mark the vowel.<br />
<br />
The full alphabet of 22 letters used to romanise Parseltongue is as follows (sounds in IPA):<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || Letter || Sound || Digraph || Sound <br />
|-<br />
| Aa || {{IPA|a}} || Mm || {{IPA|m}} || Ai || {{IPA|ai}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ææ || {{IPA|ai}} || Nn || {{IPA|n}} || Ao || {{IPA|au}} <br />
|-<br />
| Bb || {{IPA|b}} || Oo || {{IPA|o}} || Au || {{IPA|o:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Dd || {{IPA|d}} || Pp || {{IPA|p}} || Br{{footnote|2}} || {{IPA|bɯr}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ee || {{IPA|e}} || Rr || {{IPA|r}} || Ch || {{IPA|tʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ff || {{IPA|f}} || Ss || {{IPA|s}} || Ei || {{IPA|e:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Gg || {{IPA|g}} || Tt || {{IPA|t}} || Hw || {{IPA|ʍ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Hh || {{IPA|h}} || Uu || {{IPA|u}} || Sh || {{IPA|ʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ii || {{IPA|i}} || Vv || {{IPA|v}} || Ts || {{IPA|ts}} <br />
|-<br />
| Kk || {{IPA|k}} || Ww || {{IPA|w}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ll || {{IPA|l}} || Yy{{footnote|1}} || {{IPA|ɯ}} <br />
|}<br />
{{footnote|1}} If, when {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides in everyday speech, the preceding plosive is immediately followed by a fricative, assimilation takes place. When voiced plosives are followed by {{IPA|[h]}}, they are aspirated, e.g. ''dy hí'' "and who-ACC" {{IPA|[dɯhi]}} > {{IPA|[dhi]}} > {{IPA|[dʰi]}}.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} Historic {{IPA|[r̩]}} unpacked itself to become {{IPA|[ɯr]}}. When followed by a vowel, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides and the digraph becomes the consonant cluster {{IPA|[br]}}.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
::''A fictional history involving J. K. Rowling's magical world in the'' Harry Potter ''series''<br />
<br />
Romanisation of Parseltongue for writing was first done by English wizards in the 17th century, by the principle of having, as far as possible, one letter to one sound without using letters outside the basic Roman alphabet or extraneous diacritics. There is one odd extra letter, &lt;æ&gt;, adopted from the Icelandic alphabet, to represent the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, but only where it denotes the first person genitive case (e.g. ''arsi'', sister; ''arsiæ'', my sister), the first-person verb ending (''-æ''), or the third-person masculine one (''-æs''). Besides the logically understandable diphthongs, digraphs are historically explicable:<br />
<br />
*'''ch''' and '''sh''' were written as in English<br />
*'''ts''' was adopted from romanisation of Greek and Russian<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
Basic Parseltongue word order is [[Subject Object Verb]], i.e. ''Sam eats oranges'' would be, literally translated, "Sam oranges eats", although, unlike most SOV languages, it makes use of pre- instead of postpositions.<br />
<br />
Modifiers, including genitives, precede head nouns and verbs; more generally, subordinate clauses precede the particles that mark them, e.g. where English would have ''I thought that he was dead'' Parseltongue would say ''he was-dead that I-thought''. In that same vein, verbs precede their auxiliaries, going by the logic that, for example, the progressive verb "is driving" is a type of progressive aspect ('' to be -ing'') instead of a type of driving, since the verb inflection behaves according to the auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue does not mark nouns for gender or number, and, consequently, neither do adjectives, although the historical loss of such inflection has not occurred with pronouns, which survive in fossilised forms today, much as in English ''(see [[#Pronouns]] below)''. Inflection does survive in the case system, however, albeit barely, distinguishing the common, genitive and ablative cases (these latter also undergoing attrition). As with gender and number distinctions, pronouns have fossilised other once-marked cases like the dative (though not the locative) and the accusative.<br />
<br />
====Declension====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had three noun declension systems for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, each of which exhibited a fair degree of variation depending on the ending of the noun stem, through processes such as assimilation to achieve homophony. Later systematic analogical readjustments and phonetic attrition, however, served to level out the differences between the various case endings within genders (including the plural), spreading across genders as well. This resulted in the gradual fudging of the boundaries between different gender categories, culminating in their eventual loss, and the stabilisation of the one remaining declension paradigm today.<br />
<br />
=====Common case=====<br />
<br />
The common case is used, with the appropriate particles or prepositions in Parseltongue for the nominative, accusative, dative, locative, instrumental and vocative cases (the surviving genitive and ablative cases are discussed below), and is the basic form of the noun. <br />
<br />
=====Genitive case=====<br />
<br />
The genitive case marker, originally ''-VtV'', where ''V'' stands for a vowel homophonous in rounding and height with the last or predominant vowel in the stem, has gradually simplified to the near-clitic case marker ''-ti'' widespread today (ignoring subsequent phonological processes that change the ending further). <br />
<br />
=====Ablative case=====<br />
<br />
The ablative case has survived in its original form (''-igo'' or ''-ego'' depending on the height of the stem's dominant or last vowel) due to the analogy with the ablative case in the pronouns, although the general tendency is, now, to standardise both to ''-ego''. Besides being used for expressing movement away from and relation to (like the english words "concerning" or "about"), the ablative is also used to mark the standard of comparison with comparative adjectives: "him" in ''taller than him'' is marked ablatively ''(see also [[#Comparative adjectives]] below).<br />
<br />
====Pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====Personal pronouns=====<br />
<br />
As in English, gender in pronouns is only marked with the third-person, but unlike it Parseltongue marks the third-person plural as well, and compounds the gender endings to indicate that a group consists of more than one gender.<br />
<br />
(pronoun paradigm here)<br />
<br />
=====Demonstrative and relative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The demonstrative and relative pronouns in Parseltongue are relatively simply constructed, inflecting for only 2 cases each, possibly due to the fact that the demonstratives are omitted in most cases where they are concomitant with the noun to which they refer, and the relatives (a relatively modern invention through contact with English, an SVO language) can be omitted as well by placing the modifying verbs before them (e.g. ''shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis'' "that-one whom my-sister liked" is usually said as ''arsiæ hinneis shēsin'' in the mould of other SOV languages.<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Demonstrative Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| This ||style="text-align: center;"| com.{{footnote|1}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tasin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl.{{footnote|2}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tadego<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| That ||style="text-align: center;"| com. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shēsin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shedego<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Relative Pronouns{{footnote|3}}<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Who ||style="text-align: center;"| nom.{{footnote|4}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc.{{footnote|5}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Which ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| When ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Where ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Whose ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| How ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Horēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hórim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Common case<br/><br />
{{footnote|2}} Ablative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|3}} Relative pronouns, with the exceptions of ''who'' and ''which'', are formed directly from the corresponding interrogatives.<br/><br />
{{footnote|4}} Nominative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|5}} Accusative case<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
=====Interrogative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronouns are distinct from the relative pronouns, unlike in English, and, because of their nature as being only interrogative, are invariable. All Parseltongue interrogatives begin with a ''h'' (which in certain dialects has undergone regular fortition to {{IPA|[s]}}).<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| English<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hí ||style="text-align: center;"| Who<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hē ||style="text-align: center;"| What<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hás ||style="text-align: center;"| When<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hán ||style="text-align: center;"| Why<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hút ||style="text-align: center;"| Where<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hití ||style="text-align: center;"| Whose<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hór ||style="text-align: center;"| How<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives & adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Parseltongue are not distinctly marked, but a large number end in ''-t-'' plus a vowel, being descended from earlier genitive constructions. E.g. "a green apple" would literally be translated as "an apple of green", or ''epsa marhata'' {{IPA|['e:psa: ma'r̥a:ta]}}. Adjectives can be placed either before or after the noun they modify without changing the meaning of the phrase.<br />
<br />
Similarly, there is no distinctive marking for adverbs, and no restriction on their syntax. Adverbs formed from adjectives generally are identical to the original adjective.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue verbs are marked for the imperative mood, present and past tenses and a progressive aspect. The future tense, conditional mood and perfect aspect are expressed through periphrasis. All tenses, aspects and moods (TAM) are marked independently, i.e. if a verb is marked for progressive aspect it will not take tense markers, and vice versa. Context will generally provide clues as to which is meant.<br />
<br />
For each aspect, mood and tense, Parseltongue distinguishes morphologically the 1st person singular and plural, 2nd person singular and plural, as well as 3rd person masculine singular, 3rd person feminine singular and 3rd person plural. These person-markers are appended after the appropriate TAM markers in an agglutinative fashion.<br />
<br />
The verb ''psas'' "to stop" is conjugated below as an example.<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''psæ'', ''psaú'', ''psas'', ''psais''; ''psātha'', ''psāhe'', ''psāna''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''psanæ'', ''psanú'', ''psanas'', ''psanais''; ''psanātha'', ''psanāhe'', ''psanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''psāræ'', ''psārú'', ''psāras'', ''psārais''; ''psārātha'', ''psārāhe'', ''psārāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''psā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am psæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau psæ'' [l̥eo: psa:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''psalos hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
====Irregular verbs====<br />
<br />
There are very few irregular verbs in Parseltongue, the most commonly used of which are ''fāna'' "to be" and ''kāna'' "to live". Their conjugations are as follows:<br />
<br />
'''Fāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''fi'', ''fú'', ''fia'', ''fais''; ''fitha'', ''fahe'', ''fāna''<br>for ''I am, thou art, he is, she is; we are, you are, they are"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''fani'', ''fanú'', ''fania'', ''fanais''; ''fanātha'', ''fanāhe'', ''fanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''fiæ'', ''fiú'', ''fias'', ''fiais''; ''fiātha'', ''fiāhe'', ''fiāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''fē!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am fi'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau fi'' [l̥eo: fi:], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''falos hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
'''Kāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''kæ'', ''kú'', ''kæs'', ''kais''; ''kātha'', ''kāhe'', ''kānæ''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''kanæ'', ''kanú'', ''kanæs'', ''kanais''; ''kanātha'', ''kanāhe'', ''ksanānæ''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''kiæ'', ''kiú'', ''kiæs'', ''kiais''; ''kiātha'', ''kiāhe'', ''kiānæ''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''kā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am kæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau kæ'' [l̥eo: ka:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''kalos hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
==Example passage==<br />
<br />
The following example passage of Parseltongue is a translation of the Parseltongue dialogue between Tom Marvolo Riddle and Morfin, recorded in English in ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'', pp.341-2:<br />
<br />
{|style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 100%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 30%"| Phonetic transcription<br />
|-<br />
|style="padding-right: 8px;"| “Stop.”<br />
<br />
“You speak it?”<br />
<br />
“Yes, I speak it. Where is Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Dead. Died years ago, didn’t he?”<br />
<br />
“Who are you, then?”<br />
<br />
“I’m Morfin, ain’t I?”<br />
<br />
“Marvolo’s son?”<br />
<br />
“’Course I am, then… I thought you was that Muggle. You look mighty like that Muggle.”<br />
<br />
“What Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“That Muggle what my sister took a fancy to, that Muggle what lives in the big house over the way. You look right like him. Riddle. But he’s older now, i’n ’e? He’s older’n you, now I think on it… He come back, see.”<br />
<br />
“Riddle came back?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, he left her, and serve her right, marrying filth! Robbed us, mind, before she ran off! Where’s the locket, eh, where’s Slytherin’s locket? Dishonoured us, she did, that little slut! And who’re you, coming here and asking questions about all that? It’s over, innit… it’s over…”<br />
|style="padding-left: 8px;" valign=top| “Psā!”<br />
<br />
“Efe iska?”<br />
<br />
“Sā, skæ. Hút fis Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Tæn. Suōs tænas, au?”<br />
<br />
“Simī hí fú?”<br />
<br />
“Dē Morfin, au?”<br />
<br />
“Tuva Marvolī ?”<br />
<br />
“Sasōl, ebei? Shēsin Muggle saum hwinæ. Tōr shēsin Muggle harisa.”<br />
<br />
“Hē Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“Shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis, shēsin Muggle takēm zi aotī heis pi kæs. Me fua harisa. Riddle. E na kalpa fis, au? Kalpava dēgo, na orilæ. Attas, o.”<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>“Riddle attanas?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, ī stanas, chāsa, spak kastú! Orrē eisnais, ēhī, pabr ītnais! Hút for hívulo, i? Hút for Slǐstrikti hívulo? Orrē aswafanais, paifā! Dy hí fú, bes lālú, mespārú tso hāsla? Pēlos, au, pēlos...”<br />
<br />
|valign=top| {{IPA|psa:!}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|efˈfi:ska:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsa:ska:i. ˈhu:ffis marˈvo:lo?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈta:in. swo:s ˈta:inaza:u}}?<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsim̥i:fu:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|de: ˈmo:rvina:u?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈtu:va marˈvo:li:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|sa:ˈso: leˈbe:? ˈʃe:sim ˈmʌgl̥ ˈsɔmʍina:i. to:r ˌʃe:siˌmʌgl̥aˈri:sa.}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈhe:mʌgl̥?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈʃe:sin ˌtakimarsiˈa:hine:s, ˌʃe:siˈmʌgl̥ takɛmziˈauti: ˈhe:spika:is. mefua:::ˈri:sa. ˈɹɪdl. enaˈka:lpafizza:u? kalˌpa:vaˈde:go:, ˈnaurila:i. ˈattazo:.}}<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>{{IPA|ˈɹɪdl ˈa:ttana:s?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈa:r i:staˈna:s, ˈtʃa:sa, spaˈka:stu! oˈre::sna:is, e:i:, pa:ˈbri:tna:is! ˈhu:ffo ˈr̥i:vuli:? ˈhu:ffor slistrikˈtʰi:vulo:? oˈre: asˈwa:fna:is, ˈpʰa:ifa:! ˈdʰi:fu:, bɛsˈla:lu, mɛsˈpa:rutso: ˈha:sla:? ˈpe:loza:u, ˈpe:los...}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Parseltongue-inspired&diff=49344Parseltongue-inspired2009-09-23T20:07:04Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox|name=Parseltongue-inspired (Fispa)|pronounce=ˈfispa:|tu=''Harry Potter'' world|species=Ophidic<br/>(snakes and snake-likes)|in=All over the HP world|no=''unknown''|script=''n.a.''|tree=Isolate|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=July 2005}}<br />
<br />
The '''Parseltongue''' referred to in this article refers to '''Parseltongue-inspired''', a hypothetical form of [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Parseltongue]]. Because the tongue has no written form, the text samples appearing hereafter are in romanised form. This language is an inflecting accusative language with a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
Being a language spoken by snakes and the like, Parseltongue, while having the complete basic plosive repertoire ({{IPA|[p]/[b] [t]/[d], [k]/[g]}}), is rich in sibilants and other fricatives, which occur at a far higher frequency. Plosives also assimilate frequently to neighbouring fricatives or sonorants. <br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=13 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiodental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|dz}} || || {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || {{IPA|ʍ}} || {{IPA|w}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Assimilation====<br />
<br />
Due to the inherent tendency of snakes (and hence their human inheritors of Parsetongue) to fricativise sounds, plosives commonly assimilate to neighbouring continuants (including aspirate stops), even across word boundaries, except where plosives are geminate. Regressive assimilation is the most common, and changes of the following types have been observed:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[p]}} + ''fricative'' = labialised fricative (''e.g.'' '''pf''' = '''f<sup>w</sup>''') except /ps/ > [ps]<br />
*{{IPA|[b]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[v]}} + voiced fricative (''e.g.'' '''bth''' = '''vð''')<br />
**Occasionally, complete assimilation occurs, e.g. '''vð''' becomes '''ðð'''.<br />
*{{IPA|[t]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[d]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate voice fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[k]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[x]}} + fricative = geminate fricative in certain cases<br />
<br />
When followed by a {{IPA|[h]}}, whether or not separated by a vowel or diphthong, plosives are aspirated, eliding the {{IPA|[h]}}, and in some progressive dialects fricativise.<br />
<br />
*E.g. {{IPA|[t]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = {{IPA|[tʰ]}} or {{IPA|[θ]}}<br />
<br />
The velar plosives exhibit a slightly irregular pattern of fricativisation, and examples as illustrated below have been noted:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[k/k]}} (i.e. across word boundaries) = {{IPA|[χ]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[g]}} is frequently elided<br />
<br />
With sonorants, devoicing frequently occurs before a fricative:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[m]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''m'''''<br />
*{{IPA|[r]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''r''''' or {{IPA|[hr]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[l]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''l''''' or {{IPA|[hl]}}<br />
**{{IPA|[l]}} + ''fricative'' sometimes causes the {{IPA|[l]}} to vocalise to an {{IPA|[u]}}<br />
<br />
Frequently, intervocalic {{IPA|[h]}} is elided.<br />
<br />
In the construction of the past tense (''see also [[#Verbs|Verbs]] below''), assimilation takes place regularly with consonant-stem verbs. In the text example provided [[#Example passage|below]], the past tense of "to like" is ''hinneis''; the stem of the verb is actually ''hil-'', but with the adding of the past tense suffix ''-n-'', the ''-l-'' of the stem completely assimilates, resulting in a geminate ''nn''.<br />
<br />
{{Seealso|#Diphthongs}}<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue vowels are generally ''voiceless'', unless preceded or followed by a nasal({{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}) or liquid ({{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}). They also have phonemic length, but the distinction is not usually made as speakers generally lengthen and shorten vowels at will, or elide them; only lengthening is substantially common, however, given the tendency of Parseltongue speakers to speak slowly. Occasionally, when two identical vowels occur consecutively (which happens only when they are across a word boundary or when an intermediate consonant, usually {{IPA|[h]}}, has been elided), the resulting sound may be four times as long as normally due to such arbitrary lengthening.<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=9 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
The above table shows the phonemic vowels in Parseltongue. Among them, {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} have allophones of {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} respectively.<br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had four diphthongs, {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[ei]}}, {{IPA|[ao]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}. In modern times, only {{IPA|[ai]}} has remained unchanged over the years, while {{IPA|[ei]}} has become {{IPA|[e:]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} has become {{IPA|[o:]}} and {{IPA|[ao]}} has taken the place of {{IPA|[au]}}, leaving only two.<br />
<br />
Diphthongs, like monophthongs, can also be lengthened, albeit in their case only for the first component vowel. For example, when {{IPA|[ai]}} is so lengthened, the resulting sound combination (no longer a diphthong, but two separate syllables) is {{IPA|[a:.i]}}.<br />
<br />
Arbitrary lengthening sometimes also alters the quality of Parseltongue diphthongs, when the next vowel (irrespective of whether there is an intervening consonant) is identical to the second component in the diphthong. E.g. ''arsiæ hinneis'' "my sister liked" {{IPA|[ar.si.ˈai ˈhin.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:i ˈhi.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:.hi.ne:s]}} (as though one word).<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue, having no native script, is romanised with English consonants and Italian vowels.<br />
<br />
Vowels that cannot be reduced or elided are marked with an acute accent ( ́), while stress is normally unmarked. In the rare cases where a vowel is prohibited from arbitrary lengthening, a breve is used to mark the vowel.<br />
<br />
The full alphabet of 22 letters used to romanise Parseltongue is as follows (sounds in IPA):<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || Letter || Sound || Digraph || Sound <br />
|-<br />
| Aa || {{IPA|a}} || Mm || {{IPA|m}} || Ai || {{IPA|ai}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ææ || {{IPA|ai}} || Nn || {{IPA|n}} || Ao || {{IPA|au}} <br />
|-<br />
| Bb || {{IPA|b}} || Oo || {{IPA|o}} || Au || {{IPA|o:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Dd || {{IPA|d}} || Pp || {{IPA|p}} || Br{{footnote|2}} || {{IPA|bɯr}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ee || {{IPA|e}} || Rr || {{IPA|r}} || Ch || {{IPA|tʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ff || {{IPA|f}} || Ss || {{IPA|s}} || Ei || {{IPA|e:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Gg || {{IPA|g}} || Tt || {{IPA|t}} || Hw || {{IPA|ʍ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Hh || {{IPA|h}} || Uu || {{IPA|u}} || Sh || {{IPA|ʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ii || {{IPA|i}} || Vv || {{IPA|v}} || Ts || {{IPA|ts}} <br />
|-<br />
| Kk || {{IPA|k}} || Ww || {{IPA|w}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ll || {{IPA|l}} || Yy{{footnote|1}} || {{IPA|ɯ}} <br />
|}<br />
{{footnote|1}} If, when {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides in everyday speech, the preceding plosive is immediately followed by a fricative, assimilation takes place. When voiced plosives are followed by {{IPA|[h]}}, they are aspirated, e.g. ''dy hí'' "and who-ACC" {{IPA|[dɯhi]}} > {{IPA|[dhi]}} > {{IPA|[dʰi]}}.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} Historic {{IPA|[r̩]}} unpacked itself to become {{IPA|[ɯr]}}. When followed by a vowel, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides and the digraph becomes the consonant cluster {{IPA|[br]}}.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
::''A fictional history involving J. K. Rowling's magical world in the'' Harry Potter ''series''<br />
<br />
Romanisation of Parseltongue for writing was first done by English wizards in the 17th century, by the principle of having, as far as possible, one letter to one sound without using letters outside the basic Roman alphabet or extraneous diacritics. There is one odd extra letter, &lt;æ&gt;, adopted from the Icelandic alphabet, to represent the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, but only where it denotes the first person genitive case (e.g. ''arsi'', sister; ''arsiæ'', my sister), the first-person verb ending (''-æ''), or the third-person masculine one (''-æs''). Besides the logically understandable diphthongs, digraphs are historically explicable:<br />
<br />
*'''ch''' and '''sh''' were written as in English<br />
*'''ts''' was adopted from romanisation of Greek and Russian<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
Basic Parseltongue word order is [[Subject Object Verb]], i.e. ''Sam eats oranges'' would be, literally translated, "Sam oranges eats", although, unlike most SOV languages, it makes use of pre- instead of postpositions.<br />
<br />
Modifiers, including genitives, precede head nouns and verbs; more generally, subordinate clauses precede the particles that mark them, e.g. where English would have ''I thought that he was dead'' Parseltongue would say ''he was-dead that I-thought''. In that same vein, verbs precede their auxiliaries, going by the logic that, for example, the progressive verb "is driving" is a type of progressive aspect ('' to be -ing'') instead of a type of driving, since the verb inflection behaves according to the auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue does not mark nouns for gender or number, and, consequently, neither do adjectives, although the historical loss of such inflection has not occurred with pronouns, which survive in fossilised forms today, much as in English ''(see [[#Pronouns]] below)''. Inflection does survive in the case system, however, albeit barely, distinguishing the common, genitive and ablative cases (these latter also undergoing attrition). As with gender and number distinctions, pronouns have fossilised other once-marked cases like the dative (though not the locative) and the accusative.<br />
<br />
====Declension====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had three noun declension systems for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, each of which exhibited a fair degree of variation depending on the ending of the noun stem, through processes such as assimilation to achieve homophony. Later systematic analogical readjustments and phonetic attrition, however, served to level out the differences between the various case endings within genders (including the plural), spreading across genders as well. This resulted in the gradual fudging of the boundaries between different gender categories, culminating in their eventual loss, and the stabilisation of the one remaining declension paradigm today.<br />
<br />
=====Common case=====<br />
<br />
The common case is used, with the appropriate particles or prepositions in Parseltongue for the nominative, accusative, dative, locative, instrumental and vocative cases (the surviving genitive and ablative cases are discussed below), and is the basic form of the noun. <br />
<br />
=====Genitive case=====<br />
<br />
The genitive case marker, originally ''-VtV'', where ''V'' stands for a vowel homophonous in rounding and height with the last or predominant vowel in the stem, has gradually simplified to the near-clitic case marker ''-ti'' widespread today (ignoring subsequent phonological processes that change the ending further). <br />
<br />
=====Ablative case=====<br />
<br />
The ablative case has survived in its original form (''-igo'' or ''-ego'' depending on the height of the stem's dominant or last vowel) due to the analogy with the ablative case in the pronouns, although the general tendency is, now, to standardise both to ''-ego''. Besides being used for expressing movement away from and relation to (like the english words "concerning" or "about"), the ablative is also used to mark the standard of comparison with comparative adjectives: "him" in ''taller than him'' is marked ablatively ''(see also [[#Comparative adjectives]] below).<br />
<br />
====Pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====Personal pronouns=====<br />
<br />
As in English, gender in pronouns is only marked with the third-person, but unlike it Parseltongue marks the third-person plural as well, and compounds the gender endings to indicate that a group consists of more than one gender.<br />
<br />
(pronoun paradigm here)<br />
<br />
=====Demonstrative and relative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The demonstrative and relative pronouns in Parseltongue are relatively simply constructed, inflecting for only 2 cases each, possibly due to the fact that the demonstratives are omitted in most cases where they are concomitant with the noun to which they refer, and the relatives (a relatively modern invention through contact with English, an SVO language) can be omitted as well by placing the modifying verbs before them (e.g. ''shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis'' "that-one whom my-sister liked" is usually said as ''arsiæ hinneis shēsin'' in the mould of other SOV languages.<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Demonstrative Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| This ||style="text-align: center;"| com.{{footnote|1}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tasin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl.{{footnote|2}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tadego<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| That ||style="text-align: center;"| com. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shēsin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shedego<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Relative Pronouns{{footnote|3}}<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Who ||style="text-align: center;"| nom.{{footnote|4}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc.{{footnote|5}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Which ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| When ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Where ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Whose ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| How ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Horēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hórim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Common case<br/><br />
{{footnote|2}} Ablative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|3}} Relative pronouns, with the exceptions of ''who'' and ''which'', are formed directly from the corresponding interrogatives.<br/><br />
{{footnote|4}} Nominative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|5}} Accusative case<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
=====Interrogative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronouns are distinct from the relative pronouns, unlike in English, and, because of their nature as being only interrogative, are invariable. All Parseltongue interrogatives begin with a ''h'' (which in certain dialects has undergone regular fortition to {{IPA|[s]}}).<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| English<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hí ||style="text-align: center;"| Who<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hē ||style="text-align: center;"| What<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hás ||style="text-align: center;"| When<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hán ||style="text-align: center;"| Why<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hút ||style="text-align: center;"| Where<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hití ||style="text-align: center;"| Whose<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hór ||style="text-align: center;"| How<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives & adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Parseltongue are not distinctly marked, but a large number end in ''-t-'' plus a vowel, being descended from earlier genitive constructions. E.g. "a green apple" would literally be translated as "an apple of green", or ''epsa marhata'' {{IPA|['e:psa: ma'r̥a:ta]}}. Adjectives can be placed either before or after the noun they modify without changing the meaning of the phrase.<br />
<br />
Similarly, there is no distinctive marking for adverbs, and no restriction on their syntax. Adverbs formed from adjectives generally are identical to the original adjective.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue verbs are marked for the imperative mood, present and past tenses and a progressive aspect. The future tense, conditional mood and perfect aspect are expressed through periphrasis. All tenses, aspects and moods (TAM) are marked independently, i.e. if a verb is marked for progressive aspect it will not take tense markers, and vice versa. Context will generally provide clues as to which is meant.<br />
<br />
For each aspect, mood and tense, Parseltongue distinguishes morphologically the 1st person singular and plural, 2nd person singular and plural, as well as 3rd person masculine singular, 3rd person feminine singular and 3rd person plural. These person-markers are appended after the appropriate TAM markers in an agglutinative fashion.<br />
<br />
The verb ''psas'' "to stop" is conjugated below as an example.<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''psæ'', ''psaú'', ''psas'', ''psais''; ''psātha'', ''psāhe'', ''psāna''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''psanæ'', ''psanú'', ''psanas'', ''psanais''; ''psanātha'', ''psanāhe'', ''psanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''psāræ'', ''psārú'', ''psāras'', ''psārais''; ''psārātha'', ''psārāhe'', ''psārāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''psā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am psæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau psæ'' [l̥eo: psa:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''psā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
====Irregular verbs====<br />
<br />
There are very few irregular verbs in Parseltongue, the most commonly used of which are ''fāna'' "to be" and ''kāna'' "to live". Their conjugations are as follows:<br />
<br />
'''Fāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''fi'', ''fú'', ''fia'', ''fais''; ''fitha'', ''fahe'', ''fāna''<br>for ''I am, thou art, he is, she is; we are, you are, they are"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''fani'', ''fanú'', ''fania'', ''fanais''; ''fanātha'', ''fanāhe'', ''fanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''fiæ'', ''fiú'', ''fias'', ''fiais''; ''fiātha'', ''fiāhe'', ''fiāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''fē!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am fi'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau fi'' [l̥eo: fi:], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''fā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
'''Kāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''kæ'', ''kú'', ''kæs'', ''kais''; ''kātha'', ''kāhe'', ''kānæ''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''kanæ'', ''kanú'', ''kanæs'', ''kanais''; ''kanātha'', ''kanāhe'', ''ksanānæ''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''kiæ'', ''kiú'', ''kiæs'', ''kiais''; ''kiātha'', ''kiāhe'', ''kiānæ''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''kā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am kæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau kæ'' [l̥eo: ka:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''kā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
==Example passage==<br />
<br />
The following example passage of Parseltongue is a translation of the Parseltongue dialogue between Tom Marvolo Riddle and Morfin, recorded in English in ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'', pp.341-2:<br />
<br />
{|style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 100%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 30%"| Phonetic transcription<br />
|-<br />
|style="padding-right: 8px;"| “Stop.”<br />
<br />
“You speak it?”<br />
<br />
“Yes, I speak it. Where is Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Dead. Died years ago, didn’t he?”<br />
<br />
“Who are you, then?”<br />
<br />
“I’m Morfin, ain’t I?”<br />
<br />
“Marvolo’s son?”<br />
<br />
“’Course I am, then… I thought you was that Muggle. You look mighty like that Muggle.”<br />
<br />
“What Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“That Muggle what my sister took a fancy to, that Muggle what lives in the big house over the way. You look right like him. Riddle. But he’s older now, i’n ’e? He’s older’n you, now I think on it… He come back, see.”<br />
<br />
“Riddle came back?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, he left her, and serve her right, marrying filth! Robbed us, mind, before she ran off! Where’s the locket, eh, where’s Slytherin’s locket? Dishonoured us, she did, that little slut! And who’re you, coming here and asking questions about all that? It’s over, innit… it’s over…”<br />
|style="padding-left: 8px;" valign=top| “Psā!”<br />
<br />
“Efe iska?”<br />
<br />
“Sā, skæ. Hút fis Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Tæn. Suōs tænas, au?”<br />
<br />
“Simī hí fú?”<br />
<br />
“Dē Morfin, au?”<br />
<br />
“Tuva Marvolī ?”<br />
<br />
“Sasōl, ebei? Shēsin Muggle saum hwinæ. Tōr shēsin Muggle harisa.”<br />
<br />
“Hē Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“Shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis, shēsin Muggle takēm zi aotī heis pi kæs. Me fua harisa. Riddle. E na kalpa fis, au? Kalpava dēgo, na orilæ. Attas, o.”<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>“Riddle attanas?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, ī stanas, chāsa, spak kastú! Orrē eisnais, ēhī, pabr ītnais! Hút for hívulo, i? Hút for Slǐstrikti hívulo? Orrē aswafanais, paifā! Dy hí fú, bes lālú, mespārú tso hāsla? Pēlos, au, pēlos...”<br />
<br />
|valign=top| {{IPA|psa:!}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|efˈfi:ska:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsa:ska:i. ˈhu:ffis marˈvo:lo?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈta:in. swo:s ˈta:inaza:u}}?<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsim̥i:fu:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|de: ˈmo:rvina:u?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈtu:va marˈvo:li:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|sa:ˈso: leˈbe:? ˈʃe:sim ˈmʌgl̥ ˈsɔmʍina:i. to:r ˌʃe:siˌmʌgl̥aˈri:sa.}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈhe:mʌgl̥?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈʃe:sin ˌtakimarsiˈa:hine:s, ˌʃe:siˈmʌgl̥ takɛmziˈauti: ˈhe:spika:is. mefua:::ˈri:sa. ˈɹɪdl. enaˈka:lpafizza:u? kalˌpa:vaˈde:go:, ˈnaurila:i. ˈattazo:.}}<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>{{IPA|ˈɹɪdl ˈa:ttana:s?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈa:r i:staˈna:s, ˈtʃa:sa, spaˈka:stu! oˈre::sna:is, e:i:, pa:ˈbri:tna:is! ˈhu:ffo ˈr̥i:vuli:? ˈhu:ffor slistrikˈtʰi:vulo:? oˈre: asˈwa:fna:is, ˈpʰa:ifa:! ˈdʰi:fu:, bɛsˈla:lu, mɛsˈpa:rutso: ˈha:sla:? ˈpe:loza:u, ˈpe:los...}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Parseltongue-inspired&diff=49343Parseltongue-inspired2009-09-23T19:59:51Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Adjectives & adverbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox|name=Parseltongue-inspired (Fispa)|pronounce=ˈfispa:|tu=''Harry Potter'' world|species=Ophidic<br/>(snakes and snake-likes)|in=All over the HP world|no=''unknown''|script=''n.a.''|tree=Isolate|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=July 2005}}<br />
<br />
The '''Parseltongue''' referred to in this article refers to '''Parseltongue-inspired''', a hypothetical form of [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Parseltongue]]. Because the tongue has no written form, the text samples appearing hereafter are in romanised form. This language is an inflecting accusative language with a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
Being a language spoken by snakes and the like, Parseltongue, while having the complete basic plosive repertoire ({{IPA|[p]/[b] [t]/[d], [k]/[g]}}), is rich in sibilants and other fricatives, which occur at a far higher frequency. Plosives also assimilate frequently to neighbouring fricatives or sonorants. <br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=13 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiodental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|dz}} || || {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || {{IPA|ʍ}} || {{IPA|w}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Assimilation====<br />
<br />
Due to the inherent tendency of snakes (and hence their human inheritors of Parsetongue) to fricativise sounds, plosives commonly assimilate to neighbouring continuants (including aspirate stops), even across word boundaries, except where plosives are geminate. Regressive assimilation is the most common, and changes of the following types have been observed:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[p]}} + ''fricative'' = labialised fricative (''e.g.'' '''pf''' = '''f<sup>w</sup>''') except /ps/ > [ps]<br />
*{{IPA|[b]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[v]}} + voiced fricative (''e.g.'' '''bth''' = '''vð''')<br />
**Occasionally, complete assimilation occurs, e.g. '''vð''' becomes '''ðð'''.<br />
*{{IPA|[t]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[d]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate voice fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[k]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[x]}} + fricative = geminate fricative in certain cases<br />
<br />
When followed by a {{IPA|[h]}}, whether or not separated by a vowel or diphthong, plosives are aspirated, eliding the {{IPA|[h]}}, and in some progressive dialects fricativise.<br />
<br />
*E.g. {{IPA|[t]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = {{IPA|[tʰ]}} or {{IPA|[θ]}}<br />
<br />
The velar plosives exhibit a slightly irregular pattern of fricativisation, and examples as illustrated below have been noted:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[k/k]}} (i.e. across word boundaries) = {{IPA|[χ]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[g]}} is frequently elided<br />
<br />
With sonorants, devoicing frequently occurs before a fricative:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[m]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''m'''''<br />
*{{IPA|[r]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''r''''' or {{IPA|[hr]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[l]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''l''''' or {{IPA|[hl]}}<br />
**{{IPA|[l]}} + ''fricative'' sometimes causes the {{IPA|[l]}} to vocalise to an {{IPA|[u]}}<br />
<br />
Frequently, intervocalic {{IPA|[h]}} is elided.<br />
<br />
In the construction of the past tense (''see also [[#Verbs|Verbs]] below''), assimilation takes place regularly with consonant-stem verbs. In the text example provided [[#Example passage|below]], the past tense of "to like" is ''hinneis''; the stem of the verb is actually ''hil-'', but with the adding of the past tense suffix ''-n-'', the ''-l-'' of the stem completely assimilates, resulting in a geminate ''nn''.<br />
<br />
{{Seealso|#Diphthongs}}<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue vowels are generally ''voiceless'', unless preceded or followed by a nasal({{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}) or liquid ({{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}). They also have phonemic length, but the distinction is not usually made as speakers generally lengthen and shorten vowels at will, or elide them; only lengthening is substantially common, however, given the tendency of Parseltongue speakers to speak slowly. Occasionally, when two identical vowels occur consecutively (which happens only when they are across a word boundary or when an intermediate consonant, usually {{IPA|[h]}}, has been elided), the resulting sound may be four times as long as normally due to such arbitrary lengthening.<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=9 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
The above table shows the phonemic vowels in Parseltongue. Among them, {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} have allophones of {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} respectively.<br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had four diphthongs, {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[ei]}}, {{IPA|[ao]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}. In modern times, only {{IPA|[ai]}} has remained unchanged over the years, while {{IPA|[ei]}} has become {{IPA|[e:]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} has become {{IPA|[o:]}} and {{IPA|[ao]}} has taken the place of {{IPA|[au]}}, leaving only two.<br />
<br />
Diphthongs, like monophthongs, can also be lengthened, albeit in their case only for the first component vowel. For example, when {{IPA|[ai]}} is so lengthened, the resulting sound combination (no longer a diphthong, but two separate syllables) is {{IPA|[a:.i]}}.<br />
<br />
Arbitrary lengthening sometimes also alters the quality of Parseltongue diphthongs, when the next vowel (irrespective of whether there is an intervening consonant) is identical to the second component in the diphthong. E.g. ''arsiæ hinneis'' "my sister liked" {{IPA|[ar.si.ˈai ˈhin.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:i ˈhi.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:.hi.ne:s]}} (as though one word).<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue, having no native script, is romanised with English consonants and Italian vowels.<br />
<br />
Vowels that cannot be reduced or elided are marked with an acute accent ( ́), while stress is normally unmarked. In the rare cases where a vowel is prohibited from arbitrary lengthening, a breve is used to mark the vowel.<br />
<br />
The full alphabet of 22 letters used to romanise Parseltongue is as follows (sounds in IPA):<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || Letter || Sound || Digraph || Sound <br />
|-<br />
| Aa || {{IPA|a}} || Mm || {{IPA|m}} || Ai || {{IPA|ai}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ææ || {{IPA|ai}} || Nn || {{IPA|n}} || Ao || {{IPA|au}} <br />
|-<br />
| Bb || {{IPA|b}} || Oo || {{IPA|o}} || Au || {{IPA|o:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Dd || {{IPA|d}} || Pp || {{IPA|p}} || Br{{footnote|2}} || {{IPA|bɯr}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ee || {{IPA|e}} || Rr || {{IPA|r}} || Ch || {{IPA|tʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ff || {{IPA|f}} || Ss || {{IPA|s}} || Ei || {{IPA|e:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Gg || {{IPA|g}} || Tt || {{IPA|t}} || Hw || {{IPA|ʍ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Hh || {{IPA|h}} || Uu || {{IPA|u}} || Sh || {{IPA|ʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ii || {{IPA|i}} || Vv || {{IPA|v}} || Ts || {{IPA|ts}} <br />
|-<br />
| Kk || {{IPA|k}} || Ww || {{IPA|w}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ll || {{IPA|l}} || Yy{{footnote|1}} || {{IPA|ɯ}} <br />
|}<br />
{{footnote|1}} If, when {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides in everyday speech, the preceding plosive is immediately followed by a fricative, assimilation takes place. When voiced plosives are followed by {{IPA|[h]}}, they are aspirated, e.g. ''dy hí'' "and who-ACC" {{IPA|[dɯhi]}} > {{IPA|[dhi]}} > {{IPA|[dʰi]}}.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} Historic {{IPA|[r̩]}} unpacked itself to become {{IPA|[ɯr]}}. When followed by a vowel, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides and the digraph becomes the consonant cluster {{IPA|[br]}}.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
::''A fictional history involving J. K. Rowling's magical world in the'' Harry Potter ''series''<br />
<br />
Romanisation of Parseltongue for writing was first done by English wizards in the 17th century, by the principle of having, as far as possible, one letter to one sound without using letters outside the basic Roman alphabet or extraneous diacritics. There is one odd extra letter, &lt;æ&gt;, adopted from the Icelandic alphabet, to represent the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, but only where it denotes the first person genitive case (e.g. ''arsi'', sister; ''arsiæ'', my sister), the first-person verb ending (''-æ''), or the third-person masculine one (''-æs''). Besides the logically understandable diphthongs, digraphs are historically explicable:<br />
<br />
*'''ch''' and '''sh''' were written as in English<br />
*'''ts''' was adopted from romanisation of Greek and Russian<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
Basic Parseltongue word order is [[Subject Object Verb]], i.e. ''Sam eats oranges'' would be, literally translated, "Sam oranges eats", although, unlike most SOV languages, it makes use of pre- instead of postpositions.<br />
<br />
Modifiers, including genitives, precede head nouns and verbs; more generally, subordinate clauses precede the particles that mark them, e.g. where English would have ''I thought that he was dead'' Parseltongue would say ''he was-dead that I-thought''. In that same vein, verbs precede their auxiliaries, going by the logic that, for example, the progressive verb "is driving" is a type of progressive aspect ('' to be -ing'') instead of a type of driving, since the verb inflection behaves according to the auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue does not mark nouns for gender or number, and, consequently, neither do adjectives, although the historical loss of such inflection has not occurred with pronouns, which survive in fossilised forms today, much as in English ''(see [[#Pronouns]] below)''. Inflection does survive in the case system, however, albeit barely, distinguishing the common, genitive and ablative cases (these latter also undergoing attrition). As with gender and number distinctions, pronouns have fossilised other once-marked cases like the dative (though not the locative) and the accusative.<br />
<br />
====Declension====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had three noun declension systems for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, each of which exhibited a fair degree of variation depending on the ending of the noun stem, through processes such as assimilation to achieve homophony. Later systematic analogical readjustments and phonetic attrition, however, served to level out the differences between the various case endings within genders (including the plural), spreading across genders as well. This resulted in the gradual fudging of the boundaries between different gender categories, culminating in their eventual loss, and the stabilisation of the one remaining declension paradigm today.<br />
<br />
=====Common case=====<br />
<br />
The common case is used, with the appropriate particles or prepositions in Parseltongue for the nominative, accusative, dative, locative, instrumental and vocative cases (the surviving genitive and ablative cases are discussed below), and is the basic form of the noun. <br />
<br />
=====Genitive case=====<br />
<br />
The genitive case marker, originally ''-VtV'', where ''V'' stands for a vowel homophonous in rounding and height with the last or predominant vowel in the stem, has gradually simplified to the near-clitic case marker ''-ti'' widespread today (ignoring subsequent phonological processes that change the ending further). <br />
<br />
=====Ablative case=====<br />
<br />
The ablative case has survived in its original form (''-igo'' or ''-ego'' depending on the height of the stem's dominant or last vowel) due to the analogy with the ablative case in the pronouns, although the general tendency is, now, to standardise both to ''-ego''. Besides being used for expressing movement away from and relation to (like the english words "concerning" or "about"), the ablative is also used to mark the standard of comparison with comparative adjectives: "him" in ''taller than him'' is marked ablatively ''(see also [[#Comparative adjectives]] below).<br />
<br />
====Pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====Personal pronouns=====<br />
<br />
As in English, gender in pronouns is only marked with the third-person, but unlike it Parseltongue marks the third-person plural as well, and compounds the gender endings to indicate that a group consists of more than one gender.<br />
<br />
(pronoun paradigm here)<br />
<br />
=====Demonstrative and relative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The demonstrative and relative pronouns in Parseltongue are relatively simply constructed, inflecting for only 2 cases each, possibly due to the fact that the demonstratives are omitted in most cases where they are concomitant with the noun to which they refer, and the relatives (a relatively modern invention through contact with English, an SVO language) can be omitted as well by placing the modifying verbs before them (e.g. ''shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis'' "that-one whom my-sister liked" is usually said as ''arsiæ hinneis shēsin'' in the mould of other SOV languages.<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Demonstrative Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| This ||style="text-align: center;"| com.{{footnote|1}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tasin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl.{{footnote|2}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tadego<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| That ||style="text-align: center;"| com. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shēsin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shedego<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Relative Pronouns{{footnote|3}}<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Who ||style="text-align: center;"| nom.{{footnote|4}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc.{{footnote|5}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Which ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| When ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Where ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Whose ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| How ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Horēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hórim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Common case<br/><br />
{{footnote|2}} Ablative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|3}} Relative pronouns, with the exceptions of ''who'' and ''which'', are formed directly from the corresponding interrogatives.<br/><br />
{{footnote|4}} Nominative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|5}} Accusative case<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
=====Interrogative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronouns are distinct from the relative pronouns, unlike in English, and, because of their nature as being only interrogative, are invariable. All Parseltongue interrogatives begin with a ''h'' (which in certain dialects has undergone regular fortition to {{IPA|[s]}}).<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| English<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hí ||style="text-align: center;"| Who<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hē ||style="text-align: center;"| What<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hás ||style="text-align: center;"| When<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hán ||style="text-align: center;"| Why<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hút ||style="text-align: center;"| Where<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hití ||style="text-align: center;"| Whose<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hór ||style="text-align: center;"| How<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives & adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Parseltongue are not distinctly marked, but a large number end in ''-t-'' plus a vowel, being descended from earlier genitive constructions. E.g. "a green apple" would literally be translated as "an apple of green", or ''epsa marhata'' {{IPA|['e:psa: ma'r̥a:ta]}}. Adjectives can be placed either before or after the noun they modify without changing the meaning of the phrase.<br />
<br />
Similarly, there is no distinctive marking for adverbs, and no restriction on their syntax. Adverbs formed from adjectives generally are identical to the original adjective.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue verbs are marked for the imperative mood, present and past tenses and a progressive aspect. The future tense, conditional mood and perfect aspect are expressed through periphrasis. All tenses, aspects and moods (TAM) are marked independently, i.e. if a verb is marked for progressive aspect it will not take tense markers, and vice versa. Context will generally provide clues as to which is meant.<br />
<br />
For each aspect, mood and tense, Parseltongue distinguishes morphologically the 1st person singular and plural, 2nd person singular and plural, as well as 3rd person masculine singular, 3rd person feminine singular and 3rd person plural. These person-markers are appended after the appropriate TAM markers in an agglutinative fashion.<br />
<br />
The verb ''psas'' "to stop" is conjugated below as an example.<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''psæ'', ''psau'', ''psas'', ''psais''; ''psātha'', ''psāhe'', ''psāna''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''psanæ'', ''psanau'', ''psanas'', ''psanais''; ''psanātha'', ''psanāhe'', ''psanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''psiæ'', ''psiau'', ''psias'', ''psiais''; ''psiātha'', ''psiāhe'', ''psiāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''psā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am psæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau psæ'' [l̥eo: psa:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''psā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
====Irregular verbs====<br />
<br />
There are very few irregular verbs in Parseltongue, the most commonly used of which are ''fāna'' "to be" and ''kāna'' "to live". Their conjugations are as follows:<br />
<br />
'''Fāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''fi'', ''fú'', ''fia'', ''fais''; ''fitha'', ''fahe'', ''fāna''<br>for ''I am, thou art, he is, she is; we are, you are, they are"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''fani'', ''fanú'', ''fania'', ''fanais''; ''fanātha'', ''fanāhe'', ''fanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''fiæ'', ''fiau'', ''fias'', ''fiais''; ''fiātha'', ''fiāhe'', ''fiāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''fē!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am fi'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau fi'' [l̥eo: fi:], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''fā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
'''Kāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''kæ'', ''kau'', ''kæs'', ''kais''; ''kātha'', ''kāhe'', ''kānæ''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''kanæ'', ''kanau'', ''kanæs'', ''kanais''; ''kanātha'', ''kanāhe'', ''ksanānæ''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''kiæ'', ''kiau'', ''kiæs'', ''kiais''; ''kiātha'', ''kiāhe'', ''kiānæ''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''kā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am kæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau kæ'' [l̥eo: ka:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''kā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
==Example passage==<br />
<br />
The following example passage of Parseltongue is a translation of the Parseltongue dialogue between Tom Marvolo Riddle and Morfin, recorded in English in ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'', pp.341-2:<br />
<br />
{|style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 100%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 30%"| Phonetic transcription<br />
|-<br />
|style="padding-right: 8px;"| “Stop.”<br />
<br />
“You speak it?”<br />
<br />
“Yes, I speak it. Where is Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Dead. Died years ago, didn’t he?”<br />
<br />
“Who are you, then?”<br />
<br />
“I’m Morfin, ain’t I?”<br />
<br />
“Marvolo’s son?”<br />
<br />
“’Course I am, then… I thought you was that Muggle. You look mighty like that Muggle.”<br />
<br />
“What Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“That Muggle what my sister took a fancy to, that Muggle what lives in the big house over the way. You look right like him. Riddle. But he’s older now, i’n ’e? He’s older’n you, now I think on it… He come back, see.”<br />
<br />
“Riddle came back?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, he left her, and serve her right, marrying filth! Robbed us, mind, before she ran off! Where’s the locket, eh, where’s Slytherin’s locket? Dishonoured us, she did, that little slut! And who’re you, coming here and asking questions about all that? It’s over, innit… it’s over…”<br />
|style="padding-left: 8px;" valign=top| “Psā!”<br />
<br />
“Efe iska?”<br />
<br />
“Sā, skæ. Hút fis Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Tæn. Suōs tænas, au?”<br />
<br />
“Simī hí fú?”<br />
<br />
“Dē Morfin, au?”<br />
<br />
“Tuva Marvolī ?”<br />
<br />
“Sasōl, ebei? Shēsin Muggle saum hwinæ. Tōr shēsin Muggle harisa.”<br />
<br />
“Hē Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“Shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis, shēsin Muggle takēm zi aotī heis pi kæs. Me fua harisa. Riddle. E na kalpa fis, au? Kalpava dēgo, na orilæ. Attas, o.”<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>“Riddle attanas?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, ī stanas, chāsa, spak kastú! Orrē eisnais, ēhī, pabr ītnais! Hút for hívulo, i? Hút for Slǐstrikti hívulo? Orrē aswafanais, paifā! Dy hí fú, bes lālú, mespārú tso hāsla? Pēlos, au, pēlos...”<br />
<br />
|valign=top| {{IPA|psa:!}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|efˈfi:ska:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsa:ska:i. ˈhu:ffis marˈvo:lo?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈta:in. swo:s ˈta:inaza:u}}?<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsim̥i:fu:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|de: ˈmo:rvina:u?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈtu:va marˈvo:li:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|sa:ˈso: leˈbe:? ˈʃe:sim ˈmʌgl̥ ˈsɔmʍina:i. to:r ˌʃe:siˌmʌgl̥aˈri:sa.}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈhe:mʌgl̥?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈʃe:sin ˌtakimarsiˈa:hine:s, ˌʃe:siˈmʌgl̥ takɛmziˈauti: ˈhe:spika:is. mefua:::ˈri:sa. ˈɹɪdl. enaˈka:lpafizza:u? kalˌpa:vaˈde:go:, ˈnaurila:i. ˈattazo:.}}<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>{{IPA|ˈɹɪdl ˈa:ttana:s?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈa:r i:staˈna:s, ˈtʃa:sa, spaˈka:stu! oˈre::sna:is, e:i:, pa:ˈbri:tna:is! ˈhu:ffo ˈr̥i:vuli:? ˈhu:ffor slistrikˈtʰi:vulo:? oˈre: asˈwa:fna:is, ˈpʰa:ifa:! ˈdʰi:fu:, bɛsˈla:lu, mɛsˈpa:rutso: ˈha:sla:? ˈpe:loza:u, ˈpe:los...}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Parseltongue-inspired&diff=49342Parseltongue-inspired2009-09-23T19:58:01Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Assimilation */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox|name=Parseltongue-inspired (Fispa)|pronounce=ˈfispa:|tu=''Harry Potter'' world|species=Ophidic<br/>(snakes and snake-likes)|in=All over the HP world|no=''unknown''|script=''n.a.''|tree=Isolate|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=July 2005}}<br />
<br />
The '''Parseltongue''' referred to in this article refers to '''Parseltongue-inspired''', a hypothetical form of [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Parseltongue]]. Because the tongue has no written form, the text samples appearing hereafter are in romanised form. This language is an inflecting accusative language with a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
Being a language spoken by snakes and the like, Parseltongue, while having the complete basic plosive repertoire ({{IPA|[p]/[b] [t]/[d], [k]/[g]}}), is rich in sibilants and other fricatives, which occur at a far higher frequency. Plosives also assimilate frequently to neighbouring fricatives or sonorants. <br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=13 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiodental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|dz}} || || {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || {{IPA|ʍ}} || {{IPA|w}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Assimilation====<br />
<br />
Due to the inherent tendency of snakes (and hence their human inheritors of Parsetongue) to fricativise sounds, plosives commonly assimilate to neighbouring continuants (including aspirate stops), even across word boundaries, except where plosives are geminate. Regressive assimilation is the most common, and changes of the following types have been observed:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[p]}} + ''fricative'' = labialised fricative (''e.g.'' '''pf''' = '''f<sup>w</sup>''') except /ps/ > [ps]<br />
*{{IPA|[b]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[v]}} + voiced fricative (''e.g.'' '''bth''' = '''vð''')<br />
**Occasionally, complete assimilation occurs, e.g. '''vð''' becomes '''ðð'''.<br />
*{{IPA|[t]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[d]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate voice fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[k]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[x]}} + fricative = geminate fricative in certain cases<br />
<br />
When followed by a {{IPA|[h]}}, whether or not separated by a vowel or diphthong, plosives are aspirated, eliding the {{IPA|[h]}}, and in some progressive dialects fricativise.<br />
<br />
*E.g. {{IPA|[t]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = {{IPA|[tʰ]}} or {{IPA|[θ]}}<br />
<br />
The velar plosives exhibit a slightly irregular pattern of fricativisation, and examples as illustrated below have been noted:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[k/k]}} (i.e. across word boundaries) = {{IPA|[χ]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[g]}} is frequently elided<br />
<br />
With sonorants, devoicing frequently occurs before a fricative:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[m]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''m'''''<br />
*{{IPA|[r]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''r''''' or {{IPA|[hr]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[l]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''l''''' or {{IPA|[hl]}}<br />
**{{IPA|[l]}} + ''fricative'' sometimes causes the {{IPA|[l]}} to vocalise to an {{IPA|[u]}}<br />
<br />
Frequently, intervocalic {{IPA|[h]}} is elided.<br />
<br />
In the construction of the past tense (''see also [[#Verbs|Verbs]] below''), assimilation takes place regularly with consonant-stem verbs. In the text example provided [[#Example passage|below]], the past tense of "to like" is ''hinneis''; the stem of the verb is actually ''hil-'', but with the adding of the past tense suffix ''-n-'', the ''-l-'' of the stem completely assimilates, resulting in a geminate ''nn''.<br />
<br />
{{Seealso|#Diphthongs}}<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue vowels are generally ''voiceless'', unless preceded or followed by a nasal({{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}) or liquid ({{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}). They also have phonemic length, but the distinction is not usually made as speakers generally lengthen and shorten vowels at will, or elide them; only lengthening is substantially common, however, given the tendency of Parseltongue speakers to speak slowly. Occasionally, when two identical vowels occur consecutively (which happens only when they are across a word boundary or when an intermediate consonant, usually {{IPA|[h]}}, has been elided), the resulting sound may be four times as long as normally due to such arbitrary lengthening.<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=9 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
The above table shows the phonemic vowels in Parseltongue. Among them, {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} have allophones of {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} respectively.<br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had four diphthongs, {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[ei]}}, {{IPA|[ao]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}. In modern times, only {{IPA|[ai]}} has remained unchanged over the years, while {{IPA|[ei]}} has become {{IPA|[e:]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} has become {{IPA|[o:]}} and {{IPA|[ao]}} has taken the place of {{IPA|[au]}}, leaving only two.<br />
<br />
Diphthongs, like monophthongs, can also be lengthened, albeit in their case only for the first component vowel. For example, when {{IPA|[ai]}} is so lengthened, the resulting sound combination (no longer a diphthong, but two separate syllables) is {{IPA|[a:.i]}}.<br />
<br />
Arbitrary lengthening sometimes also alters the quality of Parseltongue diphthongs, when the next vowel (irrespective of whether there is an intervening consonant) is identical to the second component in the diphthong. E.g. ''arsiæ hinneis'' "my sister liked" {{IPA|[ar.si.ˈai ˈhin.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:i ˈhi.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:.hi.ne:s]}} (as though one word).<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue, having no native script, is romanised with English consonants and Italian vowels.<br />
<br />
Vowels that cannot be reduced or elided are marked with an acute accent ( ́), while stress is normally unmarked. In the rare cases where a vowel is prohibited from arbitrary lengthening, a breve is used to mark the vowel.<br />
<br />
The full alphabet of 22 letters used to romanise Parseltongue is as follows (sounds in IPA):<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || Letter || Sound || Digraph || Sound <br />
|-<br />
| Aa || {{IPA|a}} || Mm || {{IPA|m}} || Ai || {{IPA|ai}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ææ || {{IPA|ai}} || Nn || {{IPA|n}} || Ao || {{IPA|au}} <br />
|-<br />
| Bb || {{IPA|b}} || Oo || {{IPA|o}} || Au || {{IPA|o:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Dd || {{IPA|d}} || Pp || {{IPA|p}} || Br{{footnote|2}} || {{IPA|bɯr}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ee || {{IPA|e}} || Rr || {{IPA|r}} || Ch || {{IPA|tʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ff || {{IPA|f}} || Ss || {{IPA|s}} || Ei || {{IPA|e:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Gg || {{IPA|g}} || Tt || {{IPA|t}} || Hw || {{IPA|ʍ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Hh || {{IPA|h}} || Uu || {{IPA|u}} || Sh || {{IPA|ʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ii || {{IPA|i}} || Vv || {{IPA|v}} || Ts || {{IPA|ts}} <br />
|-<br />
| Kk || {{IPA|k}} || Ww || {{IPA|w}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ll || {{IPA|l}} || Yy{{footnote|1}} || {{IPA|ɯ}} <br />
|}<br />
{{footnote|1}} If, when {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides in everyday speech, the preceding plosive is immediately followed by a fricative, assimilation takes place. When voiced plosives are followed by {{IPA|[h]}}, they are aspirated, e.g. ''dy hí'' "and who-ACC" {{IPA|[dɯhi]}} > {{IPA|[dhi]}} > {{IPA|[dʰi]}}.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} Historic {{IPA|[r̩]}} unpacked itself to become {{IPA|[ɯr]}}. When followed by a vowel, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides and the digraph becomes the consonant cluster {{IPA|[br]}}.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
::''A fictional history involving J. K. Rowling's magical world in the'' Harry Potter ''series''<br />
<br />
Romanisation of Parseltongue for writing was first done by English wizards in the 17th century, by the principle of having, as far as possible, one letter to one sound without using letters outside the basic Roman alphabet or extraneous diacritics. There is one odd extra letter, &lt;æ&gt;, adopted from the Icelandic alphabet, to represent the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, but only where it denotes the first person genitive case (e.g. ''arsi'', sister; ''arsiæ'', my sister), the first-person verb ending (''-æ''), or the third-person masculine one (''-æs''). Besides the logically understandable diphthongs, digraphs are historically explicable:<br />
<br />
*'''ch''' and '''sh''' were written as in English<br />
*'''ts''' was adopted from romanisation of Greek and Russian<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
Basic Parseltongue word order is [[Subject Object Verb]], i.e. ''Sam eats oranges'' would be, literally translated, "Sam oranges eats", although, unlike most SOV languages, it makes use of pre- instead of postpositions.<br />
<br />
Modifiers, including genitives, precede head nouns and verbs; more generally, subordinate clauses precede the particles that mark them, e.g. where English would have ''I thought that he was dead'' Parseltongue would say ''he was-dead that I-thought''. In that same vein, verbs precede their auxiliaries, going by the logic that, for example, the progressive verb "is driving" is a type of progressive aspect ('' to be -ing'') instead of a type of driving, since the verb inflection behaves according to the auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue does not mark nouns for gender or number, and, consequently, neither do adjectives, although the historical loss of such inflection has not occurred with pronouns, which survive in fossilised forms today, much as in English ''(see [[#Pronouns]] below)''. Inflection does survive in the case system, however, albeit barely, distinguishing the common, genitive and ablative cases (these latter also undergoing attrition). As with gender and number distinctions, pronouns have fossilised other once-marked cases like the dative (though not the locative) and the accusative.<br />
<br />
====Declension====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had three noun declension systems for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, each of which exhibited a fair degree of variation depending on the ending of the noun stem, through processes such as assimilation to achieve homophony. Later systematic analogical readjustments and phonetic attrition, however, served to level out the differences between the various case endings within genders (including the plural), spreading across genders as well. This resulted in the gradual fudging of the boundaries between different gender categories, culminating in their eventual loss, and the stabilisation of the one remaining declension paradigm today.<br />
<br />
=====Common case=====<br />
<br />
The common case is used, with the appropriate particles or prepositions in Parseltongue for the nominative, accusative, dative, locative, instrumental and vocative cases (the surviving genitive and ablative cases are discussed below), and is the basic form of the noun. <br />
<br />
=====Genitive case=====<br />
<br />
The genitive case marker, originally ''-VtV'', where ''V'' stands for a vowel homophonous in rounding and height with the last or predominant vowel in the stem, has gradually simplified to the near-clitic case marker ''-ti'' widespread today (ignoring subsequent phonological processes that change the ending further). <br />
<br />
=====Ablative case=====<br />
<br />
The ablative case has survived in its original form (''-igo'' or ''-ego'' depending on the height of the stem's dominant or last vowel) due to the analogy with the ablative case in the pronouns, although the general tendency is, now, to standardise both to ''-ego''. Besides being used for expressing movement away from and relation to (like the english words "concerning" or "about"), the ablative is also used to mark the standard of comparison with comparative adjectives: "him" in ''taller than him'' is marked ablatively ''(see also [[#Comparative adjectives]] below).<br />
<br />
====Pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====Personal pronouns=====<br />
<br />
As in English, gender in pronouns is only marked with the third-person, but unlike it Parseltongue marks the third-person plural as well, and compounds the gender endings to indicate that a group consists of more than one gender.<br />
<br />
(pronoun paradigm here)<br />
<br />
=====Demonstrative and relative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The demonstrative and relative pronouns in Parseltongue are relatively simply constructed, inflecting for only 2 cases each, possibly due to the fact that the demonstratives are omitted in most cases where they are concomitant with the noun to which they refer, and the relatives (a relatively modern invention through contact with English, an SVO language) can be omitted as well by placing the modifying verbs before them (e.g. ''shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis'' "that-one whom my-sister liked" is usually said as ''arsiæ hinneis shēsin'' in the mould of other SOV languages.<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Demonstrative Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| This ||style="text-align: center;"| com.{{footnote|1}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tasin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl.{{footnote|2}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tadego<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| That ||style="text-align: center;"| com. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shēsin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shedego<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Relative Pronouns{{footnote|3}}<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Who ||style="text-align: center;"| nom.{{footnote|4}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc.{{footnote|5}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Which ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| When ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Where ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Whose ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| How ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Horēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hórim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Common case<br/><br />
{{footnote|2}} Ablative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|3}} Relative pronouns, with the exceptions of ''who'' and ''which'', are formed directly from the corresponding interrogatives.<br/><br />
{{footnote|4}} Nominative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|5}} Accusative case<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
=====Interrogative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronouns are distinct from the relative pronouns, unlike in English, and, because of their nature as being only interrogative, are invariable. All Parseltongue interrogatives begin with a ''h'' (which in certain dialects has undergone regular fortition to {{IPA|[s]}}).<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| English<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hí ||style="text-align: center;"| Who<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hē ||style="text-align: center;"| What<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hás ||style="text-align: center;"| When<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hán ||style="text-align: center;"| Why<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hút ||style="text-align: center;"| Where<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hití ||style="text-align: center;"| Whose<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hór ||style="text-align: center;"| How<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives & adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Parseltongue are not distinctly marked, but a large number end in ''-t-'' plus a vowel, being descended from earlier genitive constructions. E.g. "a green apple" would literally be translated as "an apple of green", or ''epsa marhata'' {{IPA|['e:fsʷa: ma'r̥a:ta]}}. Adjectives can be placed either before or after the noun they modify without changing the meaning of the phrase.<br />
<br />
Similarly, there is no distinctive marking for adverbs, and no restriction on their syntax. Adverbs formed from adjectives generally are identical to the original adjective.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue verbs are marked for the imperative mood, present and past tenses and a progressive aspect. The future tense, conditional mood and perfect aspect are expressed through periphrasis. All tenses, aspects and moods (TAM) are marked independently, i.e. if a verb is marked for progressive aspect it will not take tense markers, and vice versa. Context will generally provide clues as to which is meant.<br />
<br />
For each aspect, mood and tense, Parseltongue distinguishes morphologically the 1st person singular and plural, 2nd person singular and plural, as well as 3rd person masculine singular, 3rd person feminine singular and 3rd person plural. These person-markers are appended after the appropriate TAM markers in an agglutinative fashion.<br />
<br />
The verb ''psas'' "to stop" is conjugated below as an example.<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''psæ'', ''psau'', ''psas'', ''psais''; ''psātha'', ''psāhe'', ''psāna''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''psanæ'', ''psanau'', ''psanas'', ''psanais''; ''psanātha'', ''psanāhe'', ''psanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''psiæ'', ''psiau'', ''psias'', ''psiais''; ''psiātha'', ''psiāhe'', ''psiāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''psā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am psæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau psæ'' [l̥eo: psa:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''psā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
====Irregular verbs====<br />
<br />
There are very few irregular verbs in Parseltongue, the most commonly used of which are ''fāna'' "to be" and ''kāna'' "to live". Their conjugations are as follows:<br />
<br />
'''Fāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''fi'', ''fú'', ''fia'', ''fais''; ''fitha'', ''fahe'', ''fāna''<br>for ''I am, thou art, he is, she is; we are, you are, they are"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''fani'', ''fanú'', ''fania'', ''fanais''; ''fanātha'', ''fanāhe'', ''fanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''fiæ'', ''fiau'', ''fias'', ''fiais''; ''fiātha'', ''fiāhe'', ''fiāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''fē!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am fi'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau fi'' [l̥eo: fi:], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''fā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
'''Kāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''kæ'', ''kau'', ''kæs'', ''kais''; ''kātha'', ''kāhe'', ''kānæ''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''kanæ'', ''kanau'', ''kanæs'', ''kanais''; ''kanātha'', ''kanāhe'', ''ksanānæ''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''kiæ'', ''kiau'', ''kiæs'', ''kiais''; ''kiātha'', ''kiāhe'', ''kiānæ''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''kā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am kæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau kæ'' [l̥eo: ka:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''kā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
==Example passage==<br />
<br />
The following example passage of Parseltongue is a translation of the Parseltongue dialogue between Tom Marvolo Riddle and Morfin, recorded in English in ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'', pp.341-2:<br />
<br />
{|style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 100%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 30%"| Phonetic transcription<br />
|-<br />
|style="padding-right: 8px;"| “Stop.”<br />
<br />
“You speak it?”<br />
<br />
“Yes, I speak it. Where is Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Dead. Died years ago, didn’t he?”<br />
<br />
“Who are you, then?”<br />
<br />
“I’m Morfin, ain’t I?”<br />
<br />
“Marvolo’s son?”<br />
<br />
“’Course I am, then… I thought you was that Muggle. You look mighty like that Muggle.”<br />
<br />
“What Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“That Muggle what my sister took a fancy to, that Muggle what lives in the big house over the way. You look right like him. Riddle. But he’s older now, i’n ’e? He’s older’n you, now I think on it… He come back, see.”<br />
<br />
“Riddle came back?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, he left her, and serve her right, marrying filth! Robbed us, mind, before she ran off! Where’s the locket, eh, where’s Slytherin’s locket? Dishonoured us, she did, that little slut! And who’re you, coming here and asking questions about all that? It’s over, innit… it’s over…”<br />
|style="padding-left: 8px;" valign=top| “Psā!”<br />
<br />
“Efe iska?”<br />
<br />
“Sā, skæ. Hút fis Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Tæn. Suōs tænas, au?”<br />
<br />
“Simī hí fú?”<br />
<br />
“Dē Morfin, au?”<br />
<br />
“Tuva Marvolī ?”<br />
<br />
“Sasōl, ebei? Shēsin Muggle saum hwinæ. Tōr shēsin Muggle harisa.”<br />
<br />
“Hē Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“Shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis, shēsin Muggle takēm zi aotī heis pi kæs. Me fua harisa. Riddle. E na kalpa fis, au? Kalpava dēgo, na orilæ. Attas, o.”<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>“Riddle attanas?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, ī stanas, chāsa, spak kastú! Orrē eisnais, ēhī, pabr ītnais! Hút for hívulo, i? Hút for Slǐstrikti hívulo? Orrē aswafanais, paifā! Dy hí fú, bes lālú, mespārú tso hāsla? Pēlos, au, pēlos...”<br />
<br />
|valign=top| {{IPA|psa:!}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|efˈfi:ska:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsa:ska:i. ˈhu:ffis marˈvo:lo?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈta:in. swo:s ˈta:inaza:u}}?<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsim̥i:fu:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|de: ˈmo:rvina:u?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈtu:va marˈvo:li:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|sa:ˈso: leˈbe:? ˈʃe:sim ˈmʌgl̥ ˈsɔmʍina:i. to:r ˌʃe:siˌmʌgl̥aˈri:sa.}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈhe:mʌgl̥?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈʃe:sin ˌtakimarsiˈa:hine:s, ˌʃe:siˈmʌgl̥ takɛmziˈauti: ˈhe:spika:is. mefua:::ˈri:sa. ˈɹɪdl. enaˈka:lpafizza:u? kalˌpa:vaˈde:go:, ˈnaurila:i. ˈattazo:.}}<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>{{IPA|ˈɹɪdl ˈa:ttana:s?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈa:r i:staˈna:s, ˈtʃa:sa, spaˈka:stu! oˈre::sna:is, e:i:, pa:ˈbri:tna:is! ˈhu:ffo ˈr̥i:vuli:? ˈhu:ffor slistrikˈtʰi:vulo:? oˈre: asˈwa:fna:is, ˈpʰa:ifa:! ˈdʰi:fu:, bɛsˈla:lu, mɛsˈpa:rutso: ˈha:sla:? ˈpe:loza:u, ˈpe:los...}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Parseltongue-inspired&diff=49341Parseltongue-inspired2009-09-23T19:56:55Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Grammar */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox|name=Parseltongue-inspired (Fispa)|pronounce=ˈfispa:|tu=''Harry Potter'' world|species=Ophidic<br/>(snakes and snake-likes)|in=All over the HP world|no=''unknown''|script=''n.a.''|tree=Isolate|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=July 2005}}<br />
<br />
The '''Parseltongue''' referred to in this article refers to '''Parseltongue-inspired''', a hypothetical form of [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Parseltongue]]. Because the tongue has no written form, the text samples appearing hereafter are in romanised form. This language is an inflecting accusative language with a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
Being a language spoken by snakes and the like, Parseltongue, while having the complete basic plosive repertoire ({{IPA|[p]/[b] [t]/[d], [k]/[g]}}), is rich in sibilants and other fricatives, which occur at a far higher frequency. Plosives also assimilate frequently to neighbouring fricatives or sonorants. <br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=13 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiodental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|dz}} || || {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || {{IPA|ʍ}} || {{IPA|w}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Assimilation====<br />
<br />
Due to the inherent tendency of snakes (and hence their human inheritors of Parsetongue) to fricativise sounds, plosives commonly assimilate to neighbouring continuants (including aspirate stops), even across word boundaries, except where plosives are geminate. Regressive assimilation is the most common, and changes of the following types have been observed:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[p]}} + ''fricative'' = labialised fricative (''e.g.'' '''pf''' = '''f<sup>w</sup>''')<br />
*{{IPA|[b]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[v]}} + voiced fricative (''e.g.'' '''bth''' = '''vð''')<br />
**Occasionally, complete assimilation occurs, e.g. '''vð''' becomes '''ðð'''.<br />
*{{IPA|[t]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[d]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate voice fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[k]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[x]}} + fricative = geminate fricative in certain cases<br />
<br />
When followed by a {{IPA|[h]}}, whether or not separated by a vowel or diphthong, plosives are aspirated, eliding the {{IPA|[h]}}, and in some progressive dialects fricativise.<br />
<br />
*E.g. {{IPA|[t]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = {{IPA|[tʰ]}} or {{IPA|[θ]}}<br />
<br />
The velar plosives exhibit a slightly irregular pattern of fricativisation, and examples as illustrated below have been noted:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[k/k]}} (i.e. across word boundaries) = {{IPA|[χ]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[g]}} is frequently elided<br />
<br />
With sonorants, devoicing frequently occurs before a fricative:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[m]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''m'''''<br />
*{{IPA|[r]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''r''''' or {{IPA|[hr]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[l]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''l''''' or {{IPA|[hl]}}<br />
**{{IPA|[l]}} + ''fricative'' sometimes causes the {{IPA|[l]}} to vocalise to an {{IPA|[u]}}<br />
<br />
Frequently, intervocalic {{IPA|[h]}} is elided.<br />
<br />
In the construction of the past tense (''see also [[#Verbs|Verbs]] below''), assimilation takes place regularly with consonant-stem verbs. In the text example provided [[#Example passage|below]], the past tense of "to like" is ''hinneis''; the stem of the verb is actually ''hil-'', but with the adding of the past tense suffix ''-n-'', the ''-l-'' of the stem completely assimilates, resulting in a geminate ''nn''.<br />
<br />
{{Seealso|#Diphthongs}}<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue vowels are generally ''voiceless'', unless preceded or followed by a nasal({{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}) or liquid ({{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}). They also have phonemic length, but the distinction is not usually made as speakers generally lengthen and shorten vowels at will, or elide them; only lengthening is substantially common, however, given the tendency of Parseltongue speakers to speak slowly. Occasionally, when two identical vowels occur consecutively (which happens only when they are across a word boundary or when an intermediate consonant, usually {{IPA|[h]}}, has been elided), the resulting sound may be four times as long as normally due to such arbitrary lengthening.<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=9 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
The above table shows the phonemic vowels in Parseltongue. Among them, {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} have allophones of {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} respectively.<br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had four diphthongs, {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[ei]}}, {{IPA|[ao]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}. In modern times, only {{IPA|[ai]}} has remained unchanged over the years, while {{IPA|[ei]}} has become {{IPA|[e:]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} has become {{IPA|[o:]}} and {{IPA|[ao]}} has taken the place of {{IPA|[au]}}, leaving only two.<br />
<br />
Diphthongs, like monophthongs, can also be lengthened, albeit in their case only for the first component vowel. For example, when {{IPA|[ai]}} is so lengthened, the resulting sound combination (no longer a diphthong, but two separate syllables) is {{IPA|[a:.i]}}.<br />
<br />
Arbitrary lengthening sometimes also alters the quality of Parseltongue diphthongs, when the next vowel (irrespective of whether there is an intervening consonant) is identical to the second component in the diphthong. E.g. ''arsiæ hinneis'' "my sister liked" {{IPA|[ar.si.ˈai ˈhin.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:i ˈhi.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:.hi.ne:s]}} (as though one word).<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue, having no native script, is romanised with English consonants and Italian vowels.<br />
<br />
Vowels that cannot be reduced or elided are marked with an acute accent ( ́), while stress is normally unmarked. In the rare cases where a vowel is prohibited from arbitrary lengthening, a breve is used to mark the vowel.<br />
<br />
The full alphabet of 22 letters used to romanise Parseltongue is as follows (sounds in IPA):<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || Letter || Sound || Digraph || Sound <br />
|-<br />
| Aa || {{IPA|a}} || Mm || {{IPA|m}} || Ai || {{IPA|ai}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ææ || {{IPA|ai}} || Nn || {{IPA|n}} || Ao || {{IPA|au}} <br />
|-<br />
| Bb || {{IPA|b}} || Oo || {{IPA|o}} || Au || {{IPA|o:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Dd || {{IPA|d}} || Pp || {{IPA|p}} || Br{{footnote|2}} || {{IPA|bɯr}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ee || {{IPA|e}} || Rr || {{IPA|r}} || Ch || {{IPA|tʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ff || {{IPA|f}} || Ss || {{IPA|s}} || Ei || {{IPA|e:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Gg || {{IPA|g}} || Tt || {{IPA|t}} || Hw || {{IPA|ʍ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Hh || {{IPA|h}} || Uu || {{IPA|u}} || Sh || {{IPA|ʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ii || {{IPA|i}} || Vv || {{IPA|v}} || Ts || {{IPA|ts}} <br />
|-<br />
| Kk || {{IPA|k}} || Ww || {{IPA|w}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ll || {{IPA|l}} || Yy{{footnote|1}} || {{IPA|ɯ}} <br />
|}<br />
{{footnote|1}} If, when {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides in everyday speech, the preceding plosive is immediately followed by a fricative, assimilation takes place. When voiced plosives are followed by {{IPA|[h]}}, they are aspirated, e.g. ''dy hí'' "and who-ACC" {{IPA|[dɯhi]}} > {{IPA|[dhi]}} > {{IPA|[dʰi]}}.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} Historic {{IPA|[r̩]}} unpacked itself to become {{IPA|[ɯr]}}. When followed by a vowel, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides and the digraph becomes the consonant cluster {{IPA|[br]}}.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
::''A fictional history involving J. K. Rowling's magical world in the'' Harry Potter ''series''<br />
<br />
Romanisation of Parseltongue for writing was first done by English wizards in the 17th century, by the principle of having, as far as possible, one letter to one sound without using letters outside the basic Roman alphabet or extraneous diacritics. There is one odd extra letter, &lt;æ&gt;, adopted from the Icelandic alphabet, to represent the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, but only where it denotes the first person genitive case (e.g. ''arsi'', sister; ''arsiæ'', my sister), the first-person verb ending (''-æ''), or the third-person masculine one (''-æs''). Besides the logically understandable diphthongs, digraphs are historically explicable:<br />
<br />
*'''ch''' and '''sh''' were written as in English<br />
*'''ts''' was adopted from romanisation of Greek and Russian<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
Basic Parseltongue word order is [[Subject Object Verb]], i.e. ''Sam eats oranges'' would be, literally translated, "Sam oranges eats", although, unlike most SOV languages, it makes use of pre- instead of postpositions.<br />
<br />
Modifiers, including genitives, precede head nouns and verbs; more generally, subordinate clauses precede the particles that mark them, e.g. where English would have ''I thought that he was dead'' Parseltongue would say ''he was-dead that I-thought''. In that same vein, verbs precede their auxiliaries, going by the logic that, for example, the progressive verb "is driving" is a type of progressive aspect ('' to be -ing'') instead of a type of driving, since the verb inflection behaves according to the auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue does not mark nouns for gender or number, and, consequently, neither do adjectives, although the historical loss of such inflection has not occurred with pronouns, which survive in fossilised forms today, much as in English ''(see [[#Pronouns]] below)''. Inflection does survive in the case system, however, albeit barely, distinguishing the common, genitive and ablative cases (these latter also undergoing attrition). As with gender and number distinctions, pronouns have fossilised other once-marked cases like the dative (though not the locative) and the accusative.<br />
<br />
====Declension====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had three noun declension systems for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, each of which exhibited a fair degree of variation depending on the ending of the noun stem, through processes such as assimilation to achieve homophony. Later systematic analogical readjustments and phonetic attrition, however, served to level out the differences between the various case endings within genders (including the plural), spreading across genders as well. This resulted in the gradual fudging of the boundaries between different gender categories, culminating in their eventual loss, and the stabilisation of the one remaining declension paradigm today.<br />
<br />
=====Common case=====<br />
<br />
The common case is used, with the appropriate particles or prepositions in Parseltongue for the nominative, accusative, dative, locative, instrumental and vocative cases (the surviving genitive and ablative cases are discussed below), and is the basic form of the noun. <br />
<br />
=====Genitive case=====<br />
<br />
The genitive case marker, originally ''-VtV'', where ''V'' stands for a vowel homophonous in rounding and height with the last or predominant vowel in the stem, has gradually simplified to the near-clitic case marker ''-ti'' widespread today (ignoring subsequent phonological processes that change the ending further). <br />
<br />
=====Ablative case=====<br />
<br />
The ablative case has survived in its original form (''-igo'' or ''-ego'' depending on the height of the stem's dominant or last vowel) due to the analogy with the ablative case in the pronouns, although the general tendency is, now, to standardise both to ''-ego''. Besides being used for expressing movement away from and relation to (like the english words "concerning" or "about"), the ablative is also used to mark the standard of comparison with comparative adjectives: "him" in ''taller than him'' is marked ablatively ''(see also [[#Comparative adjectives]] below).<br />
<br />
====Pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====Personal pronouns=====<br />
<br />
As in English, gender in pronouns is only marked with the third-person, but unlike it Parseltongue marks the third-person plural as well, and compounds the gender endings to indicate that a group consists of more than one gender.<br />
<br />
(pronoun paradigm here)<br />
<br />
=====Demonstrative and relative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The demonstrative and relative pronouns in Parseltongue are relatively simply constructed, inflecting for only 2 cases each, possibly due to the fact that the demonstratives are omitted in most cases where they are concomitant with the noun to which they refer, and the relatives (a relatively modern invention through contact with English, an SVO language) can be omitted as well by placing the modifying verbs before them (e.g. ''shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis'' "that-one whom my-sister liked" is usually said as ''arsiæ hinneis shēsin'' in the mould of other SOV languages.<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Demonstrative Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| This ||style="text-align: center;"| com.{{footnote|1}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tasin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl.{{footnote|2}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tadego<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| That ||style="text-align: center;"| com. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shēsin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shedego<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Relative Pronouns{{footnote|3}}<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Who ||style="text-align: center;"| nom.{{footnote|4}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc.{{footnote|5}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Which ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| When ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Where ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Whose ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| How ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Horēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hórim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Common case<br/><br />
{{footnote|2}} Ablative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|3}} Relative pronouns, with the exceptions of ''who'' and ''which'', are formed directly from the corresponding interrogatives.<br/><br />
{{footnote|4}} Nominative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|5}} Accusative case<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
=====Interrogative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronouns are distinct from the relative pronouns, unlike in English, and, because of their nature as being only interrogative, are invariable. All Parseltongue interrogatives begin with a ''h'' (which in certain dialects has undergone regular fortition to {{IPA|[s]}}).<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| English<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hí ||style="text-align: center;"| Who<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hē ||style="text-align: center;"| What<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hás ||style="text-align: center;"| When<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hán ||style="text-align: center;"| Why<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hút ||style="text-align: center;"| Where<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hití ||style="text-align: center;"| Whose<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hór ||style="text-align: center;"| How<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives & adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Parseltongue are not distinctly marked, but a large number end in ''-t-'' plus a vowel, being descended from earlier genitive constructions. E.g. "a green apple" would literally be translated as "an apple of green", or ''epsa marhata'' {{IPA|['e:fsʷa: ma'r̥a:ta]}}. Adjectives can be placed either before or after the noun they modify without changing the meaning of the phrase.<br />
<br />
Similarly, there is no distinctive marking for adverbs, and no restriction on their syntax. Adverbs formed from adjectives generally are identical to the original adjective.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue verbs are marked for the imperative mood, present and past tenses and a progressive aspect. The future tense, conditional mood and perfect aspect are expressed through periphrasis. All tenses, aspects and moods (TAM) are marked independently, i.e. if a verb is marked for progressive aspect it will not take tense markers, and vice versa. Context will generally provide clues as to which is meant.<br />
<br />
For each aspect, mood and tense, Parseltongue distinguishes morphologically the 1st person singular and plural, 2nd person singular and plural, as well as 3rd person masculine singular, 3rd person feminine singular and 3rd person plural. These person-markers are appended after the appropriate TAM markers in an agglutinative fashion.<br />
<br />
The verb ''psas'' "to stop" is conjugated below as an example.<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''psæ'', ''psau'', ''psas'', ''psais''; ''psātha'', ''psāhe'', ''psāna''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''psanæ'', ''psanau'', ''psanas'', ''psanais''; ''psanātha'', ''psanāhe'', ''psanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''psiæ'', ''psiau'', ''psias'', ''psiais''; ''psiātha'', ''psiāhe'', ''psiāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''psā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am psæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau psæ'' [l̥eo: psa:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''psā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
====Irregular verbs====<br />
<br />
There are very few irregular verbs in Parseltongue, the most commonly used of which are ''fāna'' "to be" and ''kāna'' "to live". Their conjugations are as follows:<br />
<br />
'''Fāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''fi'', ''fú'', ''fia'', ''fais''; ''fitha'', ''fahe'', ''fāna''<br>for ''I am, thou art, he is, she is; we are, you are, they are"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''fani'', ''fanú'', ''fania'', ''fanais''; ''fanātha'', ''fanāhe'', ''fanāna''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''fiæ'', ''fiau'', ''fias'', ''fiais''; ''fiātha'', ''fiāhe'', ''fiāna''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''fē!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am fi'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau fi'' [l̥eo: fi:], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''fā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
'''Kāna'''<br />
<br />
*'''Present tense:''' ''kæ'', ''kau'', ''kæs'', ''kais''; ''kātha'', ''kāhe'', ''kānæ''<br>for ''I stop, thou stoppest, he stops, she stops; we stop, you stop, they stop"<br />
*'''Past tense:''' ''kanæ'', ''kanau'', ''kanæs'', ''kanais''; ''kanātha'', ''kanāhe'', ''ksanānæ''<br />
*'''Progressive aspect:''' ''kiæ'', ''kiau'', ''kiæs'', ''kiais''; ''kiātha'', ''kiāhe'', ''kiānæ''<br />
*'''Imperative:''' ''kā!''<br />
<br />
*'''Future tense:''' ''am kæ'', etc.<br />
*'''Conditional mood:''' ''lehau kæ'' [l̥eo: ka:i], etc.<br />
*'''Perfect aspect:''' ''kā hetæ'', etc.<br />
<br />
==Example passage==<br />
<br />
The following example passage of Parseltongue is a translation of the Parseltongue dialogue between Tom Marvolo Riddle and Morfin, recorded in English in ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'', pp.341-2:<br />
<br />
{|style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 100%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 30%"| Phonetic transcription<br />
|-<br />
|style="padding-right: 8px;"| “Stop.”<br />
<br />
“You speak it?”<br />
<br />
“Yes, I speak it. Where is Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Dead. Died years ago, didn’t he?”<br />
<br />
“Who are you, then?”<br />
<br />
“I’m Morfin, ain’t I?”<br />
<br />
“Marvolo’s son?”<br />
<br />
“’Course I am, then… I thought you was that Muggle. You look mighty like that Muggle.”<br />
<br />
“What Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“That Muggle what my sister took a fancy to, that Muggle what lives in the big house over the way. You look right like him. Riddle. But he’s older now, i’n ’e? He’s older’n you, now I think on it… He come back, see.”<br />
<br />
“Riddle came back?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, he left her, and serve her right, marrying filth! Robbed us, mind, before she ran off! Where’s the locket, eh, where’s Slytherin’s locket? Dishonoured us, she did, that little slut! And who’re you, coming here and asking questions about all that? It’s over, innit… it’s over…”<br />
|style="padding-left: 8px;" valign=top| “Psā!”<br />
<br />
“Efe iska?”<br />
<br />
“Sā, skæ. Hút fis Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Tæn. Suōs tænas, au?”<br />
<br />
“Simī hí fú?”<br />
<br />
“Dē Morfin, au?”<br />
<br />
“Tuva Marvolī ?”<br />
<br />
“Sasōl, ebei? Shēsin Muggle saum hwinæ. Tōr shēsin Muggle harisa.”<br />
<br />
“Hē Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“Shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis, shēsin Muggle takēm zi aotī heis pi kæs. Me fua harisa. Riddle. E na kalpa fis, au? Kalpava dēgo, na orilæ. Attas, o.”<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>“Riddle attanas?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, ī stanas, chāsa, spak kastú! Orrē eisnais, ēhī, pabr ītnais! Hút for hívulo, i? Hút for Slǐstrikti hívulo? Orrē aswafanais, paifā! Dy hí fú, bes lālú, mespārú tso hāsla? Pēlos, au, pēlos...”<br />
<br />
|valign=top| {{IPA|psa:!}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|efˈfi:ska:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsa:ska:i. ˈhu:ffis marˈvo:lo?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈta:in. swo:s ˈta:inaza:u}}?<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsim̥i:fu:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|de: ˈmo:rvina:u?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈtu:va marˈvo:li:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|sa:ˈso: leˈbe:? ˈʃe:sim ˈmʌgl̥ ˈsɔmʍina:i. to:r ˌʃe:siˌmʌgl̥aˈri:sa.}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈhe:mʌgl̥?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈʃe:sin ˌtakimarsiˈa:hine:s, ˌʃe:siˈmʌgl̥ takɛmziˈauti: ˈhe:spika:is. mefua:::ˈri:sa. ˈɹɪdl. enaˈka:lpafizza:u? kalˌpa:vaˈde:go:, ˈnaurila:i. ˈattazo:.}}<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>{{IPA|ˈɹɪdl ˈa:ttana:s?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈa:r i:staˈna:s, ˈtʃa:sa, spaˈka:stu! oˈre::sna:is, e:i:, pa:ˈbri:tna:is! ˈhu:ffo ˈr̥i:vuli:? ˈhu:ffor slistrikˈtʰi:vulo:? oˈre: asˈwa:fna:is, ˈpʰa:ifa:! ˈdʰi:fu:, bɛsˈla:lu, mɛsˈpa:rutso: ˈha:sla:? ˈpe:loza:u, ˈpe:los...}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Dethric_language&diff=49337Dethric language2009-09-23T19:27:07Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Consonants */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox|name=Dethric (Déthiaris)|pronounce=<span style="font: 11px GentiumAlt, Gentium">ˈðeθiɐrɨs</span>|tu=[[Ilethes]]|species=Human<br/>&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Dethrians]]|in=Dethria; lingua franca across [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|the West]]|no=''(tba)''|script=Lazeian alphabet|tree=''(tba)''<!-- Hesperidian, ... -->|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=23 Feb 2006}}<br />
<br />
'''Dethric''' is a [[Hesperidian languages|Hesperidian]] language, widely spoken in modern times as a ''lingua franca'' across the western Ilethes (the continents of [[Eresphria]], [[Canthres]], [[Arophania]] and northern and western [[Marcasia]]).<br />
<br />
==Name and genealogy==<br />
<br />
Due to nationalist and other parametric concerns, there are disputes in the scholarly circles regarding the proper naming of the language known in English as Dethric. Although Dethric is a Hesperidian language, it branched off from the original family considerably early and had developed sufficiently on its own to have become mutually unintelligible with other dalects originally spoken on Dethria by the time of the expansion into Canthres, of which pioneers the "dialect" was the dominant tongue. It is, however, traditionally considered to be the successor to the earliest attested (written) language on the continent of Dethria, largely for historical reasons ''(see [[#Early Dethric and Dethrian Dark Ages|below]])''.<br />
<br />
Dethric is properly a member of the [[South Hesperidian languages|South Hesperidian]] language sub-family, but bears closer resemblance at first sight to members of the [[Arophanic languages|Arophanic]] family due to considerable borrowing of both lexical and grammatical items and structures from the [[Classical Arithide]] of the [[Lazeian Empire]]. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Dethric and Dethrian Dark Ages===<br />
<br />
{{seealso|#Early syllabary}}<br />
<br />
===Hagea-Vichau rivalry===<br />
<br />
===Influence of Lazeian Empire and subsequent Middle Dethric===<br />
<br />
The Dethric of the Dark Ages was to become Middle Dethric through the rejuvenating influence of the Lazeian Empire, the world's richest and most powerful state at the time. With its rich philosophical heritage and diverse expressive possibilities, Classical Arithide greatly enriched the Dethric tongue, much as French did for English in the centuries after the Norman conquest. Previously obscure concepts were now introduced, and the language gained a significant degree of subtlety, nuance and variation. In addition to that, writing was also reintroduced to the Dethrians, with the [[Lazeian alphabet]] modified and adapted for the sounds of Dethric.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|#Lazeian alphabet}}<br />
<br />
===Dethric in modern times===<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{seealso|#Spelling reform}}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="margin-left: 50px; text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=19 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɱ}}</span> || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɲ}}</span> || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ŋ}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || || || || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʒ}} || || || || {{IPA|ɣ}}</span> || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || {{IPA|w}} || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Fricativised plosives====<br />
<br />
All historic plosives have been fricativised, and are so reflected in the orthography (historic {{IPA|[g]}} has been lost except before front vowels). Where the velar plosives ({{IPA|[k], [g]}}) appear they have been reduced from labialised velars ({{IPA|[kʷ], [gʷ]}}); a {{IPA|[g]}} before an {{IPA|[n]}} generally assimilates in nasality.<br />
<br />
The voiceless alveolar fricative phoneme ({{IPA|[s]}}) also varies sporadically to its voiced counterpart intervocalically, and when occurring as the last sound in a word, plosivises (de-fricativises) the following fricative if there is one, e.g. "anas thumen" is pronounced {{IPA|[ɐˈnastʊmɞn]}}; the palatal fricative ({{IPA|[ʃ]}}) is uncommon but occurrent. The above consonants may geminate (although gemination of {{IPA|[v], [g]}} and {{IPA|[ð]}} are rare); the voiceless glottal fricative phoneme ({{IPA|[h]}}), which occurs only word-initially and has been lost intervocalically, may not.<br />
<br />
====Sonorants====<br />
<br />
The lateral approximant ({{IPA|[l]}}) is what is known as a "clear l", The nasal stops ({{IPA|[m], [n]}}) may assimilate regressively to each other or the following consonant (the velar nasal is an allophone of the alveolar nasal). The trill approximant ({{IPA|[r]}}) is akin to the Italian.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
''(table here)''<br />
<br />
''(vowel variation + evolution from basic vowels)'' (note see also reductionism)<br />
<br />
====Reductionism====<br />
<br />
Dethric vowels have been affected by reductionism, and this change is most apparent in the orthography (and especially in romanisation), where modern monophthongs are represented by digraphs depicting historical diphthongs, and reduced vowels are represented by glyphs historically denoting full-quality sounds. Stressed vowels may lengthen slightly. The unrounded low vowel varies between central and back position; the close-mid front vowel may vary to open-mid position; all non-high vowels potentially reduce even further to a schwa. Vowels may exert harmonising influence on one another, although this process has generally become significantly less productive in recent years.<br />
<br />
==Writing and orthography==<br />
<br />
===Early syllabary===<br />
<br />
===Alistrian alphabet===<br />
<br />
===Lazeian alphabet===<br />
<br />
===Spelling reform===<br />
<br />
Before, Dethric was spelt much as it was pronounced in the [[Dethrian Middle Ages]], despite the major changes that spoken Dethric had undergone (q.v. above), leading to a situation where Dethric fricatives were spelt with letters that represented plosives, while extant letters for fricatives in the alphabet lay unused. This disjuncture with the rest of the Lazeian world created the impetus for a major spelling overhaul, conveniently helped by a disruptive war with its neighbours (see [[War of the Red Letters]]). <br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
===Morphology, morphosyntax and word order===<br />
<br />
===Nouns and pronouns===<br />
<br />
====Declensions====<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
====Aspect, mood and tense====<br />
<br />
====Causativity and transitivity====<br />
<br />
===Adjectives and adverbs===<br />
<br />
==Sample text and translation==<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Ethnography of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Ilethes]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Artya&diff=49333Artya2009-09-23T19:16:38Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Artya''' {{IPA|['ɑ:tjə]}} ([[Dethric language|Dethric]], [[Arithide language|Arithide]], [[Kiryeb language|Kiryeb]] {{IPA|[ar'tja]}}) or '''Artyan Sea''' is a sea in the northern reaches of [[Ilethes]] bounded by the continents of [[Eresphria]], [[Marcasia]] and [[Istheusia]]. The sea also borders the polar [[Reor Camoresis]] to the north of Eresphria; it is linked to the [[Pelas]] by the [[Bidan Channel]], and to the [[As am Iraph]] by both the [[Deis Paphresis]] and the [[Armagnol Strait]].<br />
<br />
The sea's location between the frigid north pole and the warm [[Marcasia]]n continent and the adjacent [[As am Iraph]] gives rise to its rather choppy character in the west; in the east, bounded by the cooler [[Istheusia]]n landmass, the Artya is noticeably calmer, more balmy, and more conducive to trade: it has indeed been used as a trade route between the [[Carabaean Empire|Carabaean]] and [[Nospheratic Empire|Nospheratic]] empires of old (see [[Ilethes in the Classical Age]] for more).<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Parseltongue-inspired&diff=49332Parseltongue-inspired2009-09-23T18:59:32Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Example passage */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox|name=Parseltongue-inspired (Fispa)|pronounce=ˈfispa:|tu=''Harry Potter'' world|species=Ophidic<br/>(snakes and snake-likes)|in=All over the HP world|no=''unknown''|script=''n.a.''|tree=Isolate|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=July 2005}}<br />
<br />
The '''Parseltongue''' referred to in this article refers to '''Parseltongue-inspired''', a hypothetical form of [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Parseltongue]]. Because the tongue has no written form, the text samples appearing hereafter are in romanised form. This language is an inflecting accusative language with a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
Being a language spoken by snakes and the like, Parseltongue, while having the complete basic plosive repertoire ({{IPA|[p]/[b] [t]/[d], [k]/[g]}}), is rich in sibilants and other fricatives, which occur at a far higher frequency. Plosives also assimilate frequently to neighbouring fricatives or sonorants. <br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=13 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiodental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|dz}} || || {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || {{IPA|ʍ}} || {{IPA|w}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Assimilation====<br />
<br />
Due to the inherent tendency of snakes (and hence their human inheritors of Parsetongue) to fricativise sounds, plosives commonly assimilate to neighbouring continuants (including aspirate stops), even across word boundaries, except where plosives are geminate. Regressive assimilation is the most common, and changes of the following types have been observed:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[p]}} + ''fricative'' = labialised fricative (''e.g.'' '''pf''' = '''f<sup>w</sup>''')<br />
*{{IPA|[b]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[v]}} + voiced fricative (''e.g.'' '''bth''' = '''vð''')<br />
**Occasionally, complete assimilation occurs, e.g. '''vð''' becomes '''ðð'''.<br />
*{{IPA|[t]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[d]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate voice fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[k]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[x]}} + fricative = geminate fricative in certain cases<br />
<br />
When followed by a {{IPA|[h]}}, whether or not separated by a vowel or diphthong, plosives are aspirated, eliding the {{IPA|[h]}}, and in some progressive dialects fricativise.<br />
<br />
*E.g. {{IPA|[t]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = {{IPA|[tʰ]}} or {{IPA|[θ]}}<br />
<br />
The velar plosives exhibit a slightly irregular pattern of fricativisation, and examples as illustrated below have been noted:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[k/k]}} (i.e. across word boundaries) = {{IPA|[χ]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[g]}} is frequently elided<br />
<br />
With sonorants, devoicing frequently occurs before a fricative:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[m]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''m'''''<br />
*{{IPA|[r]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''r''''' or {{IPA|[hr]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[l]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''l''''' or {{IPA|[hl]}}<br />
**{{IPA|[l]}} + ''fricative'' sometimes causes the {{IPA|[l]}} to vocalise to an {{IPA|[u]}}<br />
<br />
Frequently, intervocalic {{IPA|[h]}} is elided.<br />
<br />
In the construction of the past tense (''see also [[#Verbs|Verbs]] below''), assimilation takes place regularly with consonant-stem verbs. In the text example provided [[#Example passage|below]], the past tense of "to like" is ''hinneis''; the stem of the verb is actually ''hil-'', but with the adding of the past tense suffix ''-n-'', the ''-l-'' of the stem completely assimilates, resulting in a geminate ''nn''.<br />
<br />
{{Seealso|#Diphthongs}}<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue vowels are generally ''voiceless'', unless preceded or followed by a nasal({{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}) or liquid ({{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}). They also have phonemic length, but the distinction is not usually made as speakers generally lengthen and shorten vowels at will, or elide them; only lengthening is substantially common, however, given the tendency of Parseltongue speakers to speak slowly. Occasionally, when two identical vowels occur consecutively (which happens only when they are across a word boundary or when an intermediate consonant, usually {{IPA|[h]}}, has been elided), the resulting sound may be four times as long as normally due to such arbitrary lengthening.<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=9 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
The above table shows the phonemic vowels in Parseltongue. Among them, {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} have allophones of {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} respectively.<br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had four diphthongs, {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[ei]}}, {{IPA|[ao]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}. In modern times, only {{IPA|[ai]}} has remained unchanged over the years, while {{IPA|[ei]}} has become {{IPA|[e:]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} has become {{IPA|[o:]}} and {{IPA|[ao]}} has taken the place of {{IPA|[au]}}, leaving only two.<br />
<br />
Diphthongs, like monophthongs, can also be lengthened, albeit in their case only for the first component vowel. For example, when {{IPA|[ai]}} is so lengthened, the resulting sound combination (no longer a diphthong, but two separate syllables) is {{IPA|[a:.i]}}.<br />
<br />
Arbitrary lengthening sometimes also alters the quality of Parseltongue diphthongs, when the next vowel (irrespective of whether there is an intervening consonant) is identical to the second component in the diphthong. E.g. ''arsiæ hinneis'' "my sister liked" {{IPA|[ar.si.ˈai ˈhin.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:i ˈhi.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:.hi.ne:s]}} (as though one word).<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue, having no native script, is romanised with English consonants and Italian vowels.<br />
<br />
Vowels that cannot be reduced or elided are marked with an acute accent ( ́), while stress is normally unmarked. In the rare cases where a vowel is prohibited from arbitrary lengthening, a breve is used to mark the vowel.<br />
<br />
The full alphabet of 22 letters used to romanise Parseltongue is as follows (sounds in IPA):<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || Letter || Sound || Digraph || Sound <br />
|-<br />
| Aa || {{IPA|a}} || Mm || {{IPA|m}} || Ai || {{IPA|ai}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ææ || {{IPA|ai}} || Nn || {{IPA|n}} || Ao || {{IPA|au}} <br />
|-<br />
| Bb || {{IPA|b}} || Oo || {{IPA|o}} || Au || {{IPA|o:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Dd || {{IPA|d}} || Pp || {{IPA|p}} || Br{{footnote|2}} || {{IPA|bɯr}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ee || {{IPA|e}} || Rr || {{IPA|r}} || Ch || {{IPA|tʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ff || {{IPA|f}} || Ss || {{IPA|s}} || Ei || {{IPA|e:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Gg || {{IPA|g}} || Tt || {{IPA|t}} || Hw || {{IPA|ʍ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Hh || {{IPA|h}} || Uu || {{IPA|u}} || Sh || {{IPA|ʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ii || {{IPA|i}} || Vv || {{IPA|v}} || Ts || {{IPA|ts}} <br />
|-<br />
| Kk || {{IPA|k}} || Ww || {{IPA|w}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ll || {{IPA|l}} || Yy{{footnote|1}} || {{IPA|ɯ}} <br />
|}<br />
{{footnote|1}} If, when {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides in everyday speech, the preceding plosive is immediately followed by a fricative, assimilation takes place. When voiced plosives are followed by {{IPA|[h]}}, they are aspirated, e.g. ''dy hí'' "and who-ACC" {{IPA|[dɯhi]}} > {{IPA|[dhi]}} > {{IPA|[dʰi]}}.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} Historic {{IPA|[r̩]}} unpacked itself to become {{IPA|[ɯr]}}. When followed by a vowel, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides and the digraph becomes the consonant cluster {{IPA|[br]}}.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
::''A fictional history involving J. K. Rowling's magical world in the'' Harry Potter ''series''<br />
<br />
Romanisation of Parseltongue for writing was first done by English wizards in the 17th century, by the principle of having, as far as possible, one letter to one sound without using letters outside the basic Roman alphabet or extraneous diacritics. There is one odd extra letter, &lt;æ&gt;, adopted from the Icelandic alphabet, to represent the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, but only where it denotes the first person genitive case (e.g. ''arsi'', sister; ''arsiæ'', my sister), the first-person verb ending (''-æ''), or the third-person masculine one (''-æs''). Besides the logically understandable diphthongs, digraphs are historically explicable:<br />
<br />
*'''ch''' and '''sh''' were written as in English<br />
*'''ts''' was adopted from romanisation of Greek and Russian<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
Basic Parseltongue word order is [[Subject Object Verb]], i.e. ''Sam eats oranges'' would be, literally translated, "Sam oranges eats", although, unlike most SOV languages, it makes use of pre- instead of postpositions.<br />
<br />
Modifiers, including genitives, precede head nouns and verbs; more generally, subordinate clauses precede the particles that mark them, e.g. where English would have ''I thought that he was dead'' Parseltongue would say ''he was-dead that I-thought''. In that same vein, verbs precede their auxiliaries, going by the logic that, for example, the progressive verb "is driving" is a type of progressive aspect ('' to be -ing'') instead of a type of driving, since the verb inflection behaves according to the auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue does not mark nouns for gender or number, and, consequently, neither do adjectives, although the historical loss of such inflection has not occurred with pronouns, which survive in fossilised forms today, much as in English ''(see [[#Pronouns]] below)''. Inflection does survive in the case system, however, albeit barely, distinguishing the common, genitive and ablative cases (these latter also undergoing attrition). As with gender and number distinctions, pronouns have fossilised other once-marked cases like the dative (though not the locative) and the accusative.<br />
<br />
====Declension====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had three noun declension systems for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, each of which exhibited a fair degree of variation depending on the ending of the noun stem, through processes such as assimilation to achieve homophony. Later systematic analogical readjustments and phonetic attrition, however, served to level out the differences between the various case endings within genders (including the plural), spreading across genders as well. This resulted in the gradual fudging of the boundaries between different gender categories, culminating in their eventual loss, and the stabilisation of the one remaining declension paradigm today.<br />
<br />
=====Common case=====<br />
<br />
The common case is used, with the appropriate particles or prepositions in Parseltongue for the nominative, accusative, dative, locative, instrumental and vocative cases (the surviving genitive and ablative cases are discussed below), and is the basic form of the noun. <br />
<br />
=====Genitive case=====<br />
<br />
The genitive case marker, originally ''-VtV'', where ''V'' stands for a vowel homophonous in rounding and height with the last or predominant vowel in the stem, has gradually simplified to the near-clitic case marker ''-ti'' widespread today (ignoring subsequent phonological processes that change the ending further). <br />
<br />
=====Ablative case=====<br />
<br />
The ablative case has survived in its original form (''-igo'' or ''-ego'' depending on the height of the stem's dominant or last vowel) due to the analogy with the ablative case in the pronouns, although the general tendency is, now, to standardise both to ''-ego''. Besides being used for expressing movement away from and relation to (like the english words "concerning" or "about"), the ablative is also used to mark the standard of comparison with comparative adjectives: "him" in ''taller than him'' is marked ablatively ''(see also [[#Comparative adjectives]] below).<br />
<br />
====Pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====Personal pronouns=====<br />
<br />
As in English, gender in pronouns is only marked with the third-person, but unlike it Parseltongue marks the third-person plural as well, and compounds the gender endings to indicate that a group consists of more than one gender.<br />
<br />
(pronoun paradigm here)<br />
<br />
=====Demonstrative and relative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The demonstrative and relative pronouns in Parseltongue are relatively simply constructed, inflecting for only 2 cases each, possibly due to the fact that the demonstratives are omitted in most cases where they are concomitant with the noun to which they refer, and the relatives (a relatively modern invention through contact with English, an SVO language) can be omitted as well by placing the modifying verbs before them (e.g. ''shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis'' "that-one whom my-sister liked" is usually said as ''arsiæ hinneis shēsin'' in the mould of other SOV languages.<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Demonstrative Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| This ||style="text-align: center;"| com.{{footnote|1}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tasin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl.{{footnote|2}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tadego<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| That ||style="text-align: center;"| com. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shēsin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shedego<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Relative Pronouns{{footnote|3}}<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Who ||style="text-align: center;"| nom.{{footnote|4}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc.{{footnote|5}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Which ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| When ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Where ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Whose ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| How ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Horēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hórim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Common case<br/><br />
{{footnote|2}} Ablative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|3}} Relative pronouns, with the exceptions of ''who'' and ''which'', are formed directly from the corresponding interrogatives.<br/><br />
{{footnote|4}} Nominative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|5}} Accusative case<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
=====Interrogative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronouns are distinct from the relative pronouns, unlike in English, and, because of their nature as being only interrogative, are invariable. All Parseltongue interrogatives begin with a ''h'' (which in certain dialects has undergone regular fortition to {{IPA|[s]}}).<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| English<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hí ||style="text-align: center;"| Who<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hē ||style="text-align: center;"| What<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hás ||style="text-align: center;"| When<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hán ||style="text-align: center;"| Why<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hút ||style="text-align: center;"| Where<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hití ||style="text-align: center;"| Whose<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hór ||style="text-align: center;"| How<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
====Aspect, mood and tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
==Example passage==<br />
<br />
The following example passage of Parseltongue is a translation of the Parseltongue dialogue between Tom Marvolo Riddle and Morfin, recorded in English in ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'', pp.341-2:<br />
<br />
{|style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 100%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 30%"| Phonetic transcription<br />
|-<br />
|style="padding-right: 8px;"| “Stop.”<br />
<br />
“You speak it?”<br />
<br />
“Yes, I speak it. Where is Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Dead. Died years ago, didn’t he?”<br />
<br />
“Who are you, then?”<br />
<br />
“I’m Morfin, ain’t I?”<br />
<br />
“Marvolo’s son?”<br />
<br />
“’Course I am, then… I thought you was that Muggle. You look mighty like that Muggle.”<br />
<br />
“What Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“That Muggle what my sister took a fancy to, that Muggle what lives in the big house over the way. You look right like him. Riddle. But he’s older now, i’n ’e? He’s older’n you, now I think on it… He come back, see.”<br />
<br />
“Riddle came back?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, he left her, and serve her right, marrying filth! Robbed us, mind, before she ran off! Where’s the locket, eh, where’s Slytherin’s locket? Dishonoured us, she did, that little slut! And who’re you, coming here and asking questions about all that? It’s over, innit… it’s over…”<br />
|style="padding-left: 8px;" valign=top| “Psā!”<br />
<br />
“Efe iska?”<br />
<br />
“Sā, skæ. Hút fis Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Tæn. Suōs tænas, au?”<br />
<br />
“Simī hí fú?”<br />
<br />
“Dē Morfin, au?”<br />
<br />
“Tuva Marvolī ?”<br />
<br />
“Sasōl, ebei? Shēsin Muggle saum hwinæ. Tōr shēsin Muggle harisa.”<br />
<br />
“Hē Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“Shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis, shēsin Muggle takēm zi aotī heis pi kæs. Me fua harisa. Riddle. E na kalpa fis, au? Kalpava dēgo, na orilæ. Attas, o.”<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>“Riddle attanas?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, ī stanas, chāsa, spak kastú! Orrē eisnais, ēhī, pabr ītnais! Hút for hívulo, i? Hút for Slǐstrikti hívulo? Orrē aswafanais, paifā! Dy hí fú, bes lālú, mespārú tso hāsla? Pēlos, au, pēlos...”<br />
<br />
|valign=top| {{IPA|psa:!}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|efˈfi:ska:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsa:ska:i. ˈhu:ffis marˈvo:lo?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈta:in. swo:s ˈta:inaza:u}}?<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsim̥i:fu:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|de: ˈmo:rvina:u?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈtu:va marˈvo:li:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|sa:ˈso: leˈbe:? ˈʃe:sim ˈmʌgl̥ ˈsɔmʍina:i. to:r ˌʃe:siˌmʌgl̥aˈri:sa.}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈhe:mʌgl̥?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈʃe:sin ˌtakimarsiˈa:hine:s, ˌʃe:siˈmʌgl̥ takɛmziˈauti: ˈhe:spika:is. mefua:::ˈri:sa. ˈɹɪdl. enaˈka:lpafizza:u? kalˌpa:vaˈde:go:, ˈnaurila:i. ˈattazo:.}}<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>{{IPA|ˈɹɪdl ˈa:ttana:s?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈa:r i:staˈna:s, ˈtʃa:sa, spaˈka:stu! oˈre::sna:is, e:i:, pa:ˈbri:tna:is! ˈhu:ffo ˈr̥i:vuli:? ˈhu:ffor slistrikˈtʰi:vulo:? oˈre: asˈwa:fna:is, ˈpʰa:ifa:! ˈdʰi:fu:, bɛsˈla:lu, mɛsˈpa:rutso: ˈha:sla:? ˈpe:loza:u, ˈpe:los...}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Parseltongue-inspired&diff=49331Parseltongue-inspired2009-09-23T18:43:58Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Alphabet */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox|name=Parseltongue-inspired (Fispa)|pronounce=ˈfispa:|tu=''Harry Potter'' world|species=Ophidic<br/>(snakes and snake-likes)|in=All over the HP world|no=''unknown''|script=''n.a.''|tree=Isolate|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=July 2005}}<br />
<br />
The '''Parseltongue''' referred to in this article refers to '''Parseltongue-inspired''', a hypothetical form of [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Parseltongue]]. Because the tongue has no written form, the text samples appearing hereafter are in romanised form. This language is an inflecting accusative language with a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
Being a language spoken by snakes and the like, Parseltongue, while having the complete basic plosive repertoire ({{IPA|[p]/[b] [t]/[d], [k]/[g]}}), is rich in sibilants and other fricatives, which occur at a far higher frequency. Plosives also assimilate frequently to neighbouring fricatives or sonorants. <br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=13 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiodental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|dz}} || || {{IPA|tʃ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || {{IPA|ʍ}} || {{IPA|w}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Assimilation====<br />
<br />
Due to the inherent tendency of snakes (and hence their human inheritors of Parsetongue) to fricativise sounds, plosives commonly assimilate to neighbouring continuants (including aspirate stops), even across word boundaries, except where plosives are geminate. Regressive assimilation is the most common, and changes of the following types have been observed:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[p]}} + ''fricative'' = labialised fricative (''e.g.'' '''pf''' = '''f<sup>w</sup>''')<br />
*{{IPA|[b]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[v]}} + voiced fricative (''e.g.'' '''bth''' = '''vð''')<br />
**Occasionally, complete assimilation occurs, e.g. '''vð''' becomes '''ðð'''.<br />
*{{IPA|[t]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[d]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate voice fricative<br />
*{{IPA|[k]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[x]}} + fricative = geminate fricative in certain cases<br />
<br />
When followed by a {{IPA|[h]}}, whether or not separated by a vowel or diphthong, plosives are aspirated, eliding the {{IPA|[h]}}, and in some progressive dialects fricativise.<br />
<br />
*E.g. {{IPA|[t]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = {{IPA|[tʰ]}} or {{IPA|[θ]}}<br />
<br />
The velar plosives exhibit a slightly irregular pattern of fricativisation, and examples as illustrated below have been noted:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[k/k]}} (i.e. across word boundaries) = {{IPA|[χ]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[g]}} is frequently elided<br />
<br />
With sonorants, devoicing frequently occurs before a fricative:<br />
<br />
*{{IPA|[m]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''m'''''<br />
*{{IPA|[r]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''r''''' or {{IPA|[hr]}}<br />
*{{IPA|[l]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''l''''' or {{IPA|[hl]}}<br />
**{{IPA|[l]}} + ''fricative'' sometimes causes the {{IPA|[l]}} to vocalise to an {{IPA|[u]}}<br />
<br />
Frequently, intervocalic {{IPA|[h]}} is elided.<br />
<br />
In the construction of the past tense (''see also [[#Verbs|Verbs]] below''), assimilation takes place regularly with consonant-stem verbs. In the text example provided [[#Example passage|below]], the past tense of "to like" is ''hinneis''; the stem of the verb is actually ''hil-'', but with the adding of the past tense suffix ''-n-'', the ''-l-'' of the stem completely assimilates, resulting in a geminate ''nn''.<br />
<br />
{{Seealso|#Diphthongs}}<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue vowels are generally ''voiceless'', unless preceded or followed by a nasal({{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}) or liquid ({{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}). They also have phonemic length, but the distinction is not usually made as speakers generally lengthen and shorten vowels at will, or elide them; only lengthening is substantially common, however, given the tendency of Parseltongue speakers to speak slowly. Occasionally, when two identical vowels occur consecutively (which happens only when they are across a word boundary or when an intermediate consonant, usually {{IPA|[h]}}, has been elided), the resulting sound may be four times as long as normally due to such arbitrary lengthening.<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
<br />
<div style="margin-left:50px;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=9 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
The above table shows the phonemic vowels in Parseltongue. Among them, {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} have allophones of {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} respectively.<br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had four diphthongs, {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[ei]}}, {{IPA|[ao]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}. In modern times, only {{IPA|[ai]}} has remained unchanged over the years, while {{IPA|[ei]}} has become {{IPA|[e:]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} has become {{IPA|[o:]}} and {{IPA|[ao]}} has taken the place of {{IPA|[au]}}, leaving only two.<br />
<br />
Diphthongs, like monophthongs, can also be lengthened, albeit in their case only for the first component vowel. For example, when {{IPA|[ai]}} is so lengthened, the resulting sound combination (no longer a diphthong, but two separate syllables) is {{IPA|[a:.i]}}.<br />
<br />
Arbitrary lengthening sometimes also alters the quality of Parseltongue diphthongs, when the next vowel (irrespective of whether there is an intervening consonant) is identical to the second component in the diphthong. E.g. ''arsiæ hinneis'' "my sister liked" {{IPA|[ar.si.ˈai ˈhin.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:i ˈhi.ne:s]}} (two words) > {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:.hi.ne:s]}} (as though one word).<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Alphabet===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue, having no native script, is romanised with English consonants and Italian vowels.<br />
<br />
Vowels that cannot be reduced or elided are marked with an acute accent ( ́), while stress is normally unmarked. In the rare cases where a vowel is prohibited from arbitrary lengthening, a breve is used to mark the vowel.<br />
<br />
The full alphabet of 22 letters used to romanise Parseltongue is as follows (sounds in IPA):<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || Letter || Sound || Digraph || Sound <br />
|-<br />
| Aa || {{IPA|a}} || Mm || {{IPA|m}} || Ai || {{IPA|ai}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ææ || {{IPA|ai}} || Nn || {{IPA|n}} || Ao || {{IPA|au}} <br />
|-<br />
| Bb || {{IPA|b}} || Oo || {{IPA|o}} || Au || {{IPA|o:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Dd || {{IPA|d}} || Pp || {{IPA|p}} || Br{{footnote|2}} || {{IPA|bɯr}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ee || {{IPA|e}} || Rr || {{IPA|r}} || Ch || {{IPA|tʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ff || {{IPA|f}} || Ss || {{IPA|s}} || Ei || {{IPA|e:}} <br />
|-<br />
| Gg || {{IPA|g}} || Tt || {{IPA|t}} || Hw || {{IPA|ʍ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Hh || {{IPA|h}} || Uu || {{IPA|u}} || Sh || {{IPA|ʃ}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ii || {{IPA|i}} || Vv || {{IPA|v}} || Ts || {{IPA|ts}} <br />
|-<br />
| Kk || {{IPA|k}} || Ww || {{IPA|w}} <br />
|-<br />
| Ll || {{IPA|l}} || Yy{{footnote|1}} || {{IPA|ɯ}} <br />
|}<br />
{{footnote|1}} If, when {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides in everyday speech, the preceding plosive is immediately followed by a fricative, assimilation takes place. When voiced plosives are followed by {{IPA|[h]}}, they are aspirated, e.g. ''dy hí'' "and who-ACC" {{IPA|[dɯhi]}} > {{IPA|[dhi]}} > {{IPA|[dʰi]}}.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} Historic {{IPA|[r̩]}} unpacked itself to become {{IPA|[ɯr]}}. When followed by a vowel, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides and the digraph becomes the consonant cluster {{IPA|[br]}}.<br />
<br />
===History===<br />
<br />
::''A fictional history involving J. K. Rowling's magical world in the'' Harry Potter ''series''<br />
<br />
Romanisation of Parseltongue for writing was first done by English wizards in the 17th century, by the principle of having, as far as possible, one letter to one sound without using letters outside the basic Roman alphabet or extraneous diacritics. There is one odd extra letter, &lt;æ&gt;, adopted from the Icelandic alphabet, to represent the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, but only where it denotes the first person genitive case (e.g. ''arsi'', sister; ''arsiæ'', my sister), the first-person verb ending (''-æ''), or the third-person masculine one (''-æs''). Besides the logically understandable diphthongs, digraphs are historically explicable:<br />
<br />
*'''ch''' and '''sh''' were written as in English<br />
*'''ts''' was adopted from romanisation of Greek and Russian<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
Basic Parseltongue word order is [[Subject Object Verb]], i.e. ''Sam eats oranges'' would be, literally translated, "Sam oranges eats", although, unlike most SOV languages, it makes use of pre- instead of postpositions.<br />
<br />
Modifiers, including genitives, precede head nouns and verbs; more generally, subordinate clauses precede the particles that mark them, e.g. where English would have ''I thought that he was dead'' Parseltongue would say ''he was-dead that I-thought''. In that same vein, verbs precede their auxiliaries, going by the logic that, for example, the progressive verb "is driving" is a type of progressive aspect ('' to be -ing'') instead of a type of driving, since the verb inflection behaves according to the auxiliary.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Parseltongue does not mark nouns for gender or number, and, consequently, neither do adjectives, although the historical loss of such inflection has not occurred with pronouns, which survive in fossilised forms today, much as in English ''(see [[#Pronouns]] below)''. Inflection does survive in the case system, however, albeit barely, distinguishing the common, genitive and ablative cases (these latter also undergoing attrition). As with gender and number distinctions, pronouns have fossilised other once-marked cases like the dative (though not the locative) and the accusative.<br />
<br />
====Declension====<br />
<br />
Historically, Parseltongue had three noun declension systems for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, each of which exhibited a fair degree of variation depending on the ending of the noun stem, through processes such as assimilation to achieve homophony. Later systematic analogical readjustments and phonetic attrition, however, served to level out the differences between the various case endings within genders (including the plural), spreading across genders as well. This resulted in the gradual fudging of the boundaries between different gender categories, culminating in their eventual loss, and the stabilisation of the one remaining declension paradigm today.<br />
<br />
=====Common case=====<br />
<br />
The common case is used, with the appropriate particles or prepositions in Parseltongue for the nominative, accusative, dative, locative, instrumental and vocative cases (the surviving genitive and ablative cases are discussed below), and is the basic form of the noun. <br />
<br />
=====Genitive case=====<br />
<br />
The genitive case marker, originally ''-VtV'', where ''V'' stands for a vowel homophonous in rounding and height with the last or predominant vowel in the stem, has gradually simplified to the near-clitic case marker ''-ti'' widespread today (ignoring subsequent phonological processes that change the ending further). <br />
<br />
=====Ablative case=====<br />
<br />
The ablative case has survived in its original form (''-igo'' or ''-ego'' depending on the height of the stem's dominant or last vowel) due to the analogy with the ablative case in the pronouns, although the general tendency is, now, to standardise both to ''-ego''. Besides being used for expressing movement away from and relation to (like the english words "concerning" or "about"), the ablative is also used to mark the standard of comparison with comparative adjectives: "him" in ''taller than him'' is marked ablatively ''(see also [[#Comparative adjectives]] below).<br />
<br />
====Pronouns====<br />
<br />
=====Personal pronouns=====<br />
<br />
As in English, gender in pronouns is only marked with the third-person, but unlike it Parseltongue marks the third-person plural as well, and compounds the gender endings to indicate that a group consists of more than one gender.<br />
<br />
(pronoun paradigm here)<br />
<br />
=====Demonstrative and relative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The demonstrative and relative pronouns in Parseltongue are relatively simply constructed, inflecting for only 2 cases each, possibly due to the fact that the demonstratives are omitted in most cases where they are concomitant with the noun to which they refer, and the relatives (a relatively modern invention through contact with English, an SVO language) can be omitted as well by placing the modifying verbs before them (e.g. ''shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis'' "that-one whom my-sister liked" is usually said as ''arsiæ hinneis shēsin'' in the mould of other SOV languages.<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Demonstrative Pronouns<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| This ||style="text-align: center;"| com.{{footnote|1}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tasin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl.{{footnote|2}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Tadego<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| That ||style="text-align: center;"| com. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shēsin<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| abl. ||style="text-align: center;"| Shedego<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!colspan=3| Relative Pronouns{{footnote|3}}<br />
|-<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%" colspan=2| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Who ||style="text-align: center;"| nom.{{footnote|4}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc.{{footnote|5}} ||style="text-align: center;"| Takím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Which ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Nadím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| When ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hásim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Where ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Húdim<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| Whose ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hidím<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;" rowspan=2| How ||style="text-align: center;"| nom. ||style="text-align: center;"| Horēm<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| acc. ||style="text-align: center;"| Hórim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Common case<br/><br />
{{footnote|2}} Ablative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|3}} Relative pronouns, with the exceptions of ''who'' and ''which'', are formed directly from the corresponding interrogatives.<br/><br />
{{footnote|4}} Nominative case<br/><br />
{{footnote|5}} Accusative case<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
=====Interrogative pronouns=====<br />
<br />
The interrogative pronouns are distinct from the relative pronouns, unlike in English, and, because of their nature as being only interrogative, are invariable. All Parseltongue interrogatives begin with a ''h'' (which in certain dialects has undergone regular fortition to {{IPA|[s]}}).<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%"| English<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hí ||style="text-align: center;"| Who<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hē ||style="text-align: center;"| What<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hás ||style="text-align: center;"| When<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hán ||style="text-align: center;"| Why<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hút ||style="text-align: center;"| Where<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hití ||style="text-align: center;"| Whose<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: center;"| Hór ||style="text-align: center;"| How<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
====Aspect, mood and tense====<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
==Example passage==<br />
<br />
The following example passage of Parseltongue is a translation of the Parseltongue dialogue between Tom Marvolo Riddle and Morfin, recorded in English in ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'', pp.341-2:<br />
<br />
{|style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 100%;"<br />
!style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| English ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%"| Parseltongue ||style="background: #dfdfdf; width: 30%"| Phonetic transcription<br />
|-<br />
|style="padding-right: 8px;"| “Stop.”<br />
<br />
“You speak it?”<br />
<br />
“Yes, I speak it. Where is Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Dead. Died years ago, didn’t he?”<br />
<br />
“Who are you, then?”<br />
<br />
“I’m Morfin, ain’t I?”<br />
<br />
“Marvolo’s son?”<br />
<br />
“’Course I am, then… I thought you was that Muggle. You look mighty like that Muggle.”<br />
<br />
“What Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“That Muggle what my sister took a fancy to, that Muggle what lives in the big house over the way. You look right like him. Riddle. But he’s older now, i’n ’e? He’s older’n you, now I think on it… He come back, see.”<br />
<br />
“Riddle came back?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, he left her, and serve her right, marrying filth! Robbed us, mind, before she ran off! Where’s the locket, eh, where’s Slytherin’s locket? Dishonoured us, she did, that little slut! And who’re you, coming here and asking questions about all that? It’s over, innit… it’s over…”<br />
|style="padding-left: 8px;" valign=top| “Psā!”<br />
<br />
“Efe iska?”<br />
<br />
“Sā, skæ. Hút fis Marvolo?”<br />
<br />
“Tæn. Suōs tænas, au?”<br />
<br />
“Simī hí fú?”<br />
<br />
“Dē Morfin, au?”<br />
<br />
“Tuva Marvolī ?”<br />
<br />
“Sasōl, ebei? Shēsin Muggle saum hwinæ. Tōr shēsin Muggle harisa.”<br />
<br />
“Hē Muggle?”<br />
<br />
“Shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis, shēsin Muggle takēm zi aotī heis pi kæs. Me fua harisa. Riddle. E na kalpa fis, au? Kalpava dēgo, na orilæ. Attas, o.”<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>“Riddle attanas?”<br />
<br />
“Ar, ī stanas, chāsa, spak kastú! Orrē eisnais, ēhī, pabr ītnais! Hút for hívulo, i? Hút for Slǐstrikti hívulo? Orrē aswafanais, paifā! Dy hí fú, bes lālú, mespārú tso hāsla? Pēlos, au, pēlos...”<br />
<br />
|valign=top| {{IPA|psa:!}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|efˈfi:ska:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsa:ska:i. ˈhu:ffis marˈvo:lo?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈta:in. swo:s ˈta:inaza:u?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈsim̥i:fu:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|de: ˈmo:rvina:u?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈtu:va marˈvo:li:?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|sa:ˈso: leˈbe:? ˈʃe:sim ˈmʌgl̥ ˈsɔmʍina:i. to:r ˌʃe:siˌmʌgl̥aˈri:sa.}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈhe:mʌgl̥?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈʃe:sin ˌtakimarsiˈa:hine:s, ˌʃe:siˈmʌgl̥ takɛmziˈzuti: ˈhe:spika:is. mefua:::ˈri:sa. ˈɹɪdl. enaˈka:lpafizza:u? kalˌpa:vaˈde:go:, ˈnaurila:i. ˈatazo:.}}<br />
<br />
<br/><br/>{{IPA|ˈɹɪdl ˈa:tana:s?}}<br />
<br />
{{IPA|ˈa: ri:staˈna:s, ˈtʃa:sa, spaˈka:stu! oˈre:sna:is, e:, pa:ˈbri:tna:is! ˈhu:ffo ˈr̥i:vuli:? ˈhu:ffor slistrikˈtʰi:vulo:? oˈre: asˈwa:fna:is, ˈpʰa:ifa:! ˈdʰi:fu:, bɛsˈla:lu, mɛsˈpa:rutso: ˈha:sla:? ˈpe:loza:u, ˈpe:los...}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Modern_Arithide&diff=49330Modern Arithide2009-09-23T18:37:42Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{main|Arithide language}}<br />
<br />
'''Modern Arithide''' (Arithide '''''Arithīde Oreris''''' {{IPA|[arɯ'θi:de 'orəris]}}) refers to the varieties of the [[Arithide language]] spoken in the modern era. Arithide is spoken as a first language by over 580 million people in [[Arithia]] and another 170 million across 14 other states in [[Marcasia]] where the language has official status, and of these, more than 600 million are native, ethnic [[Areth]] speakers. A further estimated 350 million speak it as a second or third language, mainly centred in and around [[Dethria]] and southern [[Marcasia]] where the sociocultural influence of the [[Lazeian Empire]] is still felt, bringing the total number of speakers of Arithide to approximately 1.1 billion people today across the world.<br />
<br />
The standard and official language of [[Arithia]] is '''Standard Modern Arithide''', essentially the speech of modern [[Lazea]], the capital, but which incorporates and preserves various regional elements, as well as reviving certain [[classicism]]s. The Arithide spoken outside [[Arithia]] is generally the standard tongue, except in the southern [[Marcasia]]n states, where holdover local dialects from the imperial era are strongly rooted. In [[Arithia]] itself, however, there exists a significant diglossia, particularly in the historic cities of northeastern [[Cadaeria]], between the written language, which is universally the standard form, and the spoken one, which is usually the local dialect. Further west and south, however, especially in secondary, regional cities, another phenomenon is prominent: the erosion of the local dialect in favour of the more prestigious standard.<br />
<br />
As the standard tongue came into being ''de facto'', by virtue of being the langauge of the capital of the [[Arithia]]n republic, and not through the efforts of any standardisation body, there is no official regulatory body charged with standardising usage, vocabulary, grammar and orthography. Similarly to [[Modern English|English]], however, the language regulates itself through the standardising effects of the print and broadcast media, particularly through the authority of four major dictionaries, the ''[[Renquau Dictionary of the Arithide Language|Renquau]]'', ''[[Anvers Comprehensive Dictionary|Anvers]]'', ''[[Caema Compendium|Caema]]'' and ''[[Complete Dictionary of Modern Arithide|Līs]]''. The first three are compiled and published by eponymous universities, while the last is published by the [[Lazea]]n broadsheet ''[[Līs Ōrēs]]'' (hence the common appellation).<br />
<br />
==Phonological system==<br />
<br />
The phonology of Modern Arithide is notable for its large numbers of both consonants and vowels, although its phonemic repertoire is smaller due to the high degree of allophony.<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
The table below represents the sounds present in the standard Modern Arithide, secondarily distinguishing between the 22 phonemic consonants, which are in black, and the 9 non-phonemic (purely allophonic) consonants, which are greyed out. The distinction between the aspirated and unaspirated voiceless plosives (i.e. ''pʰ, tʰ, kʰ'' vs. ''p, t, k''), although not phonemically distinguished&mdash;the former set appears before front vowels, and the latter before others&mdash;is notable for its recreation of the [[Ancient Arithide]] aspirate-unaspirate distinction.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="margin-left: 50px; text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=19 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɱ}}</span> || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɲ}}</span> || || {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|pʰ}}</span> || || || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|tʰ}}</span> || || || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|kʰ}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʒ}} || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɣ}}</span> || <span style="color: #afafaf;">χ</span> || <span style="color: #afafaf;">ʁ</span> || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|dz}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || {{IPA|w}} || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
====Regressive assimilation of frication and phonation====<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Whereas Modern Arithide has 11 vowel letters, the short ''a e i o u y'' and the long ''ā ē ī ō ū'', the true number of its phonemic vowels is twenty, plus 4 vowels occurring only in unstressed position, and 12 diphthongs.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center; float: left;"><br />
<br />
{| style="margin-left: 50px; margin-right: 50px; text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Short Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|y}} || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ʉ}}</span> || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɯ}}</span> || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-high || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ɪ}}</span> || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ʏ}}</span> || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ʊ}}</span> || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ə}}</span><br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low-mid || || || {{IPA|ɛ}} || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|œ}}</span> || || || || || || {{IPA|ɔ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-low<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center; float: left;"><br />
<br />
{| style="margin-right: 50px;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Long Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || {{IPA|i:}} || {{IPA|y:}} || || || || <span style="color: #afafaf;">{{IPA|ʉ:}}</span> || || || || {{IPA|u:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-high || || || {{IPA|ɪ:}} || {{IPA|ʏ:}} || || || || {{IPA|ʊ:}} || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e:}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low-mid || || || {{IPA|ɛ:}} || {{IPA|œ:}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɔ:}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Near-low<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a:}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Diphthongs<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| Palatal terminus || Palatal onset || Labial terminus || Labial onset <br />
|-<br />
| ai, aj || ja || au || wa<br />
|-<br />
| ei, ej || je, jɛ || eu || we<br />
|-<br />
| ɔi || jo, jɔ || ou, ow, əʉ<br />
|-<br />
| || ju, jʉ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
<div style="clear: left;"></div><br />
<br />
====Vowel gradation and reductionism====<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Lazeic Alphabet===<br />
<br />
====New letters====<br />
<br />
===Romanisation===<br />
<br />
The official, and most ubiquitous, romanisation of Arithide is based strictly on the rule of a 1:1 correspondence in orthography between the Roman and Lazeic alphabets, such that any transcript is fully reversible; besides ignoring sound-changes that have occurred since the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]], this also leads occasionally to pronunciations strange to the Earthling ear. Alternative romanisations are mainly phonetically-based, and involve less mind-work in pronunciation.<br />
<br />
====Consonants====<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound<br />
|-<br />
| p || [p~pʰ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || f || [f] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| b || [b] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || v || [v, f] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || m || [m, ɱ]<br />
|-<br />
| t || [t~tʰ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || th || [θ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| d || [d, ð] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || dh || [ð, θ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || n || [n, ŋ]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || s || [s] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || z || [z, dz] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| ti, ch{{footnote|1}} || [ʧ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || sj, sh{{footnote|1}} || [ʃ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| di{{footnote|2}} || [ʤ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || gi{{footnote|1}} || [ʒ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| k || [k~kʰ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || h || [h] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || <br />
|-<br />
| g{{footnote|3}} || [g, j, w] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || gn, ng{{footnote|4}} || [ŋ]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || r{{footnote|5}} || [r, ʁ, s, :]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || l{{footnote|5}} || [l]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || j{{footnote|6}} || [j]<br />
|-<br />
| || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || w{{footnote|6}} || [w]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{{footnote|1}} Diphthongal sequences of ''[ti], [tj] + vowel'' gave rise to the new phoneme /ʧ/, which received its own letter in the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] period; similarly, from ''[si], [sj] + vowel'' developed /ʃ/, which also gained its own letter at the same time. The new letters are used to indicate the /ʧ/ and /ʃ/ sounds where not historically derived, such as in loanwords; or where the conditioning vowel has been lost, especially at the ends of words. Additionally, [ʃ] deriving from a word- or syllable-finally devoiced /ʒ/ is written with &lt;sh&gt; instead of &lt;gi&gt;.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} The sound /ʤ/ only occurs in syllable-initial position due to historical reasons: it arose from the diphthongal sequence ''[di], [dj] + vowel''. When &lt;di&gt; occurs without a subsequent vowel the value of the digraph is the consonant+vowel combination [di].<br />
<br />
{{footnote|3}} The post-vocalic [g]-lenition that began in the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] with [g] &gt; [ɣ] proceeded further in the modern era to give [j] after [a], [e], [i] (as well as modifying the vowel qualities) and [w] after [o]. Etymological orthographic rules dictate the preservation of &lt;g&gt; in such cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|4}} From the [gn] and [ng] sequences developed the /ŋ/ phoneme, in the former case by nasalising the [g], and in the latter by velarising the [n] and losing the [g]. Whereas historical [ng] has since received its own letter and is written with it unless the [g] was preserved by a succeeding vowel (in which case the orthographical sequence &lt;ng&gt; is retained), historical [gn] has been preserved in spelling due to the strong retentiveness of the latter [n] element, even where the sequence has coalesced to a simple [ŋ].<br />
<br />
{{footnote|5}} In combination with preceding vowels, [r] has been lost, instead giving rise to a host of (mostly) rounded long vowels; the new sounds have retained the traditional orthography using &lt;r&gt;. Analogically, a similar scenario has occurred with [l], albeit without loss of the [l] sound, resulting merely in altered vowel qualities. <br />
<br />
{{footnote|6}} The devocalisation of pre-vocalic [i] to [j] and [u] to [w] that occurred during the [[Mediaeval Age (Ilethes)|mediaeval period]] necessitated two new letters due to syllabification ambiguity and stress shifts.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
<br />
Monographs represent monophthongs; each letter may be read in up to four different ways depending on its surrounding letters and its level of stress. In the table below, the variants are listed in order of occurrence, then precedence. The last value of each always represents the unstressed realisation of the vowel concerned.<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound<br />
|-<br />
| a || [a, ɔ, ə] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ā || [a:, a]<br />
|-<br />
| e || [e, ɛ, ə] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ē || [e:~jɛ, e]<br />
|-<br />
| i || [i, ɪ, ɯ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ī || [i:, ɪ]<br />
|-<br />
| o || [o, ɔ, œ, ə] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ō || [o:, œ:, o]<br />
|-<br />
| u || [u, ʉ, ɯ] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ū || [y:, ʏ]<br />
|-<br />
| y || [y, ʏ]{{footnote|1}} <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Prevocalically, &lt;y&gt; has devocalised to [j] uniformly. This proceeded through an intermediate stage where it was pronounced [ɥ]. Postvocalically, it coalesced with its precedent to diphthongise, for which see the following table<br />
<br />
Digraphs generally indicate diphthongs. Across the board, however, spelling fossilisation has occurred, leading to irregular sound-letter correspondences even in the native script, such as &lt;oi&gt;:[ei]. [ja] &lt;ja&gt; is the only sound not to have changed at all; besides it, regularly pronounced digraphs, i.e. &lt;eu&gt;, &lt;jo&gt;, &lt;ju&gt;, &lt;ua&gt;, &lt;we&gt; and non-post-consonantal &lt;je&gt; are the result of recent spelling reforms, as is the fact that ''w''-headed digraphs occur only at the beginnings of words, while the post-consonantal allographic equivalent is ''u''-headed.<br />
<br />
{|style="margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2<br />
! Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound || || Letter || Sound<br />
|-<br />
| ae || [ai] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ea{{footnote|2}} || [a:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ja || [ja] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || {{footnote|5}} || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ua, wa || [wa] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ay || [au]<br />
|-<br />
| ai || [e:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ei || [i:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || je || [je, e:]{{footnote|4}} || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || oe || [oi] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ue, we || [we] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ey || [ei]<br />
|-<br />
| {{footnote|1}} || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || {{footnote|3}} || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || jo || [jo] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || oi || [ei] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || {{footnote|6}} || || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || oy || [ou, əʉ]<br />
|-<br />
| au || [o:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || eu || [eu~jo] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ju || [ju] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || ou || [u:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || uo, wo || [o:] || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || {{footnote|7}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} &lt;ao&gt; came to be uniformly spelt with the homophonic &lt;ay&gt; [au] by the early Modern period<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}} In certain proper names, e.g. of cities, the original diphthong was split into two syllables to preserve the distinct [ea] ending<br />
<br />
{{footnote|3}} [eo] &lt;eo&gt;merged with [jo] and hence &lt;jo&gt;<br />
<br />
{{footnote|4}} In combination with [s], the result is [ʃe:], an amalgam of the ''s''-palatalisation and the siphthong simplification<br />
<br />
{{footnote|5}} Where &lt;ua&gt; occurs, it is the result of a spelling reform that replaced all &lt;oa&gt; [ua] with <br />
<br />
{{footnote|6}} [ui] &lt;ui&gt; became [y] and never again arose subsequently<br />
<br />
{{footnote|7}} [uy] &lt;uy&gt; merged with [y:] &lt;ū&gt;<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Arithide language]]<br />
*[[Arithide Sample Text Corpus]]<br />
<br />
===Dialects of Arithide===<br />
<br />
*[[Ajatian langauge]]<br />
*[[Charian language]]<br />
*[[Docau]]<br />
*[[Erdian language]]<br />
*[[Gambrian language]]<br />
*[[Nimaean language]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category:Arophania]]<br />
[[Category:Marcasia]]<br />
[[Category:Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Denihilonihil&diff=49329User:Denihilonihil2009-09-23T18:31:48Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Arophanic language family */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Gigni de nihilo nihil, in nihilo nil posse reverti==<br />
<br />
[[Image:Blossom.jpg]]<br />
<br />
From this famous quote by the Roman poet and satirist Persius was derived my username.<br />
<br />
:'''yu.''' high school student from the tropical island of Singapore.<br /><br />
:would like to be intellectual some day.<br />
<br />
For more personal information, please see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Denihilonihil my Wikipedia userprofile].<br />
<br />
==Alternative history of East Asia and colonialism==<br />
<br />
===States===<br />
*[[Freschzierra D'Olascheiy]]<br />
**Provinces: [[Csecer]], [[Vledine]], Aldan, Arraron, Charchup, Estanove, Geldan, Lillue, Okhotsk (Ochotysque), Verkhovsk (Verchovysque)<br />
**[[Januet Empire]], [[Fresch Civil War]], [[1736 Revolution]], [[First Fresch Republic]], [[1760 Revolution]], [[Fresch Treaty of Unification]]<br />
*[[Zelma]]<br />
**[[Zelman Soviet Socialist Republic]]<br />
*Altonia<br />
*Aluevea<br />
*Dharesia (also Dharis)<br />
*Frivest<br />
<br />
===Languages===<br />
*[[Fresch]] (or Fresque; standard Csecerean dialect)<br />
**Dialects: [[Ammerian]], [[Lillian]], [[Irions]]<br />
**Descended from: [[Zaenistian]]<br />
*[[Zelman]]<br />
*Altonian<br />
*Aluevèan<br />
*Dharesian<br />
*[[Frivestian]]<br />
<br />
==Ilethes==<br />
<br />
*[[Ilethes]], the planet ([[:Category: Ilethes]])<br />
*[[References to Earth in the design of Ilethes]]<br />
<br />
===Geography===<br />
'''Continents:'''<br />
*[[Arophania]]<br />
*[[Canthres]]<br />
*[[Eresphria]]<br />
*[[Istheusia]]<br />
*[[Marcasia]]<br />
<br />
'''Oceans, Seas, Rivers'''<br />
*[[Artya]]<br />
*[[As am Iraph]]<br />
*[[Auzirean Sea]]<br />
*[[Chisthian Sea]]<br />
*[[Deis Paphresis]]<br />
*[[Hibondassian Sea]]<br />
*[[Issol A'i]]<br />
*[[Nes river]]<br />
*[[Pelassian Sea]]<br />
*[[Theph river]]<br />
*[[Thorfu]]<br />
<br />
===Anthropography===<br />
*[[Dethrians]]<br />
**[[Hagean Alliance]], later [[Hagean Empire]]<br />
**[[Vichau States]]<br />
**[[Dethria]]<br />
*[[Areth]]<br />
**[[Lazeian Empire]]<br />
**[[Arithia]]<br />
*[[Karyaba]]<br />
*[[Ivir]]<br />
*[[Andu]]<br />
<br />
==General unclassified languages==<br />
*[[Parseltongue-inspired]]<br />
<br />
==Raw material==<br />
====Arophanic language family====<br />
<br />
The table below lists the genealogy of the largest Arophanic languages in Ilethes today.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Arophanic_Family_Tree.png]]<br />
<br />
*[[Arophanic languages]]<br />
**[[Proto-Arophanic]]†<br />
**[[Arithidic languages]]<br />
***[[Proto-Arithidic]]†<br />
****[[Herallian language]]<br />
****[[Arithide language]]<br />
****[[Ancient Arithide|Ancient Arithide/Old Arithide]]†<br />
*****[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
******[[Koine Arithide]]†<br />
*******[[Middle Arithide]]†<br />
********[[Modern Arithide]]<br />
********[[Charian language]]<br />
********[[Docau language]]<br />
******[[Lazeic languages]]<br />
*******[[High Lazeic]]†<br />
********[[Lezina]]†<br />
*********[[Litsena]]<br />
*********[[Samecian language]]<br />
********[[Vethudic]]<br />
*******[[Low Lazeic]]†<br />
********[[Hyrrgonian language]]<br />
**[[Sypric languages]]<br />
***[[Proto-Sypric]]†<br />
****[[Old Sypric]]†<br />
*****[[Sypric]]†<br />
******[[New Sypric]]†<br />
*******[[Syprian language]]<br />
********[[Basson]]<br />
*****[[Ivinian language]]†<br />
****[[Torugian language]]†<br />
<br />
====Hesperidian language family====<br />
Named after the daughters of Hesperus in Roman mythology in English, the corresponding name of this language family in [[Dethric]], ''Erespha'', is the god that governs the setting of the sun in [[Dethria]]n lore.<br />
<br />
(genealogy tba)<br />
<br />
<br />
====Lytho-Grisic language family====<br />
<br />
(genealogy tba)<br />
<br />
==To Do==<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]], esp. personal pronouns table<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide numerals]]<br />
*update [[Arithide Sample Text Corpus]]<br />
*update [[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
*[[Koine Arithide]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
*[[History of Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Modern Arithide]]<br />
*[[Av (Arithide)]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Zesou Crisis]]<br />
*[[History of the Areth]]<br />
*[[Arithia]]<br />
*[[Dethric language]]<br />
*[[Time on Ilethes]]<br />
*[[Athebian calendar]]<br />
*[[Pisex Treaty]]<br />
*[[Lazea]], [[Lazaea]], [[Lazeia]]<br />
*[[Calagia]]<br />
*[[Arithian Soldierate]]<br />
*[[Tannea]]<br />
*[[Tannaea (province)]]<br />
<br />
==Assorted notifications and contributions==<br />
<br />
*[[Template:Succession box]] is now created. Free to use for rulers and dynasties of conworlds! (23 Feb 2006)<br />
*[[Template:Infobox]] is now created. Free to use for summarising languages! (23 Feb 2006)<br />
*[[Template:Consonants]] and [[Template:Vowels]] are now created and free for use in documenting phonologies! (24 Feb 2006)<br />
*[[Template:Warbox]] is now created. Free to use for conworld military conflicts! (08 Oct 2006)<br />
*[[Template:Translit]] is now created. Free to use for conlang transliteration points-to-note! (15 Oct 2006)</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=File:Arophanic_Family_Tree.png&diff=49328File:Arophanic Family Tree.png2009-09-23T18:17:32Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div></div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=49316Classical Arithide conjugation2009-09-22T18:32:48Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
==Voice and transitivity==<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
The biggest morphological difference between the "active" and "middle" verbs, naturally, is the fact that the former category can take on the '''passive voice''', while the latter cannot. The passive in Classical Arithide is formed with the prefix (unusually for a generally suffixing language) ''h(e)(n)-''. The curiously complicated citation form of this prefix is due to the fact that while the usual form used is ''he-'', as with verbs beginning with a consonant, those that begin with a vowel take either the simple ''h-'' or the longer ''hen-''. There appears to be no fast rule governing which prefix each verb takes, and each vowel-initial verb's passive form has to be learnt by heart.<br />
<br />
In addition to the '''active''', '''middle''' and '''passive''' voices, there is also the '''causative''' voice, which denotes agent A ''causing'' agent B to commit a particular action, and can be applied to verbs in any of the other three voices previously mentioned, e.g. :<br />
<br />
*''Mādou saī lydārēn.'' "Mother made sister eat."<br>Here ''lydai'' "to eat" is a middle-voice/intransitive verb causativised by the suffix ''-ārēn''. N.B. ''saī'' "sister" is always in the dative case as she is the target (i.e. indirect object) of the causative.<br />
*''Mādou saī mele lydārēn.'' "Mother made sister eat the apple."<br>Here ''lydēn'' is an active-voice/transitive verb causativised by the same suffix, resulting in the same causative form for both verbs.<br />
*''Mādou meli helydārēn.'' "Mother made the apple be eaten."<br>Here ''helydai'' is a passive verb, causativised by exactly the same suffix as before.<br />
<br />
The causative can be applied to verbs in their original aspect only, e.g. one can only causativise ''lydēn'' "to eat" in this original perfective aspect and not the imperfective ''luīdēn'' that can be derived from it; likewise causativisation happens to ''vagai'' "to go, impf." and not ''vaktai'' "to go, prfv." or ''vaksa'' "to have gone, perf.". The reason is that only the semantic value of the root verb is carried over to the causative, and all further conjugation, aspectual, modal or otherwise, is carried out on the causative suffix ''-ārēn''.<br />
<br />
A fifth voice, the '''potentive''' voice with suffix ''-ētai'', is used to express the physical ability (as opposed to permission) of an agent to commit the action in question. This voice can be appended to verbs in any of the other four voices, e.g. the following sentences:<br />
<br />
*''Mādou lydētai.'' "Mother can eat."<br />
*''Mādou mele lydētai.'' "Mother can eat an apple."<br>N.B. the potentive forms of the transitive and intransitive forms of verbs that do not take an extra infix when changing voice are identical.<br />
*''Meleu helydētai.'' "The apple can (has a physical ability to) be eaten."<br />
*''Mādou saī mele lydārētai.'' "Mother can make sister eat the apple."<br />
*''Mādou meli helydārētai.'' "Mother can make the apple be eaten."<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalān'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebīn'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'', ''-u'' and ''-y''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal and infixed between the verb stem and its voice endings: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-iz-'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eus-'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-nd-'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oum-'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ss-' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-sp- "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōn-''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, infixing ''-mn-'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''pth'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''pth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''kth'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''kth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''tth'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''tth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''tth'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''tth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''sth'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''sth'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nth'''os || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lth'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''sth'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpth'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mpth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''pth'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''nth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rkth'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rkth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmpth'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lnth'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''lth'''os{{footnote|1}} || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rreth'''os{{footnote|1}} || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''breth'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''sseth'''os{{footnote|1}} || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for all consonants form their verbal nouns by adding an epenthetic ''-e-'', i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stammethos'' etc. The only exception is with ''-ll-'', which nominalises identically to verbs in a single ''-l-''.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fi'''n'''ai, fin-, fi'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || fi''gn''ai, fign-, fi''gnes''ei<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roisāī''', sōpedāī tholthae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br><br />
''roimēn'', stem ''roim-'', perfect aspect ''roisa'', perf. participle ''rois-'', perf. ptcp. class-V pl. ''roisāī''<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorasthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorasthon'' "the person who has held (him) back", from ''sthorasos'' "having held back", from ''sthorasa'' "has held back, to hold back", in turn from ''sthorān'' "to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension V endings by replacing the ending ''-os'' with ''-on'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores solai'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''solai ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fraignāī sōpedāī'' (with impf. aspect) "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fraksāī sōpedāī'' (with perf. aspect) "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''fragnāī sōpedāī'' (with prfv. aspect) "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezusser Ganymēder'' (perf.) "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezunner Ganymēder'' (prfv.) has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezyrer Ganymēder'' (impf.).<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
===Future tense===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide has an odd, anomalous tense in its morphological system, namely the future tense, with ending ''-ma/-mai''. The use of this tense is very limited, being restricted to only the literal meaning of "ahead of time", and is used like a relative tense. I.e. even when speaking about the past, this future tense can still be used as long as the action in question took place ''after'' the point of time reference, e.g. ''Mena labi'''mai'''tho derēisa.'' "I had hoped that she would call for me." As may be observed, here where Classical Arithide uses the simple future, English with its absolute tense system uses the future perfect.<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaktho raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaktho '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaktho raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzēn, valeusēn, valindēn, valoumēn<br>valossēn, valospēn, valōnēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valthos<br>''loc.'' valthas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valthera, valon<br>''pat.'' valthis, valthion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''nos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''nethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vail'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vail'''nos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vail'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''sa'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''sos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''sthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''ārēn''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzēn, senneusēn, sennindēn, sennoumēn<br>sennossēn, sennospēn, sennōnēn <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sennethos<br>''loc.'' sennethas<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sennethera, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''emos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''enthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seinn'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seinn'''emos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seinn'''enthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''esa'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''esos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''esthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ema''', seinn'''ema'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''emos''', seinn'''emos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''enthos''', seinn'''enthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''ārēn''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{WIP}}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalēusai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalētai, kalatārēn, hegalanai, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | veriētai, veretārēn, heverenai, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebitārēn, hezebinai (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henironai, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''ārēn''', (aur'''eirēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''anai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrārēn, (thōrairēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''enai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | pariētai, pariārēn, (pareirēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''inai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiārēn, (ankieirēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigārēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=49315Classical Arithide conjugation2009-09-22T17:51:29Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Voice and transitivity */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
===Voice and transitivity===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
The biggest morphological difference between the "active" and "middle" verbs, naturally, is the fact that the former category can take on the '''passive voice''', while the latter cannot. The passive in Classical Arithide is formed with the prefix (unusually for a generally suffixing language) ''h(e)(n)-''. The curiously complicated citation form of this prefix is due to the fact that while the usual form used is ''he-'', as with verbs beginning with a consonant, those that begin with a vowel take either the simple ''h-'' or the longer ''hen-''. There appears to be no fast rule governing which prefix each verb takes, and each vowel-initial verb's passive form has to be learnt by heart.<br />
<br />
In addition to the '''active''', '''middle''' and '''passive''' voices, there is also the '''causative''' voice, which denotes agent A ''causing'' agent B to commit a particular action, and can be applied to verbs in any of the other three voices, e.g. :<br />
<br />
*''Mādou saī lydārēn.'' "Mother made sister eat."<br>Here ''lydai'' "to eat" is a middle-voice/intransitive verb causativised by the suffix ''-ārēn''. N.B. ''saī'' "sister" is always in the dative case as she is the target (i.e. indirect object) of the causative.<br />
*''Mādou saī mele lydārēn.'' "Mother made sister eat the apple."<br>Here ''lydēn'' is an active-voice/transitive verb causativised by the same suffix, resulting in the same causative form for both verbs.<br />
*''Mādou meli helydārēn.'' "Mother made the apple be eaten."<br>Here ''helydai'' is a passive verb, causativised by exactly the same suffix as before.<br />
<br />
The causative can be applied to verbs in their original aspect only, e.g. one can only causativise ''lydēn'' "to eat" in this original perfective aspect and not the imperfective ''luīdēn'' that can be derived from it; likewise causativisation happens to ''vagai'' "to go, impf." and not ''vaktai'' "to go, prfv." or ''vaksa'' "to have gone, perf.". The reason is that only the semantic value of the root verb is carried over to the causative, and all further conjugation, aspectual, modal or otherwise, is carried out on the causative suffix ''-ārēn''.<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalān'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebīn'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'', ''-u'' and ''-y''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-izai'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eusai'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-ndai'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oumai'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ssai' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-spai "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōnai''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, affixing ''-mnēn/-mnai'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''ps'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''ps'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''ks'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''ss'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''ss'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''ss'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} <br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lt'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpr'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mbr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''ptr'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''ndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rks'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rks'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmbr'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''ltr'''os || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rst'''os || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''ber'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''st'''os || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for these consonants form their verbal nouns identically to the single-consonant stems, i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stantos'' (homonymous with the word for "importance") etc.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fig'''n'''ai, fign-, fig'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''ss'''ei, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, su'''ps'''ei, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roimeūm''', sōpedōi tholtae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorāsthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorāsthon'' "the person who held (him) back", from ''sthorāsos'' "having held back, who has held back", from ''sthorā'' "has held back, to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension VI endings by replacing the ending ''-os'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores soli'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''soli ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fragīēs sōpedēs'' "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fragaiēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''frageinēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezuraier Ganymēder'' "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezureiner Ganymēder'' has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezurīer Ganymēder''.<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaksae raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaksae '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaksae raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzai, valeusai, valindai, valoumai<br>valossai, valospai, valōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valtos<br>''loc.'' valtas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valter, valon<br>''pat.'' valsis, valsion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''airā''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzai, senneusai, sennindai, sennoumai<br>sennossai, sennospai, sennōnai <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sendros<br>''loc.'' sendras<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sendrer, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''eimos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mma'''<br>&lt;*sennma<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*sennmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*sennumthos &lt;*sennmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''airā''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalēusai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalētai, kalatārēn, hegalanai, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | veriētai, veretārēn, heverenai, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebiārēn, hezebinai (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henironai, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''airēn''', (aur'''eidēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''anai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrairēn, (thōraidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''enai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | pariētai, pariairēn, (pareidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''inai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiairēn, (ankieidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigairēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=49314Classical Arithide conjugation2009-09-22T17:24:43Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Imperative & cohortative */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
===Voice and transitivity===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalān'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebīn'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'', ''-u'' and ''-y''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-izai'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eusai'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-ndai'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oumai'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ssai' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-spai "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōnai''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, affixing ''-mnēn/-mnai'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''ps'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''ps'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''ks'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''ss'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''ss'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''ss'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} <br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lt'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpr'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mbr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''ptr'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''ndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rks'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rks'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmbr'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''ltr'''os || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rst'''os || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''ber'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''st'''os || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for these consonants form their verbal nouns identically to the single-consonant stems, i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stantos'' (homonymous with the word for "importance") etc.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fig'''n'''ai, fign-, fig'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''ss'''ei, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, su'''ps'''ei, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roimeūm''', sōpedōi tholtae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorāsthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorāsthon'' "the person who held (him) back", from ''sthorāsos'' "having held back, who has held back", from ''sthorā'' "has held back, to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension VI endings by replacing the ending ''-os'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores soli'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''soli ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fragīēs sōpedēs'' "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fragaiēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''frageinēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezuraier Ganymēder'' "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezureiner Ganymēder'' has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezurīer Ganymēder''.<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaksae raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaksae '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaksae raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzai, valeusai, valindai, valoumai<br>valossai, valospai, valōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valtos<br>''loc.'' valtas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valter, valon<br>''pat.'' valsis, valsion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''airā''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzai, senneusai, sennindai, sennoumai<br>sennossai, sennospai, sennōnai <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sendros<br>''loc.'' sendras<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sendrer, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''eimos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mma'''<br>&lt;*sennma<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*sennmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*sennumthos &lt;*sennmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''airā''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalēusai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalētai, kalatārēn, hegalanai, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | veriētai, veretārēn, heverenai, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebiārēn, hezebinai (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henironai, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''airēn''', (aur'''eidēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''anai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrairēn, (thōraidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''enai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | pariētai, pariairēn, (pareidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''inai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiairēn, (ankieidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigairēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=49279Classical Arithide declension2009-09-21T15:31:00Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Fourth declension -a */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WIP}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
<br />
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
==Grammatical cases==<br />
<br />
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftios'' "temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftios<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''oi'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēā''' <*thiftiēiae<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōm''' <*thiftioum<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēum'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tis'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tūs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''e''', thifti-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē''', thifti'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftias'' "place of temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ās'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''ior'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''iēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ātis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''aitis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a''', thifti'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai''', thifti'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings are ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir'', ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from the older ''-ydr̩'', i.e. they were originally considered part of the Old Arithide [[Old Arithide declension|"Society & Culture" declension]], but regular phonological erosion has made it a separate declension class of its own. Sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' "evil" (Class III-a) is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokirēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''au'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''īs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ium'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''iē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''e''', vokir-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''a''', vokir'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Class III-b nouns (ending in ''-rir'') take the same endings, but with ''-id-'' in the stem rather than ''-ir-'' as the preceding ''r-'' blocks rhotacism.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-a''==<br />
<br />
''Steima'' "measurement'' illustrates the declension paradigm for Class IV nouns:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeia<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēi''' <*steimaii<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aira'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ibas'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aibas'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''āī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aie''', steim'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-ra''==<br />
<br />
''Theler'' "neighbour" and ''agnon'' "doer" are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-ein'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Irregular nominatives==<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi''; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō''; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness" > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
<br />
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=49278Classical Arithide declension2009-09-21T15:30:03Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Fourth declension -a */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WIP}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
<br />
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
==Grammatical cases==<br />
<br />
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftios'' "temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftios<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''oi'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēā''' <*thiftiēiae<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōm''' <*thiftioum<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēum'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tis'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tūs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''e''', thifti-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē''', thifti'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftias'' "place of temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ās'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''ior'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''iēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ātis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''aitis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a''', thifti'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai''', thifti'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings are ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir'', ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from the older ''-ydr̩'', i.e. they were originally considered part of the Old Arithide [[Old Arithide declension|"Society & Culture" declension]], but regular phonological erosion has made it a separate declension class of its own. Sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' "evil" (Class III-a) is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokirēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''au'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''īs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ium'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''iē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''e''', vokir-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''a''', vokir'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Class III-b nouns (ending in ''-rir'') take the same endings, but with ''-id-'' in the stem rather than ''-ir-'' as the preceding ''r-'' blocks rhotacism.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-a''==<br />
<br />
''Steima'' "measurement'' illustrates the declension paradigm for Class IV nouns:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeia<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēi''' <*steimaii<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aira'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ibas'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aibas'''<br />
| -<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''āī'''<br />
| -<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aie''', steim'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-ra''==<br />
<br />
''Theler'' "neighbour" and ''agnon'' "doer" are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-ein'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Irregular nominatives==<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi''; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō''; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness" > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
<br />
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=49277Classical Arithide declension2009-09-21T15:29:12Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Fourth declension -a */ formatting</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WIP}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
<br />
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
==Grammatical cases==<br />
<br />
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftios'' "temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftios<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''oi'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēā''' <*thiftiēiae<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōm''' <*thiftioum<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēum'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tis'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tūs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''e''', thifti-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē''', thifti'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftias'' "place of temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ās'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''ior'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''iēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ātis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''aitis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a''', thifti'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai''', thifti'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings are ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir'', ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from the older ''-ydr̩'', i.e. they were originally considered part of the Old Arithide [[Old Arithide declension|"Society & Culture" declension]], but regular phonological erosion has made it a separate declension class of its own. Sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' "evil" (Class III-a) is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokirēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''au'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''īs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ium'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''iē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''e''', vokir-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''a''', vokir'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Class III-b nouns (ending in ''-rir'') take the same endings, but with ''-id-'' in the stem rather than ''-ir-'' as the preceding ''r-'' blocks rhotacism.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-a''==<br />
<br />
''Steima'' "measurement'' illustrates the declension paradigm for Class IV nouns:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeia<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēi''' <*steimaii<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aira'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ibas'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aibas'''<br />
| <br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''āī'''<br />
| -<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aie''', steim'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-ra''==<br />
<br />
''Theler'' "neighbour" and ''agnon'' "doer" are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-ein'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Irregular nominatives==<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi''; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō''; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness" > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
<br />
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=49276Classical Arithide declension2009-09-21T15:27:49Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* First declension -os */ formatting</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WIP}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
<br />
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
==Grammatical cases==<br />
<br />
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftios'' "temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 160px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftios<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''oi'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēā''' <*thiftiēiae<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōm''' <*thiftioum<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēum'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tis'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tūs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''e''', thifti-<br />
| style="width: 160px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē''', thifti'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftias'' "place of temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ās'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''ior'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''iēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ātis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''aitis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a''', thifti'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai''', thifti'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings are ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir'', ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from the older ''-ydr̩'', i.e. they were originally considered part of the Old Arithide [[Old Arithide declension|"Society & Culture" declension]], but regular phonological erosion has made it a separate declension class of its own. Sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' "evil" (Class III-a) is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokirēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''au'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''īs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ium'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''iē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''e''', vokir-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''a''', vokir'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Class III-b nouns (ending in ''-rir'') take the same endings, but with ''-id-'' in the stem rather than ''-ir-'' as the preceding ''r-'' blocks rhotacism.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-a''==<br />
<br />
''Steima'' "measurement'' illustrates the declension paradigm for Class IV nouns:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeia<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 120px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
\| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēi''' <*steimaii<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aira'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
|\ style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ibas'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aibas'''<br />
| <br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''āī'''<br />
| -<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aie''', steim'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-ra''==<br />
<br />
''Theler'' "neighbour" and ''agnon'' "doer" are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-ein'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Irregular nominatives==<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi''; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō''; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness" > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
<br />
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=49275Classical Arithide declension2009-09-21T15:26:01Z<p>Denihilonihil: reworked declensions I-IV (V to go)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WIP}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
<br />
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
==Grammatical cases==<br />
<br />
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftios'' "temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftios<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''oi'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēā''' <*thiftiēiae<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōm''' <*thiftioum<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēum'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''tūs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''e''', thifti-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ē''', thifti'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
<br />
Nouns and adjectives of the first declension take the following endings, illustrated by ''thiftias'' "place of temptation":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thiftiais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ās'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''ior'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thift'''iēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ātis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''aitis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''a''', thifti'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thifti'''ai''', thifti'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings are ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir'', ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from the older ''-ydr̩'', i.e. they were originally considered part of the Old Arithide [[Old Arithide declension|"Society & Culture" declension]], but regular phonological erosion has made it a separate declension class of its own. Sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' "evil" (Class III-a) is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokirēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''au'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''īs'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ium'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''iē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''e''', vokir-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir'''a''', vokir'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Class III-b nouns (ending in ''-rir'') take the same endings, but with ''-id-'' in the stem rather than ''-ir-'' as the preceding ''r-'' blocks rhotacism.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-a''==<br />
<br />
''Steima'' "measurement'' illustrates the declension paradigm for Class IV nouns:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeia<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 120px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
\| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēi''' <*steimaii<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aira'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
|\ style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ibas'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aibas'''<br />
| <br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''āī'''<br />
| -<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''aie''', steim'''ai-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-ra''==<br />
<br />
''Theler'' "neighbour" and ''agnon'' "doer" are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-ein'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Irregular nominatives==<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi''; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō''; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness" > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
<br />
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Talk:Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=49274Talk:Classical Arithide declension2009-09-21T15:25:51Z<p>Denihilonihil: Created page with 'The old 7th and 8th declensions are as follows: ==VII== The seventh declension is as ''vosi'' and ''libe'': {| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #ccc…'</p>
<hr />
<div>The old 7th and 8th declensions are as follows:<br />
<br />
==VII==<br />
<br />
The seventh declension is as ''vosi'' and ''libe'':<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vosi, libe<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vosīs, libēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''utē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ētē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''itē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''e''', lib'''eā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''erei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ira'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ērē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''igōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ēgēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''uī''', lib'''eī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''uītē''', lib'''eītē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''i''', vos'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ē''', vos'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
==VIII==<br />
<br />
''Moros'' "request" (cf. ''mossos'' "act of requesting"), ''minnas'' "locality of the valley" and ''syndir'' "sin" are declined as examples below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moros<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnas<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ōi'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ōi'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ōi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''is'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''um'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ōs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''itis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ērū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ā''', morer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | mor'''ōr''', mor'''or-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | mor'''ēr''', mor'''er-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minn'''ār''', minn'''ar-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minn'''aes''', minn'''aer-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | synd'''ir''', synd'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | synd'''rēr''', synd'''rēr-'''<br />
|}</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=49273Classical Arithide declension2009-09-21T13:59:09Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Irregular nominatives */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WIP}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
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For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
===Irregular nominatives===<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi''; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō''; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness" > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
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The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
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'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
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These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
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Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
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==Grammatical cases==<br />
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Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns of and adjectives in the first declension take the following endings:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōmos, thiftios<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōmēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ōi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''oi''', thifti'''ne'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ēi''', thifti'''nēi'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''i''', thifti'''m'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ō''', thifti'''ōm'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ōis''', thifti'''tis'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ūis''', thifti'''tēs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm, sōm-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''e(r)''', sōm'''e(r)-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The former in each pair is used with consonant-stem words (e.g. ''sōmos, sōm-''), while the latter with vowel-stem words (e.'''g.''' ''thiftios, thifti-'').<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}This alternation is not due to the consonant- and vowel-stem differentiation. The singular locative ending for declension I is ''-im'', in this case shown truncated to ''-i'' after an ''m-'' stem, and to ''-m'' after a vowel-stem. The plural ending (''-ōm'') truncates in the same way with ''m''-stem nouns, but not for vowel-stems.<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
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Unlike the first declension, nouns of the second declension do not distinguish endings between consonant- and vowel-stem words. An example conjugation is provided with ''sivias'' "town" below.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | siviais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ēā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | siv'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | siv'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''or'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''āis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ēis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''a''', sivi'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ē''', sivi'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from two separate older noun groups, with singular stems in either ''-yr-'' or ''-rud-'', and fall in either of two declension classes; plural stems for both are ''-id-''. The important distinction between nouns that end in the simpler ''-ir'' and more complex ''-rir'' endings (declensions III and IV respectively) must be maintained for purposes of proper declension. Besides maintaining distinctive stems, third declension nouns take endings that vary substantially from those of the fourth declension.<br />
<br />
In the third declension, besides the traditional ''-yr-'' stem, sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokidēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ō'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''in'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ae''', vokir'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ī''', vokir'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ōn''', vokir'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''y'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''y''', vok'''y(r)-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''it''', vok'''id-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
The IVth declension historically derives from the ending ''-ruder''. Phonological assimilation has taken place and reduced the reflexes to ''-rir'', but the historical form manifests itself in many places. ''Kirir'' is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kiridēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ō'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''u(d)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ēī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''īs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''iei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''ur''', kir'''ud-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''it''', kir'''id-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-er'' and ''-a'' etc.==<br />
<br />
The groups of nouns in the fifth declension decline in generally the same way, albeit with minor differences. Nouns with no ending are declined like nouns ending in ''-er''.<br />
<br />
''Theler'', ''steima'' and ''stant'' are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stanteis<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 120px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ius'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''īei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''erē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''irē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''iēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''etū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''itū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''a''', steim'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''e''', stant'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''i''', stant'''i-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Sixth declension ''-on''==<br />
<br />
The sixth declension is the only class of nouns that has variant stems: in the plural, the ''-on'' (which is actually part of the stem; the class marker is a null morpheme) fronts to become ''-ēn-''. With certain words, such as ''almenton'', the stem (without the ''-on'') has taken on a nominal meaning itself through common use and can take the endings of the VIth declension directly.<br />
<br />
Thus ''agnon'' has a declension of:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-ein'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
==Seventh declension ''-i'', ''-e'', ''-is'', ''-es''==<br />
<br />
The seventh declension is as ''vosi'' and ''libe'':<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vosi, libe<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vosīs, libēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''utē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ētē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''itē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''e''', lib'''eā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''erei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ira'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ērē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''igōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ēgēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''uī''', lib'''eī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''uītē''', lib'''eītē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''i''', vos'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ē''', vos'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Eighth declension ''-os'', ''-as'', ''-ir''==<br />
<br />
The derived nouns of the eighth declension take endings as follows in the table below. One peculiarity of these derived nouns is that they form all cases by appending the relevant case ending to their connective, as will be demonstrated by the example conjugations table further down; in ''-ir'' nouns, only the singular connective is used, except where the case endings are identical for the singular and plural, when the plural connective is also used. For this declension, the genitive, dative, locative, ablative and instrumental cases have identical endings for all three classes of nouns.<br />
<br />
Note: This declension does not cover the derived verbal nouns, whether supine, agent or patient. Declension VIII encompasses only abstract nouns derived from other nouns, as per the examples below. Verbal nouns include identifying infixes and decline according to declensions I, II etc.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -os<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -as<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -rēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ou<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōi<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ai<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōi<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ou<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōi<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -o<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -a<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -o<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ei<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ei<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ei<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ū<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ās<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ū<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -itis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ērū<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ērā<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōr, -or-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēr, -er-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ār, -ar-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -aes, -aer-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ir, -r-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -rēr, -rēr-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
''Moros'' "request" (cf. ''mossos'' "act of requesting"), ''minnas'' "locality of the valley" and ''syndir'' "sin" are declined as examples below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moros<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnas<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ōi'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ōi'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ōi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''is'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''um'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ōs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''itis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ērū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ā''', morer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | mor'''ōr''', mor'''or-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | mor'''ēr''', mor'''er-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minn'''ār''', minn'''ar-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minn'''aes''', minn'''aer-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | synd'''ir''', synd'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | synd'''rēr''', synd'''rēr-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=49272Classical Arithide declension2009-09-21T13:56:22Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Irregular nominatives */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WIP}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
<br />
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
===Irregular nominatives===<br />
<br />
The nominatives of certain nouns do not follow the declension paradigms strictly as set out above. Most notable among these are the first, fourth and fifth declension nouns that end in combinations of either a long vowel or consonant + ''-s''. This phenomenon is due to regular phonological processes, which have seen significant syncopation and elision erode affected words to their current forms. E.g.:<br />
<br />
'''Declension I'''<br />
*'''-fos > -wos > -ōs'''<br />
**''*safos'' "shade" > ''saōs'', acc. ''saō'', gen. ''savoi'', dat. ''savae'', loc. ''saōm'', abl. ''saōn'', ins. ''saftis''<br>Observe the fortition that occurs of ''-w-'' when followed by >2 vowels (''savoi'') or by a vowel other than ''-o-'' (''savae''). The original ''-f-'' is also retained in the instrumental case where the consonant that follows it obstructs the sound change. The plural is not affected similarly due to the absence of conditioning criteria.<br />
*'''(-oCos >) -oFos > ōs''' where C represents any voiced plosive, and F any voiced fricative except /v/<br />
**''*bogos'' "swelling" > ''bōs'', acc. ''bō'', gen ''bōi; the remainder are formed regularly from ''bog-''<br />
**''*orathodos'' "religious" > ''orathōs'', acc. ''orathō; the remainder are regular (''orathod-'')<br>This process also affected nominal adjectives, as shown.<br />
*'''-osos > os''' by haplology, e.g. ''*kiosos'' "gap, gulf, emptiness'' > ''kios, kios-'', otherwise regularly declined<br />
<br />
The irregularities exhibited in declensions IV and V are older, and caused more by fricativisation and general lenition than by syncope and elision. There is no tendency that can be generalised, but rather an assortment of commonly used nouns that have been phonologically eroded.<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV'''<br />
*''*dad'' "hand" > ''dadz'' > ''daz'' > ''das'', acc. ''dade/daze'', nom. pl. ''dadāī'', acc. pl. ''dadai/dazai''; the remainder are regular.<br />
**''*ad'' "sea" follows a similar path to become ''as'', but its stem was permanently altered to ''az-'', i.e. gen. ''azus'', acc. pl. ''azai'' etc.<br />
*''*vet'' "breeze" > ''vets'' > ''ves'', acc. ''vete'', gen. ''vetus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*tor'' "step" > ''tos'', acc. ''tore'', gen. ''torus'' etc. regularly<br />
*''*reg'' "day" > ''reɣ'' > ''rē'' > ''rēs''<br>The stem was permanently altered to ''rē-'', i.e. acc. ''rē'', gen. ''rēus'', acc. pl. ''rēai'' etc.<br />
*''*gent'' "bloodline" > ''gēn'', acc. ''gente'', etc. regularly<br />
*''*gjor'' "tongue" > ''iō'', acc. ''iore'', etc. regularly with stem ''ior-'' [jor]<br />
<br />
The pronominal declensions were also affected by these changes, as evidenced in the genitive singular and the possessive series (e.g. ''nes, net-'').<br />
<br />
'''Declension V'''<br />
*''*aidonr̩'' > ''aidōr'', nom. ''aidōra'', gen. ''aidonin'' etc. regularly with stem ''aidon-''<br />
*''*katasr̩'' > ''katār'', nom. ''katāra'', gen. ''katasin'' etc. regularly with stem ''katas-''<br />
<br />
In addition, there are also two Class-II nouns that exhibit irregular nominatives: ''ilēthēs'' "world", stem ''ilēthēa-''; ''itās'' "port", stem ''itāna-''.<br />
<br />
Due to the age of the processes that resulted in these irregular forms, nouns that were formed in these productive classes were not subject to such elisions.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened: e.g. the stem of ''kūs'' "proper" is actually ''kur-'', and that of ''dhīs'' "festival" is ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ū-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Grammatical cases==<br />
<br />
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns of and adjectives in the first declension take the following endings:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōmos, thiftios<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōmēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ōi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''oi''', thifti'''ne'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ēi''', thifti'''nēi'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''i''', thifti'''m'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ō''', thifti'''ōm'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ōis''', thifti'''tis'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ūis''', thifti'''tēs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm, sōm-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''e(r)''', sōm'''e(r)-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The former in each pair is used with consonant-stem words (e.g. ''sōmos, sōm-''), while the latter with vowel-stem words (e.'''g.''' ''thiftios, thifti-'').<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}This alternation is not due to the consonant- and vowel-stem differentiation. The singular locative ending for declension I is ''-im'', in this case shown truncated to ''-i'' after an ''m-'' stem, and to ''-m'' after a vowel-stem. The plural ending (''-ōm'') truncates in the same way with ''m''-stem nouns, but not for vowel-stems.<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
<br />
Unlike the first declension, nouns of the second declension do not distinguish endings between consonant- and vowel-stem words. An example conjugation is provided with ''sivias'' "town" below.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | siviais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ēā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | siv'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | siv'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''or'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''āis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ēis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''a''', sivi'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ē''', sivi'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from two separate older noun groups, with singular stems in either ''-yr-'' or ''-rud-'', and fall in either of two declension classes; plural stems for both are ''-id-''. The important distinction between nouns that end in the simpler ''-ir'' and more complex ''-rir'' endings (declensions III and IV respectively) must be maintained for purposes of proper declension. Besides maintaining distinctive stems, third declension nouns take endings that vary substantially from those of the fourth declension.<br />
<br />
In the third declension, besides the traditional ''-yr-'' stem, sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokidēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ō'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''in'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ae''', vokir'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ī''', vokir'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ōn''', vokir'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''y'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''y''', vok'''y(r)-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''it''', vok'''id-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
The IVth declension historically derives from the ending ''-ruder''. Phonological assimilation has taken place and reduced the reflexes to ''-rir'', but the historical form manifests itself in many places. ''Kirir'' is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kiridēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ō'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''u(d)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ēī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''īs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''iei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''ur''', kir'''ud-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''it''', kir'''id-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-er'' and ''-a'' etc.==<br />
<br />
The groups of nouns in the fifth declension decline in generally the same way, albeit with minor differences. Nouns with no ending are declined like nouns ending in ''-er''.<br />
<br />
''Theler'', ''steima'' and ''stant'' are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stanteis<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 120px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ius'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''īei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''erē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''irē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''iēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''etū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''itū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''a''', steim'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''e''', stant'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''i''', stant'''i-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Sixth declension ''-on''==<br />
<br />
The sixth declension is the only class of nouns that has variant stems: in the plural, the ''-on'' (which is actually part of the stem; the class marker is a null morpheme) fronts to become ''-ēn-''. With certain words, such as ''almenton'', the stem (without the ''-on'') has taken on a nominal meaning itself through common use and can take the endings of the VIth declension directly.<br />
<br />
Thus ''agnon'' has a declension of:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-ein'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
==Seventh declension ''-i'', ''-e'', ''-is'', ''-es''==<br />
<br />
The seventh declension is as ''vosi'' and ''libe'':<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vosi, libe<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vosīs, libēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''utē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ētē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''itē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''e''', lib'''eā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''erei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ira'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ērē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''igōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ēgēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''uī''', lib'''eī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''uītē''', lib'''eītē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''i''', vos'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ē''', vos'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Eighth declension ''-os'', ''-as'', ''-ir''==<br />
<br />
The derived nouns of the eighth declension take endings as follows in the table below. One peculiarity of these derived nouns is that they form all cases by appending the relevant case ending to their connective, as will be demonstrated by the example conjugations table further down; in ''-ir'' nouns, only the singular connective is used, except where the case endings are identical for the singular and plural, when the plural connective is also used. For this declension, the genitive, dative, locative, ablative and instrumental cases have identical endings for all three classes of nouns.<br />
<br />
Note: This declension does not cover the derived verbal nouns, whether supine, agent or patient. Declension VIII encompasses only abstract nouns derived from other nouns, as per the examples below. Verbal nouns include identifying infixes and decline according to declensions I, II etc.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -os<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -as<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -rēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ou<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōi<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ai<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōi<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ou<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōi<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -o<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -a<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -o<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ei<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ei<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ei<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ū<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ās<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ū<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -itis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ērū<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ērā<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōr, -or-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēr, -er-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ār, -ar-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -aes, -aer-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ir, -r-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -rēr, -rēr-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
''Moros'' "request" (cf. ''mossos'' "act of requesting"), ''minnas'' "locality of the valley" and ''syndir'' "sin" are declined as examples below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moros<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnas<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ōi'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ōi'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ōi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''is'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''um'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ōs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''itis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ērū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ā''', morer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | mor'''ōr''', mor'''or-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | mor'''ēr''', mor'''er-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minn'''ār''', minn'''ar-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minn'''aes''', minn'''aer-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | synd'''ir''', synd'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | synd'''rēr''', synd'''rēr-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_declension&diff=49250Classical Arithide declension2009-09-20T08:51:46Z<p>Denihilonihil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{WIP}}<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
Owing to the language's inflectionary nature, [[Classical Arithide]] nouns, pronouns and certain of its adjectives must be declined (i.e. inflected) to provide grammatical meaning. A group of words that decline in the same way is known as a "declension class". There are 5 declension classes for nouns and the same for adjectives; pronouns are generally irregular.<br />
<br />
==Declension classes==<br />
<br />
Nouns in [[Classical Arithide]] are classed into different declensions based on their semantic meaning. This lexically based categorisation means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be five, on top of which are various subgroups that decline in slightly different ways from the parent class.<br />
<br />
'''Declension I''', with the characteristic nominative singular ending ''-os'', is the most productive declension class of all. It is associated with morally and emotionally neutral abstractions: states (''valonos'' "peace"), qualities (''fyginthos'' "dangerousness"), acts (''leatos'' "act of worship") as well as other types of concepts (''sonos'' "daily life"). As may be noted the supine verbal noun (i.e. "the act of doing something") also falls under this declension.<br />
<br />
'''Declension II''' nouns take the ending ''-as'' and refer to places: ''kitaras'' "hall", ''sivas'' "town", ''leatas'' "place of worship. The verbal noun of location (i.e. "the place where something is done") falls under declension II.<br />
<br />
'''Declension III''' nouns take the ending ''-ir'', and can be differentiated into classes III-a with simple ''-ir'', and III-b with ''-rir''. This declension comprises nouns with negative moral or emotional denotations or connotations: ''vokir'' "evil", ''kirir'' "faux pas", ''kreisantir'' "grief of bereavement".<br />
<br />
'''Declension IV''' is the most general declension class. Its nouns have no characteristic nominative singular ending but instead shares it with declension V (''-a''), and its lexical scope is practically unlimited; Class-IV nouns can refer to items, animals, plants or any other non-human, non-divine object. E.g. ''arotha'' "carpet", ''hegra'' "vine", ''izia'' "coin".<br />
<br />
'''Declension V''' comprises nouns referring to the human, the divine or the socio-cultural aspect of life: ''thelera'' "neighbour", ''venera'' "deity", ''kunera'' "currency". Complex historical reasons have given Class V nouns the double nominative ending of ''-era'', the final part of which (''-a'') is shared with Class IV. There is a subgroup, V-b, whose nominative singulars end in ''-on'' but otherwise decline identically with regular Class-V nouns: these are the special agentive nouns (see next section), generally formed from verbs but occasionally found fossilised elsewhere in words belonging to other parts of speech.<br />
<br />
These five declension classes can be broadly classified into two categories: concrete nouns (IV, V) and abstract nouns (I, II, III).<br />
<br />
===Distinction between ''-thera'' and ''-on''===<br />
<br />
Both the nominative singular endings ''-thera'' (V-a) and ''-on'' (V-b) indicate people, or agents. While in surviving Classical Arithide texts only the latter seemed to be sufficiently lexemic to be productive (as the agentive noun suffix, for one), there existed a semantic distinction between the two suffixes that persisted long enough for the ''-thera'' ending to experience a resurgence in productivity in the [[Vulgar Arithide|vulgar tongue]], and hence subsequently the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] and the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]].<br />
<br />
The lexeme ''-on'' was straightforward: it simply denoted any person who committed any action, and could be freely attached to any verb due to its broad semantic scope:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''seron'' "one who writes, the person who wrote"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''teron'' "one who weaves, the person who wove"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''damon'' "one who carries, the person who carried"<br />
<br />
It is even possible to attach ''-on'' to secondary verbal stems, e.g. participle forms. Compare:<br />
*''seron'' "one who writes", "one who wrote" VS<br />
*''se'''i'''ron'' "the one writing" VS<br />
*''ser'''ās'''on'' "one who has written", "one who has been published"<br />
<br />
''-Thera'', on the other hand, was more restrictive: this suffix could be used only to denote such persons as professionals, passionate believers, or members of the family and so on. In other words, the action in question could not be a casual, one-off incidence, but had to be done by virtue of vocation, profession, conviction, or social role. Note the semantic contrast between the examples in the above paragraph and those that follow:<br />
*''serēn'' "to write" > ''sesthera'' "author"<br />
*''terēn'' "to weave" > ''testhera'' "tailor, seamstress"<br />
*''damēn'' "to carry" > ''danthera'' "porter"<br />
<br />
The above examples also demonstrate the regular phonological assimilation undergone in nominalisation.<br />
<br />
For more, see [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Verbal nouns]].<br />
<br />
===Irregular nominatives===<br />
<br />
A combination of phonetic processes, among which is notable syncope (the elimination of non-initial or -final word syllables), has given rise to many first declension nouns whose nominative singular forms do not end in the expected ''-os''. In these nouns, the most common process has been the elision of the ''-o-'' in the ending; the resultant consonant clusters have each been resolved in a different way, at times through assimilation, at others through dissimilation, and in yet other cases triggering further elision. Note, however, that declension VIII nouns never undergo such reduction.<br />
<br />
Examples are given below:<br />
<br />
*'''*-fos > -fs > -ps:''' ''kaps, kaf-'' "list"{{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''*-tos > -ts > -ss > -s:''' ''ves, vet-'' "breeze"{{footnote|2}}<br />
*'''*-dos > -ds > -z > -s:''' ''as, ad-'' "sea"<br />
*'''*-ros > -rs > -s:''' ''tos'' "step, tor-"{{footnote|3}}<br />
*'''*-egos, *-igos > -ēs, -īs:''' ''rēs, reg-'' "day", ''rīs, rig-'' "we (exclusive)"{{footnote|4}}<br />
*'''*-gos > -gs > -ks:''' ''rūthex, rūtheg-'' "chairperson, president"{{footnote|5}}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}In cases other than the nominative, the /f/ is generally voiced to [v], while retaining its spelling. Hence &lt;kafo&gt; [kavo] "list (acc.)".<br><br />
{{footnote|2}}Supines of second to fourth conjugation verbs (which are declension I), as well as the infix ''-(i)t-'', do not undergo this particular reduction due to the prominence of their ''-t-'' and their productivity.<br><br />
{{footnote|3}}This process, with ''r''-stems, was considerably short-lived, and affected only a limited number of words.<br><br />
{{footnote|4}}Again, this process lost steam very quickly, and affected only the most commonly-used words.<br><br />
{{footnote|5}}This process did not actually occur in [[Classical Arithide]], but in [[Dethric language|Dethric]], from which the few agentive nouns ending in ''-x'' were borrowed.<br />
<br />
These reductive processes only kicked in when the consonants mentioned above were in isolation, i.e. they did not occur as part of a cluster. In addition, the behaviour of the vowels immediately before the affected consonants exhibits a degree of variation that is not entirely regular or predictable. While much of the time they remain unchanged, in certain nouns the high vowels [i] and [u] may be lowered to [e] and [o] (which was not reflected in the standard orthography but gleaned from informal correspondences and writings).<br />
<br />
Most problematically, for reasons of stress and perhaps scansion, they might sometimes be lengthened. Vowel-lengthening in ''orathōs < *orathodos'' "religious" is logical, partly because the reduction involves the coalescence of two [o]s, and partly for reasons of contrast with plain ''orathos'' "religion". However, the adjectival substantive ending ''-itās'' has the stem ''-itat-'', and the stem of ''dhīs'' "festival" is actually ''dhid-''. The occurrence of ''-ā-'' and ''-ī-'' in these cases appears to be entirely arbitrary, especially given the precedents of words like ''das, dad-'' "hand" that do not undergo compensatory lengthening.<br />
<br />
==Grammatical cases==<br />
<br />
Fully declining a noun requires expressing its 11 cases:<br />
<br />
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb; the nominative is the case in which a noun or pronoun is cited in the dictionary, hence it is also known as the citation case<br />
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence<br />
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb<br />
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by<br />
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.<br />
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)<br />
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' "about, regarding" or ''etel'' "by (agentive)"<br />
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''etel'' "with"<br />
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address<br />
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' "heaven" + ''innos'' "top" > ''saluminnum'' "in heaven" (lit. "on heaven"; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' "city" + ''dolō'' "around" (from ''dolos'' "surroundings") > ''alladolō'' "around the city" {{footnote|1}}<br />
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + prep.) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as "around the city", the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' "there are flowers around the city" vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' "there are flowers all about the city".<br />
<br />
Of these, the connective and essive cases in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases. Should the need arise to differentiate the two, however, the essive may take on the auxiliary suffix ''-sanos'' (lit. "semblance, condition, state").<br />
<br />
==First declension ''-os''==<br />
<br />
Nouns of and adjectives in the first declension take the following endings:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōmos, thiftios<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōmēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ōi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''oi''', thifti'''ne'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ēi''', thifti'''nēi'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''i''', thifti'''m'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ō''', thifti'''ōm'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ōis''', thifti'''tis'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ūis''', thifti'''tēs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm, sōm-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sōm'''e(r)''', sōm'''e(r)-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The former in each pair is used with consonant-stem words (e.g. ''sōmos, sōm-''), while the latter with vowel-stem words (e.'''g.''' ''thiftios, thifti-'').<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}This alternation is not due to the consonant- and vowel-stem differentiation. The singular locative ending for declension I is ''-im'', in this case shown truncated to ''-i'' after an ''m-'' stem, and to ''-m'' after a vowel-stem. The plural ending (''-ōm'') truncates in the same way with ''m''-stem nouns, but not for vowel-stems.<br />
<br />
==Second declension ''-as''==<br />
<br />
Unlike the first declension, nouns of the second declension do not distinguish endings between consonant- and vowel-stem words. An example conjugation is provided with ''sivias'' "town" below.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivias<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | siviais<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''au'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''āi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ēā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | siv'''īs'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | siv'''īei'''{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''or'''{{footnote|2}}<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''āis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ēis'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ai'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''a''', sivi'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | sivi'''ē''', sivi'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The actual endings ''-īs'' and ''-iei''. With ''-i-'' stem words, a simple, long ''-ī-'' results in both cases.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|2}}The actual ending is ''-ior''. In this case the ''-i-'' in the case ending is elided.<br />
<br />
==Third declension ''-ir''==<br />
<br />
In [[Classical Arithide]], nouns that end in ''-ir'' in the nominative singular are descended from two separate older noun groups, with singular stems in either ''-yr-'' or ''-rud-'', and fall in either of two declension classes; plural stems for both are ''-id-''. The important distinction between nouns that end in the simpler ''-ir'' and more complex ''-rir'' endings (declensions III and IV respectively) must be maintained for purposes of proper declension. Besides maintaining distinctive stems, third declension nouns take endings that vary substantially from those of the fourth declension.<br />
<br />
In the third declension, besides the traditional ''-yr-'' stem, sound change also introduced a variant stem, ''-ir-'', and both forms appear liberally throughout Classical Arithide texts.<br />
<br />
''Vokir'' is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokidēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ō''', vokir'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ō'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''in'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''in'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ae''', vokir'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ī''', vokir'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ōn''', vokir'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokyr'''ū''', vokir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''y'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vokid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''y''', vok'''y(r)-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vok'''it''', vok'''id-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fourth declension ''-rir''==<br />
<br />
The IVth declension historically derives from the ending ''-ruder''. Phonological assimilation has taken place and reduced the reflexes to ''-rir'', but the historical form manifests itself in many places. ''Kirir'' is declined as follows:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kiridēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''ō'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ō'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''u(d)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ēī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''īs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''iei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ām'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirud'''ior'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ēri'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kirid'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''ur''', kir'''ud-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | kir'''it''', kir'''id-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Fifth declension ''-er'' and ''-a'' etc.==<br />
<br />
The groups of nouns in the fifth declension decline in generally the same way, albeit with minor differences. Nouns with no ending are declined like nouns ending in ''-er''.<br />
<br />
''Theler'', ''steima'' and ''stant'' are declined as below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theler<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | theleis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steima<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steimeis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stanteis<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eiā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eu'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eiā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''or'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ius'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 120px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eus'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ius'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''īei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eīs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''īei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''irē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''erē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''era'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''irē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''eōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''iēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''itū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''etū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''et(is)'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''itū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''ī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''ī'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''e''', thel'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | thel'''i''', thel'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''a''', steim'''a-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | steim'''e''', steim'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''e''', stant'''e-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | stant'''i''', stant'''i-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Sixth declension ''-on''==<br />
<br />
The sixth declension is the only class of nouns that has variant stems: in the plural, the ''-on'' (which is actually part of the stem; the class marker is a null morpheme) fronts to become ''-ēn-''. With certain words, such as ''almenton'', the stem (without the ''-on'') has taken on a nominal meaning itself through common use and can take the endings of the VIth declension directly.<br />
<br />
Thus ''agnon'' has a declension of:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein{{footnote|1}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''a'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''e'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''e'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''us'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''i'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''im'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ōm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnēn'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnon, agnon-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | agnein, agnein-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}The form ''-ein'' is a contraction of the older ''-ēnis''; the former is more often seen in later texts, but the latter remains widespread and the standard for formal and serious topics.<br />
<br />
==Seventh declension ''-i'', ''-e'', ''-is'', ''-es''==<br />
<br />
The seventh declension is as ''vosi'' and ''libe'':<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 300px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vosi, libe<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vosīs, libēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''us'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''utē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ētē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''itē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''e''', lib'''eā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''erei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ira'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ērē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''igōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ēgēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''uī''', lib'''eī'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''uītē''', lib'''eītē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''i''', vos'''i-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | vos'''ē''', vos'''ē-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Eighth declension ''-os'', ''-as'', ''-ir''==<br />
<br />
The derived nouns of the eighth declension take endings as follows in the table below. One peculiarity of these derived nouns is that they form all cases by appending the relevant case ending to their connective, as will be demonstrated by the example conjugations table further down; in ''-ir'' nouns, only the singular connective is used, except where the case endings are identical for the singular and plural, when the plural connective is also used. For this declension, the genitive, dative, locative, ablative and instrumental cases have identical endings for all three classes of nouns.<br />
<br />
Note: This declension does not cover the derived verbal nouns, whether supine, agent or patient. Declension VIII encompasses only abstract nouns derived from other nouns, as per the examples below. Verbal nouns include identifying infixes and decline according to declensions I, II etc.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -os<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -as<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -rēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ou<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōi<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ai<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōi<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ou<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōi<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -o<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -a<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -o<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -is<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ei<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ei<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ei<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -um<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōn<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ū<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ās<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ū<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -itis<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ērū<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ē<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ā<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ērā<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ōr, -or-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ēr, -er-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ār, -ar-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -aes, -aer-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -ir, -r-<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | -rēr, -rēr-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
''Moros'' "request" (cf. ''mossos'' "act of requesting"), ''minnas'' "locality of the valley" and ''syndir'' "sin" are declined as examples below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 740px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0"<br />
| style="width:80px" | <br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''sg.''<br />
| style="width: 110px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc; text-align: center" | ''pl.''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Nom.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moros<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morēs<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnas<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnae<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndir<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Top.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ōi'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ōi'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ou'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ōi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Acc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''a'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''o'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ē'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Gen.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ēs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''is'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Dat.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ei'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ae'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ei'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Loc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''um'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''um'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Abl.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ōn'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ēn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ins.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ōs'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ū'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''itis'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ērū'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Voc.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | moror'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | morer'''ā''', morer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnar'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minnaer'''ē'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | syndrēr'''ā'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:80px; border-right: 1pt solid #cccccc" | '''Ess./Con.'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | mor'''ōr''', mor'''or-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | mor'''ēr''', mor'''er-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minn'''ār''', minn'''ar-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | minn'''aes''', minn'''aer-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | synd'''ir''', synd'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 110px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center" | synd'''rēr''', synd'''rēr-'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Irregular nouns==<br />
<br />
{{main|List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns}}<br />
<br />
As with all languages, Classical Arithide has its share of irregularly-declined nouns, some of them being among the most commonly used.<br />
<br />
In addition to that, most personal names in Classical Arithide are irregularly declined (e.g. ''Pereos'', gen. ''Fini''; ''Symbakos'', voc. ''Sebeō''). See also [[Areth names#Classical declension]] for more on personal name declensions.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_adjectives&diff=47350Classical Arithide adjectives2009-07-18T10:31:00Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Attributive usage & case-marking */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Adjectives in [[Classical Arithide]]''', in accordance with the language's left-branching nature, are generally placed before the noun they modify (as with [[Classical Arithide adverbs|adverbs]]), but may technically be placed anywhere in a sentence due to the extensive case-marking system. This latter point is definitely true only for the standard dialect of the Equora dynasty; adjectival case-marking was rare before and gradually fell out of favour after the time, and even in the Equora, was an innovation adopted from the dialects of western [[Calagia]] and [[Demedria]].<br />
<br />
As such, in Classical Arithide, adjectives were a rather nebulous class of words, and their indeterminate, halfway-house status contributed to their amorphism, or rather polymorphism, over the years, and indeed, a cursory glance at the adjectives in a certain text and the way they are inflected is one of the surest ways to discern the period from which it came.<br />
<br />
The prestige tongue of the Equora dynasty, the most widely written and recognised variant, and the common modern benchmark for "standard" Classical Arithide, had two types of word, of more or less equal ubiquity, that could be considered as "adjectives":<br />
<br />
#'''Verbal adjectives''', also called '''adjectival verbs''', depending on the academic source, which were technically stative verbs, and constitute the vast majority of Classical Artihide adjectives. These were and are quoted in dictionaries in the infinitive verb-form.<br />
#'''Nominal adjectives''', or '''adjectival nouns''', again depending on academic source, which behaved grammatically as nouns, like Latin adjectives. These were and are quoted in dictionaries in the nominative singular of the first declension.<br />
<br />
It is worth noting that while nominal adjectives understandably decline for case, even verbal adjectives, when used attributively, take case-endings as well.<br />
<br />
==Verbal adjectives==<br />
<br />
Most words that could conceivably be used with an adjectival function were technically stative verbs, e.g. ''egnēn'', "black", or literally, "to be black", having the ability to conjugate for tense, mood and aspect while modifying a noun, whether predicatively or attributively. These adjectives behaved much like the "''i''-adjectives" of Japanese. While predicative use of verbs as adjectives was expected, the attributive property grew out of a grammatical device, now largely disused, of making verbs into modifiers by displacing them to the front of nouns rather than behind them, as is the usual SOV order.<br />
<br />
===Conjugation===<br />
<br />
Verbal adjectives typically belong to the consonant-stem conjugation (see [[Classical Arithide conjugation]]).<br />
<br />
An example of a verbal adjective would be ''nistēn'' "fast", or literally "to be fast". Predicatively ("the car '''is fast'''"), it would be conjugated ''nista'' to mean "it is fast", or ''niste'' to express that it used to be fast. When the adjective is used attributively ("the '''fast''' car"), the aspectual participles are used instead, and while past states still retain the use of the perfective aspect (''nistēm''), the imperfective aspect is employed for current states (''nistī'').<br />
<br />
*''Viringa nista.'' The car is fast.<br />
*''Nistī viringa dagemenum dakte.'' The fast car stopped in front of the house. (lit. "is-fast sedan house-front-at stopped")<br />
<br />
The existence of this present- and past-state distinction enables some handy locutions as well:<br />
<br />
*'''''Ielanēm''' konkanditis '''egnī''' assula levē agare'' The sky that was '''once blue''' but now '''black''' with rage howled ferociously (Osces, ''Poetry'')<br />
<br />
To form the future tense, the simple future ending is not used with adjectives; rather, ''-allān'', cliticised from the verb ''hallān'' "to become", is used as an auxiliary, taking on the present tense and imperfective aspectual ending.<br />
<br />
===Attributive usage & case-marking===<br />
<br />
Case endings are, logically, not required with predicative uses of verbal adjectives, not only because the adjective can only, by definition, be in the nominative, but also because the adjective is, here, grammatically a verb (since the adjective itself encompasses the copula), thus inflecting only for time and not case. With attributive use, however, cases are marked, though generally no endings are appended in the nominative. When the adjective modifies a noun in a case other than the nominative, however, case endings become necessary for purposes of disambiguation:<br />
<br />
*''Viringa nistī fyre.'' The fast car left.<br />
*''Viringatis nistītis fyre.'' (I/We/You/He/She/It/They) left in the fast car. (lit. "by the fast car")<br/><br />
''c.f.'' ''Viringatis nistī fyre.'' I/You (sg.)/He/She/It who is fast left in the car. (singular due to ''nistī''; plural nominative would be ''nistīēs'')<br />
<br />
The adjective takes on the case endings of the appropriate lexical class, i.e. the one to which the noun being modified belongs. Exceptions are that nouns of the sixth declension (agentive nouns) take adjectives declined in the fifth declension, and that declension VIII nouns (derivatives) take adjectives declined as per declensions I, II, III or IV according to their nominative ending.<br />
<br />
Note: towards the end of the dynasty the innovation of a final ''-m'', borrowed from the perfective participle, with the imperfective participle (leading to ''egnīm'' etc.) spread to adjectives as well, and subsequently gave rise to the ''-im'' adjectival ending of [[Modern Arithide]].<br />
<br />
==Nominal adjectives==<br />
<br />
The nominal adjectives, which behave as nouns like their Latin counterparts, do not, due to their nature, conjugate for time-distinctions unlike the verbals. In addition, as they are technically nouns, their semantic scope does not include a [[Classical Arithide copula|copula]], and in predicative usage such an equating verb is frequently needed to express what would, with verbal adjectives, be encoded in the conjugation; innovation, however, reanalysed some nominal adjectives as nouns, and subsequently deriving verbal adjectives through the suffixation of the general-purpose adjectivaliser ''-nēn'' (see [[#Deriving adjectives from nouns]] below).<br />
<br />
Many adjectives in the nominal class tend to be concerned with appearance, e.g. ''oluros'' "ugly, out-of-shape", ''vobulos'' "pitch-dark", ''nassos'' "deepest, ulterior, core". Exceptions include all the adjectives of colour, which are morphologically derived from the names of the individual colours by affixing ''-nēn'', and are hence verbal in nature.<br />
<br />
===Declension===<br />
<br />
Nominal adjectives can be further divided into two groups based on their declension behaviour. Most nominal adjectives are of fixed declensions, i.e. their declension class is invariable regardless of the class of the noun they are modifying: in the nominative, ''vobul'''os''' aumos'' "dark cave" (declension I), ''vobul'''os''' hael'' "dubious personality" (V), or ''vobul'''os''' vosi'' "suspicious step/move" (VII). Such adjectives are quoted in dictionaries in the nominative singular form.<br />
<br />
Not all adjectives of invariable declension class belong to the first declension, however. Certain, like ''lisis, lisit-'' "wispy" are declension VII adjectives, which means they decline as follows, differently from ''pan'' above: ''list'''īs''' baletēs'', ''list'''itē''' sivianēs'' and ''lisit'''erei''' foritēnēs''.<br />
<br />
*N.b. With ''lisis, lisit-'', as with all other Classical Arithide words, syncope occurs, that is reflected in the orthography, of the ''-i-'' in the sequence ''-sit-'' when in an unstressed syllable or when another ''-i'' occurs immediately after the ''-t''. Another commonly known example of such syncope is with the passive voice.<br />
<br />
There exist also some adjectives with variable declension classes. One of them is ''lef'' "big" {{footnote|1}}, which adopts its target noun's lexical class and declines accordingly. Hence:<br />
<br />
*''levēs baletēs'' "grand possibilities (VIII)"<br />
*''levanēs sivianēs'' "of big towns (II)"<br />
*''levēnēs foritēnēs'' "to big miners (VI)"<br />
<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} ''Lef'', when used predicatively, has a verbal form ''levēn'', which is a mixed conjugation verbal, taking vowel-stem endings with the stem ''lep-''.<br />
<br />
====''Pan'' "all"====<br />
<br />
The adjective ''pan'' is unique, in that as a mass adjective it does not have a plural form. With other similar adjectives, the plural would be used in the above examples. In later Classical Arithide ''pan'' would lose even its case endings and become a completely invariable adjective. The following is an example of the standard declension of ''pan'':<br />
<br />
*''pan baletēs'' "all possibilities (VIII)"<br />
*''panan sivianēs'' "of all towns (II)"<br />
*''panae foritēnēs'' "to all miners (VI)"<br />
<br />
===Derivatives from verbs===<br />
<br />
The participle forms of verbs could also be used as adjectives, without further modification. These derivative adjectives fall under the nominal class, and are not availed the subtle distinctions of present and past states as are the adjectives of the verbal class. The participle adjectives are all of variable declensions, and they conjugate as per the declension class of the noun modified.<br />
<br />
*''Īde tath zurōnēs enēn mēsēs labi, futisi '''lārīē segē''' nollos.''<br>alas again cruel.PL return.INFIN Fate.PL call.IMPF, hide.IMPF-and.CLIT '''swimming.PL.ACC eye.PL.ACC''' sleep.NOM<br>"Alas again the cruel Fates are calling me back, and sleep is obscuring my swimming eyes." (Lēspēs, ''Laments'')<br />
<br />
Similarly to verbal adjectives, these derived adjectives were affected by the rise of the use of final ''-m'' late in the Equora.<br />
<br />
==Comparison==<br />
<br />
The comparison of Classical Arithide adjectives ("as ... as ...", "more ... than" etc.) makes extensive use of cases and suffixes, as elaborated in the sections below.<br />
<br />
===Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Equivalence can be expressed in any of a number of ways, and with the example sentence "The tree is as tall as the house" we have the following possible locutions, with noteworthy areas grammatically annotated:<br />
<br />
*''Kisag dagena siōnna.''<br>tree house.EQUIV tall<br>Here the equating particle ''-ena'' "like" is attached to the reference.<br />
*''Kisag dag siōnna.''<br>tree house.ESS tall<br>The reference here is in the essive case to signal equivalence.<br />
*''Kisag dagen opena siōnna.''<br>tree house.GEN same.EQUIV tall<br>Here the comparison is explicit.<br />
<br />
In all the above examples, the subject "tree" is in the nominative case; in all the cases it can be replaced with the topical case, ''kisagai''.<br />
<br />
===Comparatives===<br />
<br />
The most common method to construct a positively comparative adjective ("more ... than") is to use the suffix ''-or'', which appends to the adjectival stem; negatively comparative adjectives are made with ''-ys''. To the resultant comparative are then affixed further articles of agreement, such as lexical class, case and number. In predicative uses of nominal-class adjectives, the presence of the comparative precludes the need for a copula or verbalisation (as seen with ''siōn'' "tall" in the past few examples).<br />
<br />
Comparatives can, however, also be formed by periphrasis, and at times a combination of the two methods:<br />
<br />
"The tree is taller than the house."<br />
*''Kisag dagōn siōnor.''<br>tree house.ABL tall.COMPP<br>This is the most common method. The reference is in the ablative, and the adjective is comparative.<br />
*''Kisag dagōn siōnna.''<br>tree house.ABL tall<br>Here only the reference is marked with the ablative case.<br />
*''Kisagae dagōn siōnor.''<br>tree.DAT house.ABL tall.COMPP<br>The emphasis here is on the tree as being taller.<br />
*''Kisagae dagōn siōnna.''<br>tree.DAT house.ABL tall<br>Again, the comparative is dropped.<br />
<br />
"The tree is not as tall as the house."<br />
*''Kisag dagae siōnys.''<br>tree house.DAT tall.COMPN<br>This is the most common method. The reference is in the dative, and the adjective is comparative.<br />
*''Kisag dagae siōnna.''<br>tree house.DAT tall<br>Even the presence only of the dative case on the reference signals the subject's deficiency.<br />
*''Kisagai dagos siōnor.''<br>tree.TOP house.NOM tall.COMPP<br>Again, the phrasing suggests a deficiency on the tree's part.<br />
*''Kisagōn dagae siōnor.''<br>tree.ABL house.DAT tall.COMPP<br>Here the house is emphasised as being taller.<br />
*''Kisagōn dagae siōnna.''<br>tree.ABL house.DAT tall<br>The comparative was simply dropped.<br />
<br />
===Superlatives===<br />
<br />
Positive superlative adjectives are formed simply by appending ''-ad-'', followed by the appropriate nominal or verbal ending as required; negative ones add ''-uss-''. This method applies for both the predicative and attributive uses of adjectives.<br />
<br />
*''Aska nēsērē siōnnada.''<br>Aska boys.LOC tall.SUPP<br>Aska is the tallest amongst the boys.<br />
*''Aska nēsērē siōnnussa.''<br>Aska boys.LOC tall.SUPN<br>Aska is the least tall amongst the boys.<br />
<br />
==Deriving adjectives==<br />
<br />
The derivation of adjectives mostly involved nouns as roots, except with the participle forms of verbs. Most derivations involve the affixation of adjectivalising suffixes to noun stems, i.e. the form without any grammatical ending (''didek-'' < ''didekos''), <br />
<br />
===''e-'' and ''o-''===<br />
<br />
These two prefixes make modifiers of nouns, the former according a positive meaning, and the latter a negative.<br />
<br />
E.g. ''dira'' "personal condition" becomes ''edira'' "feeling well", or ''odira'' "feeling under the weather".<br />
<br />
===Applicative adjectivaliser ''-nai''===<br />
<br />
The adding of the adjectivalising suffix ''-nai'' to a noun turns the noun into an adjective (more broadly speaking, a modifier) of applicative denotation: root nouns are not all related to their derivative adjectives in the same way. The suffix is made up of two parts, the first (''-n-'') being the marker for modifiers, and the second (''-ai'') indicating intransitivity.<br />
<br />
Phonetic assimilation takes place in cases where appending the suffix gives rise to certain consonant clusters:<br />
<br />
*'''-kn > -gn:''' ''didekos'', ''didek-'' "strength" > ''didegnai'' "strong"<br />
*'''-fn > -vn:''' ''leif'', ''leif-'' > ''leivnai''<br />
*'''-bn > -mn:''' ''leber'', ''leb-'' "tail" > ''lemnai'' "tailed"<br />
*'''-tn, -dn, -rn > -nn:''' ''dīmotos'', ''dīmot-'' "law" > ''dīmonnai'' "lawful, legal"; ''sōdos'', ''sōd-'' "fear" > ''sōnnai'' "fearful, afraid; "klara'', ''klar-'' "horn" > ''klarenai'' "horned"<br />
<br />
When the noun stem ends in an ''-s'', a geminate consonant or a consonant cluster, an epenthetic ''-e-'' is inserted before the suffix; with ''s''-stem nouns the sibilant is voiced:<br />
<br />
*'''-sn > -zen:''' ''thalasos'', ''thalas-'' > ''thalazenai''<br />
*'''geminates:''' ''lassos'' > ''lassenai''<br />
*'''clusters:''' ''midra'' "minister" > ''midrenai'' "ministerial"<br />
<br />
All other unlisted consonant clusters are permissible. Note also that in all instances ''-gn'' is pronounced [ŋn] as elsewhere.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives of approximation===<br />
<br />
Adjectives of approximation, of which examples in English include "salty", "boyish" and "songlike", indicate the similarity of the noun described to the referent that forms the root of the adjective. Adjectivalisers of similarity in Classical Arithide include:<br />
<br />
*'''-(i)ēlēn''', verbal; "resembling, looking like" (derives from the noun ''hael'' "characteristic")<br>''alar'' "bird" > ''alarēlēn'' "birdlike"<br />
*'''-ītos''', nominal; "having the character of"<br>''dhīs'' "fest, celebration" > ''dhidītos'' "festive"; ''nēs'' "boy" > ''neītos'' "boyish"<br />
*'''-ōrēn''', verbal; "having or full of"<br>''ves'' "breeze" > ''vetōrēn'' "breezy"<br />
*'''-assēn''', verbal; "-ish"<br>''nēs'' "boy" > ''neassēn'' "boyish"<br />
<br />
===Adjectives of relevance===<br />
<br />
Familiar adjectivalisers of relevance in English are mostly Hellenic in origin: ''-ic'', as in ''poetic'' "in the manner of a poem/poet" or ''Tantric'' "regarding the Tantras"; ''-ous'', as in ''famous'' "having a lot of fame". Classical Arithide has the following:<br />
<br />
*'''-(i)kios''', nominal; "in the manner of" (derives from the verb ''ikēn'' "to pass")<br>''paryos'' "poem" > ''parykios'' "poetic"<br />
*'''-(i)nos''', nominal; "-(i)an", characteristic of; related to<br>''zier'' "people" > ''zīrinos'' "human"<br />
*'''-(i)vēn''', verbal; "having a tendency to"<br>''fignēn'' "to light up and start burning" > ''fignivēn'' "easily flammable"<br />
*'''-(i)ōs, -(i)od-''', nominal; "consisting of"<br>''orathos'' "religion" > ''orathōs'' "religious, infused with religion"<br />
*'''-essēn''', verbal; "believing in" (derives from ''hessēn'' "to believe")<br>''elamos'' "freedom" > ''elamessēn'' "libertarian"<br />
<br />
===Adjectives of belonging===<br />
<br />
Under this category fall adjectives that describe the "belonging" of a person, an object etc. to another, like the English suffixes ''-(i)an'' ("Egyptian", "Republican"). There are in Classical Arithide the ones below:<br />
<br />
*'''-ēthos'''{{footnote|1}}, nominal; indicates nationality or origin<br>''Lybein'' "[[Lybia]]" > ''Lybēthos'' "Lybian"; ''[[Isphea]]'' > ''Isphēthos'' "Isphean"<br />
*'''-udēn'''{{footnote|1}}, verbal; "to be of a nationality or origin"<br>''[[Areth]]'' > ''Arudēn'' "to be an Areth"; ''Isphēthos'' > ''Isphudēn'' "to be an Isphean"<br />
*'''-(i)meos''' or '''-(e)mios''', nominal; indicating a certain style<br>''ante'' "water" > ''antimeos/antemios'' "fluid like water, fluent like water"<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}These two suffixes are used complementarily.<br />
<br />
==Derivation from adjectives==<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Most adverbs are formed from adjectives:<br />
*with the ending ''-ē'' in place of the declension endings for nominal-class adjectives (''aretis'' "emotionally painful" > ''aretiē'' "painfully"),<br />
*by appending ''-ur'' to the stems of verbal adjectives (''milnai'' "vivacious" > ''milnur'' "vivaciously"), or<br />
*by using ''-ider'' for certain adjectives, including all variable-declension ones (''kar'' "gentle" > ''karider'' "gently").<br />
<br />
These endings convert adjectives to adverbs as predictably as the English suffix "-ly".<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Deriving nouns from adjectives ("sweet' > "sweetness" etc.) involves two different processes in Classical Arithide, a different one for each of the nominal and verbal classes.<br />
<br />
Verbal adjectives form their nouns regularly as with other verbs, by simply subtituting the verbal infinitive ending ''-ēn'':<br />
*With the supine ending ''-os'' to form the noun of quality (identical to the English endings "-ness" or "-(i)ty");<br />
*With the agentive ending ''-on'' to form the substantive noun (as with English "libertarian" > "libertarian").<br />
<br />
Nominal adjectives form their nouns with different suffixes from the verbal class. While some derivations appear irregular, it is due to phonetic changes that have obscured the relationship between the adjective and its derivative. To the stem of the nominal adjective is appended:<br />
*''-(i)thos'' to form the noun of quality that declines with declension VIII;<br />
*''-(i)tā'' (from ''-tata'') to form the substantive noun that declines with declension V.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Verbs that can be formed from adjectives can be divided into two general types: transitive (e.g. "sweeten", "simplify") and intransitive ("ripen"). In Classical Arithide, to form the former group of verbs, one simply has to add the causativising verbal suffix ''-ārēn'' to the adjective's stem; the latter group comes about through more various ways&mdash;by adding ''-erēn'' (''mal'' > ''malerēn'' "to ripen"), by simply adding the verbal suffix ''-ēn'' to the stem, or by arbitrary inflections (''histos'' "holy" > ''histamēn'' "to sanctify").<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=44728Classical Arithide conjugation2009-04-20T18:27:19Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Active-voice vowel-stem verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
===Voice and transitivity===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalau'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebiou'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'' and ''-u''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-izai'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eusai'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-ndai'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oumai'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ssai' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-spai "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōnai''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, affixing ''-mnēn/-mnai'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''ps'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''ps'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''ks'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''ss'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''ss'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''ss'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} <br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lt'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpr'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mbr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''ptr'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''ndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rks'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rks'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmbr'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''ltr'''os || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rst'''os || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''ber'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''st'''os || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for these consonants form their verbal nouns identically to the single-consonant stems, i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stantos'' (homonymous with the word for "importance") etc.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fig'''n'''ai, fign-, fig'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''ss'''ei, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, su'''ps'''ei, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roimeūm''', sōpedōi tholtae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorāsthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorāsthon'' "the person who held (him) back", from ''sthorāsos'' "having held back, who has held back", from ''sthorā'' "has held back, to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension VI endings by replacing the ending ''-os'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores soli'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''soli ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fragīēs sōpedēs'' "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fragaiēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''frageinēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezuraier Ganymēder'' "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezureiner Ganymēder'' has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezurīer Ganymēder''.<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaksae raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaksae '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaksae raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzai, valeusai, valindai, valoumai<br>valossai, valospai, valōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valtos<br>''loc.'' valtas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valter, valon<br>''pat.'' valsis, valsion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''airā''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzai, senneusai, sennindai, sennoumai<br>sennossai, sennospai, sennōnai <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sendros<br>''loc.'' sendras<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sendrer, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''eimos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mma'''<br>&lt;*sennma<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*sennmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*sennumthos &lt;*sennmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''airā''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalēusai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalētai, kalatārēn, hegalanai, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | veriētai, veretārēn, heverenai, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebiārēn, hezebinai (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henironai, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''airēn''', (aur'''eidēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''anai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrairēn, (thōraidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''enai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | pariētai, pariairēn, (pareidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''inai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiairēn, (ankieidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigairēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=44726Classical Arithide conjugation2009-04-20T18:08:43Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Active-voice vowel-stem verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
===Voice and transitivity===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalau'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebiou'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'' and ''-u''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-izai'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eusai'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-ndai'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oumai'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ssai' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-spai "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōnai''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, affixing ''-mnēn/-mnai'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''ps'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''ps'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''ks'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''ss'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''ss'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''ss'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} <br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lt'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpr'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mbr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''ptr'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''ndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rks'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rks'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmbr'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''ltr'''os || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rst'''os || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''ber'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''st'''os || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for these consonants form their verbal nouns identically to the single-consonant stems, i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stantos'' (homonymous with the word for "importance") etc.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fig'''n'''ai, fign-, fig'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''ss'''ei, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, su'''ps'''ei, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roimeūm''', sōpedōi tholtae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorāsthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorāsthon'' "the person who held (him) back", from ''sthorāsos'' "having held back, who has held back", from ''sthorā'' "has held back, to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension VI endings by replacing the ending ''-os'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores soli'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''soli ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fragīēs sōpedēs'' "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fragaiēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''frageinēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezuraier Ganymēder'' "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezureiner Ganymēder'' has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezurīer Ganymēder''.<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaksae raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaksae '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaksae raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzai, valeusai, valindai, valoumai<br>valossai, valospai, valōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valtos<br>''loc.'' valtas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valter, valon<br>''pat.'' valsis, valsion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''airā''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzai, senneusai, sennindai, sennoumai<br>sennossai, sennospai, sennōnai <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sendros<br>''loc.'' sendras<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sendrer, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''eimos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mma'''<br>&lt;*sennma<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*sennmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*sennumthos &lt;*sennmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''airā''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalausai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalētai, kalatārēn, hegalanai, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | veriētai, veretārēn, heverenai, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebiārēn, hezebinai (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henironai, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''airēn''', (aur'''eidēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''anai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrairēn, (thōraidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''enai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | pariētai, pariairēn, (pareidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''inai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiairēn, (ankieidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigairēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=44722Classical Arithide conjugation2009-04-20T14:30:12Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
===Voice and transitivity===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalau'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebiou'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'' and ''-u''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-izai'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eusai'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-ndai'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oumai'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ssai' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-spai "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōnai''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, affixing ''-mnēn/-mnai'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''ps'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''ps'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''ks'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''ss'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''ss'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''ss'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} <br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lt'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpr'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mbr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''ptr'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''ndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rks'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rks'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmbr'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''ltr'''os || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rst'''os || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''ber'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''st'''os || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for these consonants form their verbal nouns identically to the single-consonant stems, i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stantos'' (homonymous with the word for "importance") etc.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fig'''n'''ai, fign-, fig'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''ss'''ei, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, su'''ps'''ei, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roimeūm''', sōpedōi tholtae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorāsthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorāsthon'' "the person who held (him) back", from ''sthorāsos'' "having held back, who has held back", from ''sthorā'' "has held back, to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension VI endings by replacing the ending ''-os'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores soli'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''soli ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fragīēs sōpedēs'' "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fragaiēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''frageinēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezuraier Ganymēder'' "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezureiner Ganymēder'' has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezurīer Ganymēder''.<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaksae raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaksae '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaksae raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzai, valeusai, valindai, valoumai<br>valossai, valospai, valōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valtos<br>''loc.'' valtas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valter, valon<br>''pat.'' valsis, valsion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''airā''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzai, senneusai, sennindai, sennoumai<br>sennossai, sennospai, sennōnai <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sendros<br>''loc.'' sendras<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sendrer, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''eimos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mma'''<br>&lt;*sennma<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*sennmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*sennumthos &lt;*sennmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''airā''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalausai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalaetai, kalatārēn, hegalanai, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | verētai, veretārēn, heverenai, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebiārēn, hezebinai (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henironai, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''airēn''', (aur'''eidēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''anai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrairēn, (thōraidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''enai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | pariētai, pariairēn, (pareidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''inai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiairēn, (ankieidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigairēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=44715Classical Arithide conjugation2009-04-20T00:42:31Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
===Voice and transitivity===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalau'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebiou'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'' and ''-u''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-izai'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eusai'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-ndai'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oumai'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ssai' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-spai "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōnai''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, affixing ''-mnēn/-mnai'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''ps'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''ps'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''ks'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''ss'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''ss'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''ss'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} <br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lt'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpr'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mbr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''ptr'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''ndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rks'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rks'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmbr'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''ltr'''os || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rst'''os || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''ber'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''st'''os || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for these consonants form their verbal nouns identically to the single-consonant stems, i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stantos'' (homonymous with the word for "importance") etc.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fig'''n'''ai, fign-, fig'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''ss'''ei, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, su'''ps'''ei, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roimeūm''', sōpedōi tholtae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorāsthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorāsthon'' "the person who held (him) back", from ''sthorāsos'' "having held back, who has held back", from ''sthorā'' "has held back, to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension VI endings by replacing the ending ''-os'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores soli'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''soli ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fragīēs sōpedēs'' "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fragaiēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''frageinēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezuraier Ganymēder'' "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezureiner Ganymēder'' has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezurīer Ganymēder''.<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaksae raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaksae '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaksae raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzai, valeusai, valindai, valoumai<br>valossai, valospai, valōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valtos<br>''loc.'' valtas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valter, valon<br>''pat.'' valsis, valsion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''airā''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzai, senneusai, sennindai, sennoumai<br>sennossai, sennospai, sennōnai <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sendros<br>''loc.'' sendras<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sendrer, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''eimos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mma'''<br>&lt;*sennma<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*sennmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*sennumthos &lt;*sennmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''airā''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalausai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalaetai, kalatārēn, hegalanai, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | verētai, veretārēn, heverenai, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebiārēn, hezebinai (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henironai, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''airēn''', (aur'''eidēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''āsei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrairēn, (thōraidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''ēnai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | pariētai, pariairēn, (pareidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īnai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiairēn, (ankieidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigairēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=44714Classical Arithide conjugation2009-04-20T00:39:22Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Active-voice vowel-stem verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
===Voice and transitivity===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalau'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebiou'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'' and ''-u''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-izai'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eusai'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-ndai'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oumai'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ssai' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-spai "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōnai''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, affixing ''-mnēn/-mnai'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''ps'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''ps'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''ks'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''ss'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''ss'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''ss'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} <br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lt'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpr'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mbr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''ptr'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''ndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rks'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rks'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmbr'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''ltr'''os || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rst'''os || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''ber'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''st'''os || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for these consonants form their verbal nouns identically to the single-consonant stems, i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stantos'' (homonymous with the word for "importance") etc.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fig'''n'''ai, fign-, fig'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''ss'''ei, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, su'''ps'''ei, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roimeūm''', sōpedōi tholtae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorāsthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorāsthon'' "the person who held (him) back", from ''sthorāsos'' "having held back, who has held back", from ''sthorā'' "has held back, to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension VI endings by replacing the ending ''-os'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores soli'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''soli ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fragīēs sōpedēs'' "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fragaiēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''frageinēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezuraier Ganymēder'' "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezureiner Ganymēder'' has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezurīer Ganymēder''.<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaksae raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaksae '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaksae raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzai, valeusai, valindai, valoumai<br>valossai, valospai, valōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valtos<br>''loc.'' valtas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valter, valon<br>''pat.'' valsis, valsion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''airā''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzai, senneusai, sennindai, sennoumai<br>sennossai, sennospai, sennōnai <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sendros<br>''loc.'' sendras<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sendrer, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''eimos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mma'''<br>&lt;*sennma<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*sennmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*sennumthos &lt;*sennmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''airā''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalausai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalaetai, kalatārēn, hegalanai, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | verētai, veretārēn, heverenai, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebiārēn, hezebinai (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henironai, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''airēn''', (aur'''eidēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''āsei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrārēn, (thōraidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''ēnai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | parētai, pariārēn, (pareidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īnai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiairēn, (ankieidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigārēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=44713Classical Arithide conjugation2009-04-20T00:11:47Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* O-stem verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
===Voice and transitivity===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalau'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebiou'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'' and ''-u''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-izai'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eusai'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-ndai'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oumai'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ssai' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-spai "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōnai''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, affixing ''-mnēn/-mnai'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''ps'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''ps'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''ks'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''ss'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''ss'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''ss'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} <br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lt'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpr'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mbr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''ptr'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''ndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rks'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rks'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmbr'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''ltr'''os || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rst'''os || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''ber'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''st'''os || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for these consonants form their verbal nouns identically to the single-consonant stems, i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stantos'' (homonymous with the word for "importance") etc.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fig'''n'''ai, fign-, fig'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''ss'''ei, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, su'''ps'''ei, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roimeūm''', sōpedōi tholtae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorāsthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorāsthon'' "the person who held (him) back", from ''sthorāsos'' "having held back, who has held back", from ''sthorā'' "has held back, to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension VI endings by replacing the ending ''-os'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores soli'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''soli ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fragīēs sōpedēs'' "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fragaiēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''frageinēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezuraier Ganymēder'' "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezureiner Ganymēder'' has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezurīer Ganymēder''.<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaksae raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaksae '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaksae raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzai, valeusai, valindai, valoumai<br>valossai, valospai, valōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valtos<br>''loc.'' valtas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valter, valon<br>''pat.'' valsis, valsion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''airā''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzai, senneusai, sennindai, sennoumai<br>sennossai, sennospai, sennōnai <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sendros<br>''loc.'' sendras<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sendrer, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''eimos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mma'''<br>&lt;*sennma<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*sennmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*sennumthos &lt;*sennmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''airā''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalausai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalaetai, kalatārēn, hegalān, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | verētai, veretārēn, heverēn, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebiārēn, (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henirēn, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''airēn''', (aur'''eidēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''āsei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrārēn, (thōraidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''ēnai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | parētai, pariārēn, (pareidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īnai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiairēn, (ankieidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigārēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihilhttps://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Arithide_conjugation&diff=44451Classical Arithide conjugation2009-03-25T18:38:02Z<p>Denihilonihil: /* Active-voice consonant-stem verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide grammar}}<br />
<br />
[[Classical Arithide]] verbs are divided into two classes: active-voice and middle-voice; each is divided into two conjugations based on their stems: whether they end in a vowel or a consonant. There is no infinitive, and verbs are quoted in dictionaries in their perfect finite form. The two conjugations differ in their basic finite forms, whereas additional affixes for the various aspects and moods are common; a small group of verbs are mixed-conjugation: though consonant-stem, they take vowel-stem conjugations.<br />
<br />
Within consonant-stem verbs, nasal-stems (''-m-'' and ''-n-'') conjugate slightly differently from the non-nasal-stem verbs; also, vowel-stem verbs possess a second stem, with which are formed their derivatives, such as the protractive aspect and the agentive noun.<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and one tense, on a cascading hierarchy as above. I.e., to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense. Certain aspects and moods in Classical Arithide constitute separate verbs ''eo ipso'', but, as semi-independent verbs, are not always able to take the full range of verb conjugations.<br />
<br />
There is a small class of antideponent verbs in Classical Arithide, i.e. verbs with an active form but a passive meaning.<br />
<br />
Verbs are the only group of words in Classical Arithide that exhibit a significant degree of non-inflectionary morphology, namely, agglutination, which occurs in affixing aspects, moods and tenses onto individual verbs.<br />
<br />
===Voice and transitivity===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide verbs can also be classified, in grammatical literature, according to whether the root is active or passive. Because of the conflation of voice with transitivity, "active" and "middle" voice may in fact correspond to "transitive" and "intransitive" in certain cases, though to the Areth of the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical Age]], the difference was scarcely material.<br />
<br />
The flexible verb system of the language means that it is possible for individual verbs to cross categories, i.e. for active verbs to take on the middle voice and vice versa. By scholastic agreement, verbs can fall into either of two groups by this criterion: Group 1 (''numatheros'', lit. "down group") contains verbs analogous to the Germanic "weak verbs", i.e. they change voice with suffixes; Group 2 (''bisatheros'', lit. "up group") are the "strong verbs", which undergo [[Classical Arithide vowel gradation|ablaut]] to convey the same meaning. Each group is divided into two subgroups (a) and (b), the former of which consists of verbs whose roots are active, and take suffixes to middlise/intransitivise, and vice versa.<br />
<br />
Whereas Group 1b verbs uniformly activise by taking the suffix ''-eidēn'', Group 1a verbs take various endings depending on the phonological environment:<br />
*Where [r] occurs in the stem (particularly in the first syllable) after the vowels [e], [i] and [y], the suffix '''''-erai''''' is used<br />
*Where it occurs with any other vowel, or with diphthongs, the suffix '''''-arai''''' is used<br />
*Where either [r] or [m] is the final consonant in the stem, the suffix used is '''''-anai'''''<br />
*All other situations employ the suffix '''''-onai'''''<br />
<br />
==Conjugations of an Arithide verb==<br />
<br />
The basic conjugations of an Arithide verb are given in table format as laid out in the following template.<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ''verb''<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ''habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive, volitive''<br>''desiderative, jussive, subjunctive''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imperative, cohortative''<br><br>''supine'' (I)<br>''location'' (II)<br>''instrument'' (V)<br>''agent'' (VI)<br>''patient'' (VII, VI)<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfect supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''perfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective aspect''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''imperfective supine''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future tense''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future participle''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''future supine''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ''potentive, causative, passive{{footnote|1}}, (middlisation/activisation)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Note: for why the passive voice exists for both active/transitive and middle/intransitive verbs, see [[below]].<br />
<br />
===Stem & gerund===<br />
<br />
The conjugation of a verb is conducted with its stem as the basis. To find the stem of a verb, simply remove the perfective ending. For active verbs this is ''-ēn'' for consonant-stems and ''i''-, ''u-'', ''y''-stems, and ''-n'' for all other vowel stems; for middle voice verbs it is ''-ai'' for consonant-stems and ''-nai'' for all vowel stems.<br />
<br />
From the stem is formed the second major part of a verb's conjugation, the gerund. The gerunds of vowel-stem verbs are identical to the stems; consonant-stem verbs affix an ''-o'', hence ''napsēn'' "to hide" > ''napso''. Most complex conjugations are formed using the gerund, as are a number of common verbal phrases and periphrastic constructions; frequently, when those conjugations require an affix beginning with a vowel, the ''-o'' of the gerund in consonant-stem verbs is elided.<br />
<br />
The gerund for specific aspects of a verb can also be formed from any participial stem, simply by adding ''-to'' (occasionally ''-te''). I.e. the imperfective participle ''pariānos'' "kept running" has the imperfective gerund ''pariānto'' or ''pariānte'', meaning literally "keep running, and...". This is normally used when the verb in the gerund (being connected) and the final verb in the sentence are of different aspects, e.g.:<br />
<br />
''Mena paretei pāthīto artēnai.''<br><br />
she.NOM reason.PL.ACC listen.IMPF.GER agree.PRFV<br><br />
She listened continuously to the reasons (i.e. "heard us out") and agreed.<br />
<br />
===Imperative & cohortative===<br />
<br />
At the top-right of the table, listed with the stem and the gerund, are the imperative ("walk!") and the cohortative ("let's walk") moods respectively. These are the only two forms of the verb that are progressively invariable (see [[Progressive inflection]]), i.e. they do not inflect further for the next level of time-flow distinction, in this case tense. The imperative is formed with V-verbs by lengthening their inherent vowel and adding ''-ra'', and with consonant-stem verbs by adding ''-ēra'' to the stem (i.e. ''napsēn'' > ''napsēra'', ''kalau'' > ''kalāra'', ''sebiou'' > ''sebīra''). In colloquial speech or for purposes of scansion, the final ''-ra'' may be omitted. The cohortative is constructed in consonant-stem verbs by appending ''-ō'' to the stem; vowel-stem verbs add ''-ō'' to their stem, and the thematic vowel is elided with stems ending in ''-a'', ''-o'' and ''-u''.<br />
<br />
===Free derivatives===<br />
<br />
The only derivative verbs that can conjugate nearly as fully as the active verb itself, with only minimal restrictions (the "free derivatives"), number three, and are the three other verb voices in Classical Arithide: the potentive (''-ētai'', "able to"), causative (''-ārā''/''-ārai'', "make/cause to") and passive (''he-'', "be done something to").<br />
<br />
To illustrate, ''napsētai'' (''naps-'' + ''-ētai'' potentive) can take any ending that the main verb can, except the passive, because potentive verbs are intransitive by nature and thus do not have a passive; nor can ''henapsai'' (''naps-'' + prefix ''he-'' passive), for the same reason that passive verbs are also intransitive by definition; in addition, the causative is the only derivative of the three that allows recursion: ''napsārārēn'' "make to cause to hide" is semantically permissible, whereas ''napsētētai'' is illogical and ''hegenapsai'' (doubled ''he-''; the second ''he-'' is mutated due to historical phonological sound changes) is forbidden for transitivity reasons as already discussed.<br />
<br />
There is a third-person imperative ("let him hide") ending in ''-(e)sit''&mdash;i.e. ''henapsesit''<br />
<br />
Records of earlier Arithide show the passive form as originally having been constructed ''-sita'', which casts some light on the origins of the seemingly irregular third-person imperative, and the patientive verbal noun. The latter is attested as once regular (''napsesitis'', which phonetic attrition reduced), and the former of which is unattested but postulated by scholars to have been ''napsesitu'', paralleling the imperative and cohortative. For those moods, however, no material is available to explain their distinct construction from the active.<br />
<br />
====Passive voice on middle-voice verbs====<br />
<br />
Despite the limited applicability of the passive voice outlined above, however, the passive does in fact exist for middle/intransitive verbs, except with different meanings: the passive as used with active verbs is the regular passive as speakers of Indo-European languages may be used to; when used with middle verbs, however, the voice takes on a malefactive character. A sentence like ''Kēkou fātis henōssēn.'' (lit. "Cecus was died by his father") means that Cecus' father died, which caused him much pain, grief, agony and/or trouble.<br />
<br />
Such a construction may only take animate subjects, because objects cannot logically be "harmed" by an action. However, this rule is frequently broken by the classical poets, particularly in extended metaphors. Certain transitive verbs also took on a "malefactive passive", made possible by the existence of a topical case in later periods, ''viz.'':<br />
<br />
''Fregādou konāt sīn gybeōn hezilfēn.''<br />
Fregados.TOP wallet.NOM with thief.ABL PASS.steal.PRFV<br />
Fregādos' wallet was stolen by a thief<br />
<br />
===Limited derivatives===<br />
<br />
The "limited derivative" verbs are, as opposed to the free derivatives, independent derivative verbs that may not take the full range of conjugations. Most derivatives in this category are modal: the '''inceptive''' mood (''-izai'' "to begin to"), the '''frequentative''' (''-eusai'' "to do repeatedly"), the '''protractive''' (''-ndai'' "to go on and on"), the '''volitive''' (''-oumai'' "to be willing to"), the '''desiderative''' (''-ssai' "to want to"), the '''jussive''' (''-spai "to want the listener to") and the '''[[Subjunctive mood (Classical Arithide)|subjunctive]]''' (''-ōnai''). The first three moods take the imperfective stem; the latter three take the gerundive stem with C-verbs and the basic stem with V-verbs. None of these verbs may take a subordinate voice (as they are moods), nor recur outside literature (i.e. ''napsizizai'', for example, is not normally permissible); all may take the inceptive and the subjunctive subordinately, and the inceptive may take the frequentative in subordination, to give the meaning of "repeatedly began (but never finished)".<br />
<br />
Also part of the limited derivatives are the progressively invariable '''habitual''' and '''perfective habitual''' aspects, which are conjugated like tenses, by taking the imperfective stem, affixing ''-mnēn/-mnai'', and conjugating it for the perfect or perfective aspect, e.g. ''hoirimnai'' "used to turn (intr.)". The simple habitual (with the perfect-aspect ending) also doubles as the generic mood, to express universals, e.g. ''lēreu dialimnai'', "the sun rises (every day as a matter of certainty/fact)". These aspects are considered unique, in that they are the only ones that may follow a mood in affixation, to give, e.g. ''agnizimnai'' "he habitually begins to do things (and leave them hanging afterwards)".<br />
<br />
===Verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
The left side of the table, shaded slightly darker, lists the main verbal nouns, of agency (doer), of patiency (done to), of instrument (tool), of location (place done at), as well as the supine (act of). The supine is a declension I noun, locative nouns are declension II, agentive nouns are of declension VI and instrumentive nouns are declension Vb, the patientive is declension VII (see [[Classical Arithide declension]] for the respective inflection patterns).<br />
<br />
Different consonant stems take different epenthetic consonants in forming their supines and locatives, illustrated by the table below:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| to'''p'''ēn, top-, to'''ps'''os{{footnote|1}} || ste'''b'''ēn, steb-, ste'''ps'''os <br />
|-<br />
| i'''k'''ēn, ik-, i'''ks'''os{{footnote|1}} || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''os <br />
|-<br />
| ga'''t'''ēn, gat-, ga'''ss'''os{{footnote|1}} || fi'''d'''ēn, fid-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| pa'''th'''ēn, path-, pa'''ss'''os || fo'''dh'''ēn, fodh-, fo'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
| bē'''s'''ēn, bēs-, bē'''ss'''os || fi'''z'''ēn, fiz-, fi'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| da'''m'''ēn, dam-, da'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} || the'''n'''ēn, then-, the'''nt'''os{{footnote|1}} <br />
|-<br />
| su'''l'''ēn, sul-, su'''lt'''os || le'''r'''ēn, ler-, le'''ss'''os <br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''mp'''ēn, komp-, ko'''mpr'''os || ka'''mb'''ēn, kamb-, ka'''mbr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| e'''pt'''ēn, ept-, e'''ptr'''os || da'''nd'''ēn, dand-, da'''ndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''rk'''ēn, ark-, a'''rks'''os || ka'''rg'''ēn, karg-, ka'''rks'''os<br />
|-<br />
| a'''lm'''ēn, alm-, a'''lmbr'''os || se'''ln'''ēn, seln-, se'''lndr'''os<br />
|-<br />
| i'''ll'''ēn, ill-, i'''ltr'''os || <br />
|-<br />
| fi'''rr'''ēn, firr-, fi'''rst'''os || ē'''br'''ēn, ēbr-, ē'''ber'''os <br />
|-<br />
| he'''ss'''ēn, hess-, he'''st'''os || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}} Geminates for these consonants form their verbal nouns identically to the single-consonant stems, i.e. ''stammēn'' &gt; ''stantos'' (homonymous with the word for "importance") etc.<br />
<br />
Middle verbs go through the same process when they take the perfect-aspect ending ''-sei'' and its derivatives, and the tables above are repeated below with actual middle verbs as examples:<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 400px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc; padding: 2px;" cellspacing="0"<br />
! style="width: 200px" | Voiceless plosives/fricatives || style="width: 200px" | Voiced plosives/fricatives<br />
|-<br />
| de'''p'''ai, dep-, de'''ps'''ei || ro'''b'''ai, rob-, ro'''ps'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dī'''k'''ai, dīk-, di'''ks'''ei || va'''g'''ai, vag-, va'''ks'''ei <br />
|-<br />
| dū'''t'''ai, dūt-, dū'''ss'''ei || lei'''d'''ai, leid-, lei'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| hī'''th'''ai, hīth-, hī'''ss'''ei || fo'''dh'''ai, fodh-, fo'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| kla'''s'''ai, klas-, kla'''ss'''ei || au'''z'''ai, auz-, au'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Sonorants<br />
|-<br />
| he'''m'''ai, hem-, he'''ns'''ei || fig'''n'''ai, fign-, fig'''ns'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| idi'''l'''ēn, idil-, idi'''ls'''ei || ka'''r'''ai, kar-, ka'''ss'''ei<br />
|-<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Clusters, Geminates<br />
|-<br />
| the'''mp'''ai, themp-, the'''mps'''ei || fle'''mb'''ai, flemb-, fle'''mps'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| re'''pt'''ai, rept-, re'''ps'''ei || ba'''nd'''ai, band-, ba'''nz'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ki'''rk'''ai, kirk-, ki'''rks'''ei, ki'''rkes'''ei || o'''rg'''ai, org-, o'''rks'''ei, o'''rges'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ha'''ll'''ai, hall-, ha'''ls'''ei || sy'''pl'''ai, sypl-, sy'''ples'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ka'''rr'''ai, karr-, ka'''ss'''ei, ka'''rres'''ei || sū'''br'''ai, sūbr-, su'''ps'''ei, sū'''bres'''ei<br />
|-<br />
| ko'''ss'''ai, koss-, ko'''ss'''ei || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Aspects & tenses===<br />
<br />
Classical Arithide was an aspect-salient language; distinctions as "he eats" and "he ate" mattered far less to an Arithide-speaker then than did ones such as "he ate" and "he was eating". In this respect it bears much resemblance to the Chinese languages. The proclivity towards aspect-differentiation rather than tense persisted well into the [[Koine Arithide|koine]] era, and it was only with the rise of [[Modern Arithide]] did tenses begin to play a greater role.<br />
<br />
The verb conjugation table is ordered with the aspects preceding tenses, for reasons of origin: the tenses ultimately derive from reduced versions of the aspects; the perfect aspect gave rise to the present tense, the perfective to the past tense, and the once-common irrealis/conditional mood decayed into the future tense, in a logical process of mapping, in the final decades of the [[Lazeian Empire#Equora_dynasty_.28480_CIE.E2.80.94907_CIE.29|Equora dynasty]]. Written records exhibit tenses only from the late 9th century [[CIE]], and even then only in informal documents.<br />
<br />
{{seealso|Development of Classical Arithide tenses}}<br />
<br />
With the stronger role of the tenses in the koine, finer temporal distinctions became possible, and the aspects evolved from finite verb forms to dually functioning affixes: they could stand alone without tense-marking, or they could act as aspectual stems and take tenses. This overlapping feature of the aspect was often utilised in literature, as well as politics, for reasons of style, emphasis, or deliberate ambiguity.<br />
<br />
===Participles===<br />
<br />
The participles of the various aspects and the conditional mood serve two main purposes. First, due to the SOV syntax of Classical Arithide, verbs were used prenominally as modifiers. Initially these modifier verbs used the same forms as final verbs, but gradually evolved distinct forms with lengthened vowels and, in the case of the imperfective, lost the accompanying consonant. Adjectives of the verbal class, however, did not undergo this change (see [[Classical Arithide adjectives]]). Second, analogously to the Latin ablative absolute construction, the participles could indicate the context of a main sentence, e.g.<br />
<br />
*''Kodhē '''roimeūm''', sōpedōi tholtae vermairēn.'' '''Having weakened''' the enemy, the soldiers went in for the kill.<br />
<br />
These participle forms were largely developed already by the [[Lazeian_Empire#Aphoiros_dynasty_.28281_CIE.E2.80.94443_CIE.29|Aphoiros dynasty]], and codified into the language of the respectable classes upon the rise of the Equora.<br />
<br />
===Participial verbal nouns===<br />
<br />
Participles can also derive verbal nouns, such as ''sthorāsthos'' "the fact that you have held (him) back" or ''sthorāsthon'' "the person who held (him) back", from ''sthorāsos'' "having held back, who has held back", from ''sthorā'' "has held back, to hold back". These are quoted in the tables below in the abstract ''-os'' form which corresponds to "the fact that...", but can also take declension VI endings by replacing the ending ''-os'', changing their meaning to become "the person who...".<br />
<br />
==Deriving other parts of speech==<br />
<br />
Like many other SOV languages, most notably Japanese, early Classical Arithide could turn its verbs into modifiers simply by putting them directly before the noun they modify, e.g. ''ores soli'' "the river flows (lit. ''is flowing'')" vs. ''soli ores'' "the flowing river" "the river that flows (lit. ''is flowing'')". However, due to the language's extensive and growing inflection, and consequently considerably free word order, the practice declined rather early on in the [[Lazeian Empire]]'s existence in favour of the participle forms, which had already begun to differentiate from the finite forms before the [[conquest of Galaria]] (see [[Classical Arithide verb differentiation]]); it only experienced a sort of recovery after the fall of the Equora dynasty, and the consequent accelerated decay of the intricate inflection system it had built up over the years.<br />
<br />
In the conjugation tables below, the participles for each verb are listed with an additional letter each appended in parentheses to the end. In the "standard" Classical Arithide, the correct participle forms do not include the letters in brackets, nor as modifiers include them but simply conjugate in their base form according to the declension class of their referent. In earlier periods, however, up to the decades before the [[Three Hundred Golden Years]], the correct forms for the perfective and imperfective participles ended in ''-a'', subsequently dropped, and as modifiers of the nominal class declined as per the [[Classical Arithide declension|fifth declension]].<br />
<br />
At the same time, in the active and middle voices verbs can form various adjectives and nouns using their different aspectual participle forms (such as ''fragai'' "to rebel, to mutiny" > ''fragīēs sōpedēs'' "rebelling/mutinying soldiers", ''fragaiēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who have rebelled/mutinied&mdash;''implied'' and by consequence are now no longer part of the force", ''frageinēs sōpedēs'' "soldiers who rebelled/mutinied&mdash;before/once, and that is over and done with in their histories"). This is also true for the passive voice, hence ''hezuraier Ganymēder'' "stolen Ganymede" is still missing while ''hezureiner Ganymēder'' has been returned, and Zeus can stil be seen taking away ''hezurīer Ganymēder''.<br />
<br />
==Voice, aspect, mood and tense==<br />
<br />
Verbs in each class are conjugated for four or five voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects and seven moods. Of the following list, those marked with an asterisk form separate verbs (i.e. take their own infinitives), which usually do not hold the full conjugation range. Additionally, the interrogative mood is (commonly, and obligatorily in writing but not speech) marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''. Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.<br />
<br />
===Voices===<br />
<br />
*'''Active''' John hits the ball.<br />
*'''Middle''' John makes a hit.<br />
*'''Passive''' The ball is hit by John.<br />
*'''Causative''' Jack makes John hit the ball.<br />
*'''Potentive''' Jack can hit the ball.<br />
<br />
===Aspects===<br />
<br />
*'''Imperfective''', indicating the progression of an action<br />
**'''Habitual/Generic''' & '''Perfective Habitual''' I walk/used to walk to work every day. Mangoes (used to) grow on trees.<br />
**'''Protractive'''* I walk on and on; I go on walking.<br />
**'''Inceptive'''* I begin to walk.<br />
**'''Frequentative'''* I walk around.<br />
*'''Perfective''', indicating the completion of an action<br />
*'''Perfect''' I have walked to the cinema (and am now there).<br />
<br />
===Moods===<br />
<br />
*'''Indicative''', stating facts, strong beliefs<br />
*'''Subjunctive'''*, used with wishes, hopes, doubts, conditions<br />
*'''Desiderative'''* I want to walk.<br />
*'''Jussive'''* I want you to walk.<br />
*'''Volitive''', I am willing to walk<br />
*'''Imperative''' Walk!<br />
*'''Cohortative''' Let's walk.<br />
*'''Negative'''{{footnote|1}} I do not walk.<br />
<br />
{{footnote|1}}There are technically two types of the negative mood in Classical Arithide, but traditionally have been conflated into one by the [[Dethrians]], who were not generally able to effectively distinguish between the two (see next section for more information).<br />
<br />
==Negation==<br />
<br />
In Classical Arithide, as with its modern descendant, there are two possible ways of constructing negation&mdash;''broad'' and ''narrow''&mdash;using the affix ''av-, -va'' respectively. Broad negation negates the semantic meaning of an entire word, phrase, or even sentence; the narrow variant negates only the specific conjugated meaning of the verb.<br />
<br />
Compare the following two sentences and the nuanced difference in their meaning:<br />
*''Vaksae raenētai'''va'''.'' You can'''not''' choose to go. (lit. "going choose-can-not")<br />
*''Vaksae '''au'''raenētai.'' You can '''not''' choose to go. ''or'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "going not-choose-can")<br />
*'''''Au'''vaksae raenētai.'' You can choose '''not''' to go. (lit. "not-going choose-can")<br />
<br />
The former sentence is an example of narrow negation, because the negative suffix applies only to the conjugated verb, i.e. it refers to the narrow act of not choosing; the latter of broad, because the prefix inverts the lexical meaning of the verb, and subsequent conjugations modify the prefixed verb as a single unit of negative meaning&mdash;the new word is technically considered grammatically affirmative.<br />
<br />
Certain constructions require the use of either of the negatives over the other due to grammatical constraints, e.g. in the case of the following two sentences:<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagōn do, vagmai.'' If that person is not going, I will go.<br />
#''Sit iter vagōn do, vagmai'''va'''.'' If that person is going, I will not go.<br />
#''Sit iter '''au'''vagespai.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires the person to not-go")<br />
#''Sit iter vagespai'''va'''.'' He does not want that person to go. (Lit. "he desires not the person to go")<br />
<br />
In the first sentence the broad negative has to be employed due to the overlap in the various functions of the subjunctive mood, which here is used as a "subjunctive of condition": if it were said ''Sit iter vagōnaiva...'', it would imply a separate grammatical topic (e.g. ''dās'' "I", ''nās'' "he" etc.) and that the subjunctive is being used as a "subjunctive of desire", i.e. the clause would mean, instead, the equivalent of sentence (4).<br />
<br />
==Conjugation paradigms==<br />
<br />
=== Active-voice consonant-stem verbs ===<br />
<br />
Active voice verb ''valēn'' "to site, to settle (tr.)":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VAL-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | valimnēn, valīzai, valeusai, valindai, valoumai<br>valossai, valospai, valōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' valē(ra)<br>''coh.'' valō<br><br>''sup.'' valtos<br>''loc.'' valtas<br>''ins.'' valeta<br>''agt.'' valter, valon<br>''pat.'' valsis, valsion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''ma'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''mos'''<br><br />
| style="width: 125px" | val'''onthos'''<br>&lt; *valumthos &lt; *valmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | val'''ētai''', val'''airā''', '''he'''val'''ai''', (val'''onai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Verbs whose stems end in ''-n'' take a slightly different ending in the perfective aspect, which has arisen due to historical phonetic dissimulation: ''sennēn'' "to order, to command".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SENN-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sennimnēn, sennīzai, senneusai, sennindai, sennoumai<br>sennossai, sennospai, sennōnai <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' sennē(ra)<br>''coh.'' sennō<br><br>''sup.'' sendros<br>''loc.'' sendras<br>''ins.'' senneta<br>''agt.'' sendrer, sennon<br>''pat.'' sennosis, sennosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''eimos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''einthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mma'''<br>&lt;*sennma<br />
| style="width: 125px" | se'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*sennmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | senn'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*sennumthos &lt;*sennmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | senn'''ētai''', senn'''airā''', '''hez'''enn'''ai''', (senn'''erai''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Active-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | KALA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | kalamnēn, kalazai, kalausai, kalandai, kalōumai<br>kalassai, kalaspai, kalōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | kalā(ra)<br>kalō<br><br>''sup.'' kalatos<br>''loc.'' kalatas<br>''ins.'' kalateta<br>''agt.'' kalater, kalaton<br>''pat.'' kalasis, kalasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''as'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''antos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''athos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ān'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''ōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''āios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kal'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | kala'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | kalaetai, kalatārēn, hegalān, (kalanai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | VERE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | veremnēn, verezai, vereusai, verendai, verioumai<br> veressai, verespai, veriōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | verē(ra)<br> vereō<br><br>''sup.'' veretos<br>''loc.'' veretas<br>''ins.'' veriteta<br>''agt.'' veriter, veriton<br>''pat.'' veresis, veresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''es'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''entos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ethos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''iōnthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''ēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ver'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | vere'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | verētai, veretārēn, heverēn, (veremai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SEBI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sebimnēn, sebizai, sebiousai, sebindai, sebioumai<br>sebissai, sebispai, sebiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | sebī(ra)<br>sebiō<br><br>''sup.'' sebitos<br>''loc.'' sebitas<br>''ins.'' sebiteta<br>''agt.'' sebiter, sebiton<br>''pat.'' sebisis, sebision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''is'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''itos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''eumos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ionthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēi'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''iēios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | seb'''ieithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sebi'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | sebiētai, sebiārēn, (sebierai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | NIRO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | niromnēn, nirozai, nirousai, nirondai, nirōumai<br> nirossai, nirospai, nirōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | nirē(ra)<br> nirō<br><br>''sup.'' nissos<br>''loc.'' nissas<br>''ins.'' nisseta<br>''agt.'' nisser, nisson<br>''pat.'' nissis, nission<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ās'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''āsthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''ēn'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''oithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''i'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ni'''mmos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | nir'''onthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | nirētai, nirārēn, henirēn, (nironai)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice consonant-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
'The following table uses the example verb 'aurai'' "to meet":<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | AUR-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | aurimnai, aurīzai, aureusai, aurindai, auroumai<br>aurossai, aurospai, aurōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''imp.'' aurē(ra)<br>''coh.'' aurō<br><br>''sup.'' aussos<br>''loc.'' aussas<br>''ins.'' aureta<br>''agt.'' ausser, auron<br>''pat.'' aussis, aussion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''ssinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmai'''<br>&lt;*aurmai<br />
| style="width: 125px" | au'''mmos'''<br>&lt;*aurmos<br />
| style="width: 125px" | aur'''onthos'''<br>&lt;*aurumthos &lt;*aurmthos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | aur'''ētai''', aur'''airēn''', (aur'''eidēn''')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Middle-voice vowel-stem verbs===<br />
<br />
====A-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | THŌRA-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | thōramnai, thōrazai, thōrōusai, thōrandai, thōrōumai<br>thōrassai, thōraspai, thōrōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | thōrē(ra)<br>thōrō<br><br>''sup.'' thōratos<br>''loc.'' thōratas <br>''ins.'' thōrateta<br>''agt.'' thōrater, thōraton<br>''pat.'' thōrasis, thōrasion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''āsei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''asēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''aithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōr'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | thōra'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | thōrētai, thōrārēn, (thōraidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====E-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | PARE-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | paremnai, parezai, pareusai, parendai, parioumai<br>paressai, parespai, pariōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | parē(ra)<br>pariō<br><br>''sup.'' paretos<br>''loc.'' paretas<br>''ins.'' pariteta<br>''agt.'' pariter, pariton<br>''pat.'' paresis, paresion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''isēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''ēnai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | par'''iānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | pare'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | parētai, pariārēn, (pareidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the raising of ''-e-'' to ''-i-'' if the following vowel is non-high.<br />
<br />
====I-, U-, Y-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | ANKI-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | ankimnai, ankizai, ankiousai, ankindai, ankioumai<br>ankissai, ankispai, ankiōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ankī(ra)<br>ankiō<br><br>''sup.'' ankitos<br>''loc.'' ankitas<br>''ins.'' ankiteta<br>''agt.'' ankiter, ankiton<br>''pat.'' ankisis, ankision<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''sēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īnai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īkos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ank'''īthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | anki'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ankiētai, ankiairēn, (ankieidēn)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====O-stem verbs====<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | GIGO-<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | gigimnai, gigizai, gigeusai, gigondai, gigoumai<br>gigossai, gigospai, gigōnai<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | gigē(ra)<br>gigō<br><br>''sup.'' gigsos<br>''loc.'' gigsas <br>''ins.'' gigeta<br>''agt.'' gigeter, gigon<br>''pat.'' gigosis, gigosion<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esei'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''osēnios'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''esinthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''onai'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eikos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''eithos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ā'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gig'''ānthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''ma'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''mos'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | gigo'''nthos'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | gigētai, gigārēn, (geigēn*)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* ''irregular''<br />
<br />
==Mixed conjugation verbs==<br />
<br />
{{wip}}<br />
<br />
The mixed conjugation verbs are all consonant-stem verbs that conjugate as per vowel-stems. Due to the consequent coincidence of the consonants from the stem and the ending, phonetic assimilation or dissimilation may occur as demonstrated below. In certain cases where the syllable structure of the verb changes (e.g. from open to closed), vowel alterations may also take place with the high vowels ''i'' and ''u'', lowering them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.<br />
<br />
Certain mixed-conjugation verbs also act as if they were ''e''-stem verbs, and can conjugate accordingly, leading to two different conjugal matrices for the same verb; all the example verbs given below belong to this category: ''ludēn'' "to gamble", ''dagēn'' "to contain", ''simēn'' "to host" and ''levēn'' "big".<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LUDĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lud-, ludo, lud'''ē(ra)''', lud'''ō(ra)'''<br>ludabēn, ludārēn, losstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' luttos<br>''loc.'' luttas<br>''ins.'' ludeta<br>''agt.'' ludon (lutter)<br>''pat.'' ludosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es''', lud'''er-'''<br> lō'''s''', lō'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''es'''<br> lō'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''et''', lud'''ed-'''<br> lut'''t''', lod'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ēth'''<br> lō'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''eth'''<br> lut'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian''', lud'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''', lud'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lud'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lud'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | ludimnēn, ludizēn, ludivasēn, ludindēn<br>ludossēn, ludospēn, ludōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | DAGĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | dag-, dago, dag'''ē(ra)''', dag'''ō(ra)'''<br>dagabēn, dagārēn, dakstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' daktos<br>''loc.'' daktas<br>''ins.'' dageta<br>''agt.'' dagon (dakter)<br>''pat.'' dagosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es''', dag'''er-'''<br> dak'''s''', dag'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''es'''<br> dak'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''et''', dag'''ed-'''<br> dak'''t''', dag'''d-'''/dang'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ēth'''<br> dāk'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''eth'''<br> dak'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian''', dag'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''', dag'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(dag'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | dag'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | dagimnēn, dagizēn, dagivasēn, dagindēn<br>dagossēn, dagospēn, dagōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | SIMĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | sim-, simo, sim'''ē(ra)''', sim'''ō(ra)'''<br>simabēn, simārēn, simostēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' semptos<br>''loc.'' semptas<br>''ins.'' simeta<br>''agt.'' simon (sempter)<br>''pat.'' simosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es''', sim'''er-'''<br>semp'''s''', semp'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''es'''<br>semp'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''et''', sim'''ed-'''<br>semp'''t''', semb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ēth'''<br>sēmpth<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''eth'''<br>sempth<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian''', sim'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''', sim'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(sim'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | sim'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | simimnēn, simizēn, simivasēn, simindēn<br>simossēn, simospēn, simōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="width: 500px; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #cccccc" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"<br />
! style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" | LEVĒN<br />
| style="width: 375px; border-bottom: 1pt solid #cccccc" colspan="4" | lev-, levo, lev'''ē(ra)''', lev'''ō(ra)'''<br>levabēn, levārēn, lepstēn<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px; background: #dfdfdf; border-right: 1pt dashed #cccccc" rowspan="5" | ''sup.'' leptos<br>''loc.'' leptas<br>''ins.'' leveta<br>''agt.'' levon (lepter)<br>''pat.'' levosis<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es''', lev'''er-'''<br> lep'''s''', lep'''r-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ent'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''es'''<br> lep'''s'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''et''', lev'''ed-'''<br> lep'''t''', leb'''d-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ēth'''<br> lēp'''th'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''eth'''<br> lep'''th'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian''', lev'''iam-'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''ian'''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | <br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''', lev'''ium-''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | ''(lev'''iōn''')''<br />
| style="width: 125px" | lev'''iōn'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | levimnēn, levizēn, levvasēn, levindēn<br>levossēn, levospēn, levōnēn<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[List of Classical Arithide irregular verbs]]<br />
<br />
*[[Classical Arithide]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]<br />
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]<br />
[[Category: Arithide]]</div>Denihilonihil