FrathWiki - User contributions [en]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-27T21:43:11Z

Dedalvs: /* Assimilation */ Cleaned up style, alphabetic order.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==

====Consonant-Adjacent Devoicing====
* V > [-voice] / C[-voice]_, _C[-voice]
** Example: ''私'' /watasi/ [wataɕi̥] "I" (''Japanese'')
** Example: ''拡張'' /kakɯtɕoo/ [kakɯ̹̥tɕoː] "expansion" (''Japanese'')<ref name="Japanese Devoicing Wikipedia">From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology#Devoicing</ref>
** Notes: In Japanese, this ordinarily only affects high vowels, and successive potential devoicing areas can block devoicing where it might ordinarily occur. Devoicing and tone patterns interact in complex ways.

====Progressive Nasal Place Assimilation====
* N > [α place] / _C[α place]
** Example: ''半角'' /haNkakɯ/ [hãŋkakɯ̥] "half-width" (''Japanese'')

====Stop Nasality Assimilation ====
* C > [+nasal] / _C[+nasal]
** Example: ''학년'' /haknjʌn/ [háŋnjʌ̀n] "school year" (''Korean'')

== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Schiffman">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==

====Intervocalic Voicing====
* C > [+voice] / V_V
** Example: *''metus'' /metus/ (''Latin'') > ''miedo'' /miedo/ "fear" (''Spanish'')
** Notes: This is a very common sound change. Sometimes it can be triggered when one (or both) of the elements on either side of the consonant is a sonorant, not simply a vowel (e.g. Latin ''patrem'' > Spanish ''padre'').

====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: ''개다'' /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", ''캐다'' /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

==References==

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-16T20:49:58Z

Dedalvs: /* Consonant Opposition Loss */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==

====Consonant-Adjacent Devoicing====
* V > [-voice] / C[-voice]_, _C[-voice]
** Example: ''私'' /watasi/ [wataɕi̥] "I" (''Japanese'')
** Example: ''悲観'' /hikaɴ/ [çi̥kãɴ́] "I" (''Japanese'')<ref name="Japanese Devoicing Wikipedia">From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology#Devoicing</ref>
** Notes: In Japanese, this only affects high vowels, and successive potential devoicing areas can block devoicing where it might ordinarily occur.

== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Schiffman">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==

====Intervocalic Voicing====
* C > [+voice] / V_V
** Example: *''metus'' /metus/ (''Latin'') > ''miedo'' /miedo/ "fear" (''Spanish'')
** Notes: This is a very common sound change. Sometimes it can be triggered when one (or both) of the elements on either side of the consonant is a sonorant, not simply a vowel (e.g. Latin ''patrem'' > Spanish ''padre'').

====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: ''개다'' /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", ''캐다'' /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

==References==

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-16T20:46:46Z

Dedalvs: /* Intervocalic Voicing */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==

====Consonant-Adjacent Devoicing====
* V > [-voice] / C[-voice]_, _C[-voice]
** Example: ''私'' /watasi/ [wataɕi̥] "I" (''Japanese'')
** Example: ''悲観'' /hikaɴ/ [çi̥kãɴ́] "I" (''Japanese'')<ref name="Japanese Devoicing Wikipedia">From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology#Devoicing</ref>
** Notes: In Japanese, this only affects high vowels, and successive potential devoicing areas can block devoicing where it might ordinarily occur.

== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Schiffman">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==

====Intervocalic Voicing====
* C > [+voice] / V_V
** Example: *''metus'' /metus/ (''Latin'') > ''miedo'' /miedo/ "fear" (''Spanish'')
** Notes: This is a very common sound change. Sometimes it can be triggered when one (or both) of the elements on either side of the consonant is a sonorant, not simply a vowel (e.g. Latin ''patrem'' > Spanish ''padre'').

====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

==References==

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-16T20:45:51Z

Dedalvs: /* Assimilation */ Added Consonant-Adjacent Devoicing.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==

====Consonant-Adjacent Devoicing====
* V > [-voice] / C[-voice]_, _C[-voice]
** Example: ''私'' /watasi/ [wataɕi̥] "I" (''Japanese'')
** Example: ''悲観'' /hikaɴ/ [çi̥kãɴ́] "I" (''Japanese'')<ref name="Japanese Devoicing Wikipedia">From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology#Devoicing</ref>
** Notes: In Japanese, this only affects high vowels, and successive potential devoicing areas can block devoicing where it might ordinarily occur.

== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Schiffman">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==

====Intervocalic Voicing====
* C > [+voice] / V_V
** Example: ''metus'' /metus/ (''Latin'') > miedo /miedo/ "I" (''Spanish'')
** Notes: This is a very common sound change. Sometimes it can be triggered when one (or both) of the elements on either side of the consonant is a sonorant, not simply a vowel (e.g. Latin ''patrem'' > Spanish ''padre'').

====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

==References==

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-16T20:45:02Z

Dedalvs: /* Lenition */ Changed the adjacent devoicing to intervocalic voicing.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Schiffman">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==

====Intervocalic Voicing====
* C > [+voice] / V_V
** Example: ''metus'' /metus/ (''Latin'') > miedo /miedo/ "I" (''Spanish'')
** Notes: This is a very common sound change. Sometimes it can be triggered when one (or both) of the elements on either side of the consonant is a sonorant, not simply a vowel (e.g. Latin ''patrem'' > Spanish ''padre'').

====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

==References==

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-16T20:37:24Z

Dedalvs: /* Consonant-Adjacent Devoicing */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Schiffman">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==

====Consonant-Adjacent Devoicing====
* V > [-voice] / C[-voice]_, _C[-voice]
** Example: ''私'' /watasi/ [wataɕi̥] "I" (''Japanese'')
** Example: ''悲観'' /hikaɴ/ [çi̥kãɴ́] "I" (''Japanese'')<ref name="Japanese Devoicing Wikipedia">From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology#Devoicing</ref>
** Notes: In Japanese, this only affects high vowels, and successive potential devoicing areas can block devoicing where it might ordinarily occur.

====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

==References==

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-16T20:36:57Z

Dedalvs: /* Lenition */ Added consonant-adjacent devoicing

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Schiffman">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==

====Consonant-Adjacent Devoicing====
* V > [-voice] / C[-voice]_, _C[-voice]
** Example: 私 /watasi/ [wataɕi̥] "I" (''Japanese'')
** Example: 悲観 /hikaɴ/ [çi̥kãɴ́] "I" (''Japanese'')<ref name="Japanese Devoicing Wikipedia">From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology#Devoicing</ref>
** Notes: In Japanese, this only affects high vowels, and successive potential devoicing areas can block devoicing where it might ordinarily occur.

====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

==References==

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-15T18:27:56Z

Dedalvs:

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Schiffman">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==
====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

==References==

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

Sound change

2017-03-15T18:26:43Z

Dedalvs: Added link to Sound Change List.

Sound change is the main drive of languages change.

==Causes==
{{Stub}}

==Types and terminology==
Sound changes can be arranged in three broad classes: '''addition''', '''loss''' and '''modification''', and on the other hand, into '''conditional''' and '''unconditional''' changes.

Types of additions:
*'''[[Epenthesis]]'''
*'''[[Excresence]]'''
...

Types of modifications:
* '''Merger''': Two sounds fall together to be pronounced the same. An example is the merger of [[English]] /w/ <w> and /ʍ/ <wh> in most dialects.
** If the end result (as is the case of /w/ here) is essentially the same as one of the original phonemes, one may speak of a merger of the other phoneme '''into''' the other.
** One might think that any merger must involve such a case, however this isn't the case: sometimes both the original ''sounds'' remain, except now as allophones. An example is the merger of */β/ <v> and */b/ as "/b/" in Spanish: the resultant phoneme retains the allophone [β] intervocally, and the allophone [b] initially & after a nasal.
** A "stealth merger" occurs when two former phonemes end up becoming allophones without either of them changing at all, but rather, their ''environments'' change. For an example (which has played itself out in many Slavic languages, eg. [[Russian]]), suppose a language has the vowels /i ɨ/, and consonants before /i/ are palatalized (eg. /mi/ [mʲi]). Next suppose there are some consonant clusters of the shape /CjV/. If these change to become palatalized consonants as well (so eg. /mja/ → /mʲa/), a result is that palatalized consonants are now separate phonemes. However, if the combination /jɨ/ did ''not'' occur in the language, there is also another consequence: /ɨ/ and /i/ are now in complementary distribution, the former only after unpalatalized consonants, the latter only after palatalized consonants. Thus, they've merged. (Cf. [[palatalization-split]].)
* '''Primary split''': A phoneme acquires two distinct [[allophone]]s in certain environments. This term is usually only used when the distinction, due to later changes in the environment, becomes phonemic.
* '''Secondary split'''

In '''[[loss]]''', a sound is lost entirely. With consonants (rarely vowels) this can also be called a '''merger''' (in)'''to zero''' (after the concepts of [[zero onset]] and [[zero coda]]).
* The preposition matters here. A merger '''with''' zero may involve epenthesis, in a fashion similar to
* Vowel loss:
** '''Apocope''' is the loss of a final vowel.
** '''Syncope''' is the loss of a medial vowel.

===Order===
A sound change may affect the outcome of another change, or the conditions of it.
* If change X applies to a result of change Y, it is said that Y is '''feeding''' X. Any case of [[phoneme drift]] is a string of several changes feeding one another.
* If change X applies to a phoneme that was previously also in some places affected by change Y (to something that X doesn't affect), Y is said to be '''counterfeeding''' X.
* If change X applies in a context § that was previously created by change Y, it is that Y is ''bleeding'' X.
* If change X applies in a context § that was previously also in some places affected by change Y (to something that doesn't trigger X), Y is said to '''counterbleed''' X.

Neither a feeding or bleeding change is required to completely enable the change it is *eeding (and obviously, a change that is completely counter*ed does not happen at all).

Both conditional and unconditional changes can be (counter)fed, but only conditional changes can be (counter)bled.

===See Also===

* [[List of Sound Changes]]

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-15T18:22:04Z

Dedalvs:

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Schiffman">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==
====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-15T18:21:26Z

Dedalvs: Added reference.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil'' by Harold F. Schiffman (2006).</ref>
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==
====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-15T18:19:41Z

Dedalvs: /* Epenthesis */ Added Paragoge.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==

====Paragoge====
* Ø > V / _#
** Example: ''தஞ்சாவூர்'' /t̪antɕaːʋuɾ/ [t̪andʑaːʋuɾu] "Thanjavur (name of a city)" (''Tamil'')
** Notes: The vowel inserted at the end is usually either a copy vowel of the previous vowel, or some neutral vowel in the system. In the Tamil example, it looks like the former, but it's actually the latter: [u] is always inserted.

====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ "school" (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ "school" (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==
====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-15T18:03:22Z

Dedalvs: /* Tonogenesis */ Flipped the changes so they're in alphabetical order (might as well?).

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==
====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-15T03:11:04Z

Dedalvs: /* Word Final Devoicing */ Italicized Russian /drug/

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==
====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: ''друг'' /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-15T03:10:20Z

Dedalvs: Indented the other "notes" lines further.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
====Aphaeresis====
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
** Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
====Prothesis====
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==
====Word Final Devoicing====
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

== Tonogenesis ==

====Final Consonant Loss====
* C > [tone] / _#
** Example: *pah > pâ (''Vietnamese'')
** Notes: Typically lower-sonority consonants (e.g. voiceless stops) become higher tone, while higher-sonority consonants (voiced stops, fricatives) become lower tones.

====Consonant Opposition Loss====
* C[phonation]V > CV[tone]
** Example: /keta/ [kʰèdá] "fold", /kʰeta/ [kʰédà] "dig" (''Korean'')
** Notes: Typically "more voiced" consonants become lower tone, and "more aspirated" consonants become higher tone.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:37:38Z

Dedalvs:

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:37:17Z

Dedalvs: /* Aphaeresis */

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:36:10Z

Dedalvs: /* Aphaeresis */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
===Aphaeresis===
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
* Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Prothesis|prothesis]].

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
===Prothesis===
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==
===Word Final Devoicing===
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:35:48Z

Dedalvs: /* Prothesis */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
===Aphaeresis===
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
* Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see prothesis.

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
===Prothesis===
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see [[#Aphaeresis|aphaeresis]].

== Lenition ==
===Word Final Devoicing===
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:32:55Z

Dedalvs: /* Deletion */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
===Aphaeresis===
* {C/V} > Ø / #_
** Example: ''μνημονικός'' /mnemonikos/ (''Greek'') > ''mnemonic'' /nǝmɑnɪk/ (''English'')
** Example: *''cneo'' /kneo/ (''Old English'') > ''knee'' /niː/ (''English'')
* Notes: This sound change is also spelled "apheresis". Often this is a way to resolve complex onset consonant clusters. As a counterpart to this sound change, see prothesis.

== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
===Prothesis===
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see aphaeresis.

== Lenition ==
===Word Final Devoicing===
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:25:50Z

Dedalvs: /* Word Final Devoicing */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
===Prothesis===
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see aphaeresis.

== Lenition ==
===Word Final Devoicing===
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:25:35Z

Dedalvs: /* Prothesis */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
===Prothesis===
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see aphaeresis.

== Lenition ==
==='''Word Final Devoicing'''===
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:25:10Z

Dedalvs: /* Epenthesis */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
==='''Prothesis'''===
* Ø > V / #_
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see aphaeresis.

== Lenition ==
==='''Word Final Devoicing'''===
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:24:44Z

Dedalvs: /* Lenition */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
* '''Prothesis'''
** Ø > V / #_
*** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
*** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see aphaeresis.

== Lenition ==
==='''Word Final Devoicing'''===
* {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
* Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:24:04Z

Dedalvs: /* Epenthesis */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
* '''Prothesis'''
** Ø > V / #_
*** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
*** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system). Also, this sound change often applies to words that begin with an impermissible consonant cluster. As a counterpart to this sound change, see aphaeresis.

== Lenition ==
* '''Word Final Devoicing'''
** {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
*** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
*** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:21:29Z

Dedalvs:

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
* '''Prothesis'''
** Ø > V / #_
*** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
*** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''école'' /ekol/ (''French'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system).
== Lenition ==
* '''Word Final Devoicing'''
** {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
*** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
*** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999).</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:19:25Z

Dedalvs: Added Prothesis.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
* '''Prothesis'''
** Ø > V / #_
*** Example: *''scola'' /skola/ (''Latin'') > ''escuela'' /eskuela/ (''Spanish'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999)</ref>
** Notes: Often the vowel inserted has the status of the most neutral or basic vowel in the system (with the terms "neutral" and "basic" being defined internal to the system).
== Lenition ==
* '''Word Final Devoicing'''
** {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
*** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
*** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999)</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:14:08Z

Dedalvs: /* Lenition */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
== Lenition ==
* '''Word Final Devoicing'''
** {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
*** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
*** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' by Lyle Campbell (1999)</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:13:44Z

Dedalvs: /* Lenition */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
== Lenition ==
* '''Word Final Devoicing'''
** {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
*** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
*** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')<ref name="Campbell">From Historical Linguistics: An Introduction by Lyle Campbell (1999)</ref>
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:11:25Z

Dedalvs: /* Lenition */

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
== Lenition ==
* '''Word Final Devoicing'''
** {C/V} > [-voice] / _#
*** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” (''Russian'')
*** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" (''Mayan'')
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:10:16Z

Dedalvs: Added word-final devoicing.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
== Lenition ==
* '''Word Final Devoicing'''
** C > [-voice] / _#
*** Example: друг /drug/ [dɾuk] “friend” ('Russian')
*** Example: /xaːj/ [xaːj̥] "house" ('Mayan')
** Notes: Often these are near mergers, where the vowel length may differ between forms that end with a phonologically voiced vs. voiceless consonant, or there may be a difference in how the voiceless stop is released if it’s phonologically voiced vs. voiceless.

[[Category:Terminology]]
[[Category:Sound changes|*]]

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:03:06Z

Dedalvs: Added some major categories.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

== Assimilation ==
== Deletion ==
== Dissimilation ==
== Epenthesis ==
== Lenition ==

List of Sound Changes

2017-03-14T00:00:02Z

Dedalvs: Page creation date. I'll be editing this a lot in the next few minutes to make sure it looks right.

Below is a large list of attested sound changes in natural languages.

Conlang terminology

2013-01-10T22:41:51Z

Dedalvs: /* Descriptive terms for conlangs */ Removed mistaken extra bullet point and extra space.

'''Conlang Terminology''' is used by conlangers (people who create languages) who deal with a number of specific things in their own community, which may be rather uncommon to see elsewhere. As a result of this, the conlanging community (community of people who make languages) has its own [[Wikipedia:Jargon|jargon]].

==Making a Conlang==
The most common way to say "make a language" is to say "conlang". "Conlang", thus, can be either a verb or a noun. "I am conlanging." "This is a conlang."

Another (less-common) way to express the same thing is to use the word '''glossopoeia''' or ''glossopoesis''. The first term is widely attributed to J.R.R. Tolkien, but it's [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind1105d&L=conlang&T=0&F=&S=&P=17851 not clear] that he actually used the word in this sense (it has a more mundane sense in classical Greek). The word doesn't occur in his essay on conlang, "A Secret Vice", nor in his published letters. The earliest print citation anyone has found [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind1105d&L=conlang&T=0&F=&S=&P=19696 so far] is the title of the ''Glossopoeic Quarterly'' in 1988.

==Types of conlangs==
===The "reason" classification system===


*'''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineered_language Engineered languages]''' (''[[engelang]]s'' {{IPA|/ˈendʒlæŋz/}}), further subdivided into '''philosophical languages''', '''logical languages''' (''[[loglang]]s'') and '''experimental languages'''; devised for the purpose of experimentation in logic, philosophy or linguistics. The term was originated in February 2001 by John Cowan and And Rosta.[http://archives.conlang.info/phi/zelghon/jhaufuersuan.html]
*'''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_auxiliary_language Auxiliary languages]''' (''[[auxlang]]s'') — devised for international communication (also '''IAL'''s, for International Auxiliary Language, or '''conIAL'''s, constructed international auxiliary languages, by contrast with Latin or other natlangs which have been used as IALs)
*'''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_language Artistic languages]''' (''[[artlang]]s'') — devised to create aesthetic pleasure or humorous effect

====History of the "reason" classification system====
This classification system grew out of discussions on the [[CONLANG]] mailing list in the 1990s and early 2000s. As early as [http://www.glossopoeia.org/conlang/conl92d.txt 3 November 1992], Lars Henrik Mathiesen spoke of artlangs, auxlangs and "research langs", apparently what we call engelangs now. And Rosta named an earlier version of this system (with "loglang" in place of "engelang") the "Gnoli Triangle", based on Claudio Gnoli's description of his conlang Liva; at the time, the word "engelang" hadn't been coined yet, and "loglang" was used in a wider sense than it is now. Ray Brown uses a modified version with "engelang" in place of "loglang", calling it the [http://www.carolandray.plus.com/Glosso/Glossopoeia.html "Conlang triangle"]. Many conlangs are not at the vertices of the triangle (pure engelang, auxlang, or artlang) but somewhere along the edges or in the space in the middle.

===The "origin" classification system===
An older, very basic classification system was applied originally to philosophical languages and auxlangs, but is meaningful for artlangs as well:

*''[[a posteriori]]'' conlangs take their vocabulary from one or more natural languages (even if the grammar is very different from those natlangs)
*''[[a priori]]'' conlangs have vocabulary whose phonological forms were invented from scratch (even if their grammar is strongly influenced by certain natlangs)

Occasionally one sees these terms used to refer to whether or not a conlang's grammar is based closely on one or more natlangs, but this is not the most standard use. Historically, with the philosophical languages and auxlangs of the late 18th to early 20th centuries, there was probably a close correlation between ''a priori''ness in vocabulary and ''a priori''ness in grammar and semantics; but with the wider variety of conlangs being developed in recent years, this correlation is not as strong.

===Alternative (less common) classification methods===
* '''Personal language''', '''hermetic language''', '''''langue close''''' or '''heartlang''', a language someone creates for personal use; the latter two terms emphasize that they try to become fluent in their language to use it in expressing their private thoughts in a way that natlangs or other conlangs aren't suitable for. Javant Biarujia's [[Taneraic]] is probably the most famous such hermetic language; he coined the term ''langue close'' by analogy with French ''maison close''. Paul Burgess's [[mna Vanantha]], which he also calls "Hermetic", was recently discussed at length in Sarah L. Higley's ''Hildegard of Bingen's Unknown Language''. The term "heartlang" was coined by Rick Harrison.

*'''[[Altlang]]''', a general term for an alternate-history artlang, especially naturalistic diachronically derived artlangs such as:
** '''[[Romlang]]''', a naturalistic artlang derived from Vulgar Latin or Proto-Romance; usually set in an alternate history where the Roman Empire's linguistic influence was stronger in some area than it was in our own history. Andrew Smith's Brithenig is the granddaddy of romlangs.
*'''[[Lostlang]]''', a fictional language that is assumed to exist (or once have existed) in a world otherwise the same as our world, being small enough not to make a difference. The term is derived from the [[League of Lost Languages]], which provides a common framework for such languages.
*'''[[Fauxlang]]''', a conlang with the design criteria of an auxlang but without the political goals of an auxlang ("the same thing we do every night, Pinky... try to take over the world!"). Some fauxlangs are also altlangs, auxlangs created by a fictional serious auxlanger in an alternate history; e.g. Rex May's Texperanto (created by a Zamenhof who immigrated to the Republic of Texas), and Ray Brown's Ελληνικό άνευ Κλίσι, a [[The WHAT|Greek-empire-timeline]] version of Peano's Latine Sine Fleksione.

*'''Taxonomic languages''' are usually engelangs, specifically '''philosophical languages''', where the sequence of phonemes in a word specifies the position of the concept it represents in a taxonomic hierarchy; examples are Ro and John Wilkins' Real Character.

*'''[[Exolang]]''', a language spoken by fictional nonhuman aliens, especially if it also violates human language universals. Quenya is spoken by fictional nonhumans, but probably wouldn't be called an exolang because it looks like a typical human language. Admired exolangs include Sylvia Sotomayor's [http://www.terjemar.net/kelen.php Kēlēn] and Jeffrey Henning's [http://www.langmaker.com/fith.htm Fith]. This term seems to be most used on the Conlang Relay list; elsewhere "alien language" might be more common.

*'''[[Euroclone]]''', a term used primarily on the AUXLANG list but also elsewhere. It is used generally to refer to auxlangs that more or less resemble Western European models. Some use the term for a narrow set of auxlangs like Interlingua; some use it a bit more broadly to include more schematic European-based auxlangs like Esperanto and Ido. The term is pejorative as used by some speakers, particularly those who think an ideal auxlang should be based on worldwide rather than primarily or exclusively European sources.[http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0512A&L=AUXLANG&T=0&F=&S=&P=13354] An older usage applied the term to any conlang based on European sources, including e.g. romlangs as well as the aforementioned auxlangs.

*'''[[Worldlang]]''', a term primarily used on the AUXLANG list; sometimes to mean an auxlang intended for global use in contrast to one intended for regional (e.g. Europe only) use, more recently used to refer to auxlangs that take their vocabulary from a variety of natlangs of different language families, not just Western European languages.[http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0710B&L=AUXLANG&P=R1153&D=0&T=0] Some users of the term seem to emphasize globally accessible lowest-common denominator phonology and grammar, as well (e.g., CV syllables with a small phoneme inventory; few or no mandatory inflectional categories).

*'''[[Hagioglossa]]''' or '''ritlang''', terms coined on the CONLANG list but rarely used as yet, a conlang devised for religious or ritual purposes (prayer, meditation, worship, etc.)[http://archives.conlang.info/ka/qhuqan/sheinjaulghuen.html]

*'''[[Planlang]]''', occasionally proposed as a synonym of "engelang" but scarcely used in that sense, and also (slightly more often but not very often) used as an abbreviation of "planned language", a common term for auxlangs

*'''[[Lablang]]''', occasionally proposed as a synonym of "engelang" but rarely used.

*'''[[Sketchlang]]''', a conlang whose grammar or vocabulary or both is very incomplete; perhaps implying that the creator has no intention of fully developing it

===Descriptive terms for conlangs===
*'''ANADEW''': Another Natlang Already Did it Even Worse, or Another Natlang Already Did it, Except Worse. The phenomenon of discovering that a weird, supposedly original feature in your conlang already exists in some natural language. Also, "anadewism".[http://www.google.com/search?num=50&hl=en&domains=archives.conlang.info&sitesearch=archives.conlang.info&q=anadewism&btnG=Search&sitesearch=archives.conlang.info]

* '''Relex''', a term of criticism saying that someone has naively or unreflectively imitated their native language too closely in creating a conlang. Many conlangers' first attempts at conlanging are relexes of their native language on one level or another. Also occasionally called "codes", "cipherlangs" or "nooblangs".

* '''[[Kitchen sink conlang]]'''[http://archives.conlang.info/ci/khakei/kuekhoenbhuen.html], a term of criticism saying that someone has thrown in too many features in their conlang without considering how they work together or what the overall ethos of the conlang should be. Sai Emrys doesn't use the term in his [http://community.livejournal.com/conlangs/339595.html Conlang Evaluation] essay, but he probably has this kind of thing in mind in saying "Somebody’s been learning new things in Linguistics class again..." Many conlangers' ''second'' attempts at conlanging are kitchen sink collections of all the neat features they've been reading about lately and the spiffy phonemes they've just learned to pronounce.

* '''Maggelity''', a term used mostly on the CONLANG mailing list[http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0207B&L=conlang&P=R13711] to describe the quality of conlangs with extreme degrees of irregularity even beyond what's found in natlangs; from Christophe Grandsire's conlang [[Maggel]] and its baroque orthography and grammar[http://archives.conlang.info/va/fhaerzua/gabhianjian.html]. Also adjective forms '''maggelic''', '''maggelitous''', '''maggelitinous'''.

* '''Etabnannery''', adj. '''etabnanneric''' or '''etabnannimous''': a quality of languages with extremely complex but regular orthography, usually due to retention of archaically phonemic spelling, or spelling that fails to reflect sandhi and other phonological processes.[http://archives.conlang.info/jhau/cuefhei/zhualviaqhian.html]

===Conlang-exclusive terms===
There are some grammatical or typological terms that are used only with respect to conlangs, or have a different sense with respect to conlangs although they originated in standard linguistics:

*'''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Conlang/Advanced/Grammar/Trigger_languages Trigger languages]''' have an unusual type of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphosyntactic_alignment morphosyntactic alignment] apparently found only in conlangs. The term, and the way the conlangs work, was apparently inspired by attempts to understand the applicativization systems of Austronesian languages like Tagalog.[http://archives.conlang.info/zo/cuerbho/chanzurvhuan.html]

*'''Oligosynthetic''' languages, where all words are built from a fairly small set of root morphemes, apparently don't exist in the wild but there are a few conlangs of that nature; similarly '''oligoisolating''' languages with a restricted set of root words that don't compound but express more complex meanings through phrases, e.g. [[Toki Pona]].

*'''Correlative''' is a catch-all term used in Esperanto grammar, and sometimes in describing conlangs whose design was influenced by Esperanto, to refer to demonstratives, interrogative and relative pronouns and adverbs, and (especially if they are morphologically related to the aforementioned particles in a given language, as they are in Esperanto) words such as "someone", "nowhere", "anyhow", etc.

*'''[[List of self-segregating morphology methods|Self-segregating morphology]]''' is a quality some auxlangs and many engelangs have whereby one can always tell at a glance where one morpheme or word leaves off and another begins.

*'''Verb-drop''', a term coined by analogy with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-drop_language "pro-drop"], a term for conlangs where the verb can be omitted when it's obvious from the cases or adpositions applied to the nouns in a sentence.

*''Naturalistic'' has at least two senses. In an auxlang context, it refers to a high degree of ''a posteriori''ness in both grammar and vocabulary, i.e. the language imitates one or more specific source natlangs closely. In this sense, Interlingua is more "naturalistic" than Esperanto, which is more naturalistic than Volapük. In an artlang context, it refers to verisimilitude ''qua'' natural human language -- if an artlang could be mistaken for an obscure natlang by a linguist who doesn't know it's constructed, then it's very "naturalistic" in this sense; it doesn't matter whether it's ''a priori'' or ''a posteriori''. All the aforementioned auxlangs are too regular to be mistaken for natlangs, and thus not very naturalistic in the artlang sense.

==Other Terms==
===Conlanger Meetings===
Yes, yes! We all know by now some of the more slangy meanings of the word ''boink'', but the term also has a long if sporadic history in the conlanging community. A ''conlang boink'' is any face-to-face meeting of conlangers for the purpose of having good conversation, good food and drink all in the company of other like-minded individuals. The term's use can be verified on the Conlang list back as far as 1999 as part of the fuller phrase ''a proper Conlang boink''. Another term for a meeting of conlangers, dating back to 2009, is a ''Conlang Moot''. Since the inception of the [[Language Creation Society]], the term ''[[Language Creation Conference]]'' has become established and regularized for a more formal gathering of conlangers where papers and projects are formally presented all in a more formal atmosphere.

[[Category: Terminology]]
{{Conlangculture}}

My First Conlang

2012-09-05T20:15:32Z

Dedalvs:

A discussion on Conlang some little while ago prompted me to wonder about our early if not very first conlangs, and I know some of us have been working on the stories of how we became, or first discovered that we already were, makers of languages. To that end, and for anyone who might be interested, this page is for links to either a short description of those first tentative steps into the Art, or even stories of how you came into the Art in the first place.

*[[User:Elemtilas|Elemtilas]]:
**[[The First Conlang]]
**[[The Second and Third Conlangs]]

*MilyAMD:
**[[Satie]] - the first conlang ever
**[[Andopadish]] - the first more elaborate project
**[[Milangio]] - the first language presented to public

*[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]:
**[[Homu]] - earliest project
**[[Serindian]] - earliest conlang which was developed to any degree

*[[User:Dedalvs|David Peterson]]:
**[http://dedalvs.com/megdevi.html Megdevi] - this is an essay about my first language
----
[[Category: conlangs]]

Inspirational Natlangs

2011-11-13T20:38:58Z

Dedalvs: /* Africa */

With a little digging, one can easily find quite a selection of freely-available grammars on the web. Normally I just download these and dump them into my e-reader, but then if I want to direct someone else to a grammar, I have to go hunting again. It seemed useful to make a list.

I do not include Wikipedia pages in this list. Some languages have their phonologies and morphologies very well described there, but most articles are very weak on syntax.

''The organization below is based on region rather than family. I have no particular attachment to this scheme, if someone has a more useful plan.''

== Africa ==
* [http://www.smcm.edu/gambia/documents/publications/gamble/Gamble%2014.pdf Firdu-Fula Grammar (Gambian Dialect)]
* [http://www.igboguide.org/HT-igbogrammar.htm Igbo sketch]
* [http://dedalvs.com/dl/pular.pdf Pular (Fuuta Jallon) Tutorial]
* [http://wolofresources.org/language/download/grammar.pdf Wolof]
* [http://www.africananaphora.rutgers.edu/downloads/casefiles/YorubaGS.pdf Yoruba], very brief

== Middle-East and Caucasus ==
=== Northeast Caucasian ===
* [https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/dspace/bitstream/1887/14522/2/a+Grammar+of+Khwarshi.pdf A Grammar of Khwarshi]
* [http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~wschulze/Lak.htm Lak] somewhat light

== Central Asia and Siberia ==
* [http://www.cs.vu.nl/~dick/Summaries/Languages/Burushaski.pdf Burushaski], an isolate.
* [http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/sketch.html Tundra Nenets Grammatical Sketch]

=== Indo-European ===
* [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/OldAvestan/index.html Introduction to Old Avestan]
* [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Sogdian/index.html Introduction to Manichaean Sogdian]

== South Asia ==

== East and South-east Asia ==

== Australia and Polynesia ==
* [http://repository.unimelb.edu.au/10187/1259 Materials on Golin: Grammar, Texts and Dictionary]
* [http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED385151.pdf A Grammar Sketch of the Kaki Ae Language]
* [http://www.sil.org/pacific/png/pubs/37101/Kuot_Gram_Essen.pdf Kuot Grammar Essentials]
* [http://www2.lingfil.uu.se/ling/semfiler/westerlund_d_vt07.pdf A Grammatical Sketch of Ngarla: A Language of Western Australia]
* [http://www.papuaweb.org/dlib/bk1/kitlv/cowan-1965.pdf Grammar of the Sentani Language]

== North and Central America ==

=== Algonquin ===
* [http://www.colorado.edu/csilw/arapahoproject/language/grammar.htm Arapaho]
* [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/taylor-1969.pdf Blackfoot]
* [http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~jrvalent/AIS/index.html Anishinaabemowin (Ojibwe)]: not as tidy as it could be

=== Athabascan ===
* [http://chinook.kpc.alaska.edu/~ifasb/documents/denaina_grammar.pdf Introduction to Dena'ina: Kenai (Outer Inlet) Dialect]
* [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/golla-1970.pdf Hupa Grammar]; [http://humboldt-dspace.calstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2148/48/HupaLanguageDictionary.pdf?sequence=1 Hupa Language Dictionary]
* [http://www.drangle.com/~james/grammar/ Tlingit Grammar Outline]

=== Salishan ===
* Coeur d'Alene [http://ivydoak.com/Coeurd'Alene/grammar/crgrammar.htm grammar] and [http://ivydoak.com/Coeurd'Alene/ReichardTexts.htm texts] (not always tidy)
* [http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED083861.pdf Spokan Grammar]

=== Uto-Aztecan ===
* [http://www.sil.org/acpub/repository/21478.pdf UA Overview]
* [http://www.chemehuevilanguage.org/ Chemehuevi] field notes, dissertation, grammar and sound files.
* [http://www.sil.org/acpub/repository/15223.pdf Modern Aztecan Grammatical Sketches]: Tetelcinco Nahuatl, North Puebla Nahuatl, Huasteca Nahuatl, Michoacán Nahual
* [http://www.sil.org/acpub/repository/15222.pdf Northern UA Grammatical Sketches]: Northern Paiute, Papago, Northern Tepehuan
* [http://www.sil.org/acpub/repository/18401.pdf Southern UA Grammatical Sketches]: Western Tarahumara, Cora
* [http://www.cs.vu.nl/~dick/Summaries/Languages/Hopi.pdf Hopi] summary; [http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED226942.pdf Hopi Lessons]
* [http://www.cs.vu.nl/~dick/Summaries/Languages/Luiseno.pdf Luiseño] summary

=== Other Families and Isolates ===
* [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/documents/dissertations/okrand-1977.pdf Mutsun Grammar] (Utian) by Marc Okrand, the inventor of Klingon
* [http://www.uwgb.edu/oneida/Grammar.html Oneida Dictionary and Teaching Grammar] (Iroquoian)
* [http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~totonaco/PDF/UNT.pdf Upper Necaxa Totonac]
* [http://www.u.arizona.edu/~cashcash/Nez%20Perce%20Verb%20Morphology.pdf Nez Perce Verb Morphology]; [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~ardeal/Deal-dissertation-2010.pdf Topics in the Nez Perce Verb] (dissertation)
* [http://anthro.ucsd.edu/~jhaviland/Publications/stodomgrammar.pdf Tzotzil], grammar summary from a dictionary
* [http://depts.washington.edu/wll2/files/davidson_02_diss.pdf Studies in Southern Wakashan (Nootkan) Grammar] (Nuuchahnulth and Makah)
* [http://repositories.cdlib.org/ucpress/ucpl/vol_138 A Reference Grammar of Wappo] viewable online, but you have to pay to download

== South America ==
* [http://www.ilcanet.org/publicaciones/pdf_compendio.html Aymara] (Spanish)
* [http://www.andes.org/q_grammar.html Quechua] very sparse
* [http://www.fflch.usp.br/dlcv/tupi/index.html A course in Old Tupi] (Portuguese)

Conlang Relay 18/Kamakawi

2011-05-27T22:59:05Z

Dedalvs: Created page with "=== Smooth English Translation from Vašt î Kûvik === A cloud was on top of this field that began to clear up. A pretty woman was walking in that. Part of the statue of a fox ..."

=== Smooth English Translation from Vašt î Kûvik ===

A cloud was on top of this field that began to clear up. A pretty woman was walking in that. Part of the statue of a fox was in gateway to the field; it appeared to be very strong and very proud. But the woman appeared to be weak and timid. But actually I know that part of her strange ego and that part of her pride and strength is the same as the fox. While the woman was walking in that field, a man came through the gate into the field. The woman stopped walking and then began flirting with the man, and began twisting her hair and began to smile.

=== The Kamakawi Text ===

Ka ovemu a'i o ikiki heva nili. Oi eili eyana ka olomo eine matai heva ipe nili a. Ka tiku meka o live te puka oe nili. Ke eovuku toko oi tola. Ioio ka eovuku eine ulu oi takeuai.

Io fe'a ei ie imata. A toko oi tola eine takeke live tou. Oi ka olomo eine heva nili, kape iu hopoko ie puka ke teiu ie nili. Ka olomo eine kuika ke kalailai ie hopoko he oi umeke ie neki o nea oi liki.

=== Smooth English Translation from Kamakawi ===

The morning mist began to dissipate over the field. During the
afternoon a pretty woman was walking across that field. A statue of
a coyote stood at the gateway to the field. It seemed strong and
brave. By contrast the woman seemed weak and timid.

But I know the truth. A woman can be strong and brave like the
coyote. While the woman was walking across the filed, a man
passed through the gateway and into the field. The woman stopped
walking and started to chat up the man, twisting her hair and smiling.

=== Lexicon ===

*a (part.) marks the progressive aspect (used sentence-finally)
*a'i (n.) mist

*e (part.) the (definite article, sg.; attaches to prepositions); (part.) marks
present tense, and that the subject of the sentence is identical to the subject
of the previous sentence and singular
*ei (pron.) I (first person singular pronoun)
*eili (n.) sun
*eili eyana (n.) afternoon
*eine (n.) woman
*eovuku (v.) to seem, to appear to be
*eyana (adj.) good

*fe'a (v.) to know

*he (adv.) to begin, to start (used sentence-finally)
*heva (prep.) over, across
*hopoko (n.) man

*i (prep.) marks direct objects; marks general locations and/or times
*ie (contr.) contraction of /i/ and /e/
*ikiki (n.) morning
*imata (n.) truth
*io (conj.) but
*ioio (conj.) contrariwise, by contrast, however, nevertheless
*ipe (dem.) that
*iu (v.) to go through

*ka (part.) marks past tense, and that the subject of the sentence is
new or different
*kalailai (v.) to chat, to chat up
*ke (part.) marks past tense, and that the subject of the sentence is
the same as the last sentence and singular
*kuika (adv.) to stop x'ing (used sentence-finally as *tou)

*liki (v.) to smile
*live (n.) coyote

*matai (adj.) pretty
*meka (n.) statue

*nea (pron.) she (third person singular feminine pronoun)
*neki (n.) hair
*nili (n.) cultivated field

*o (prep.) marks the genitive (X o Y = "X of Y")
*oe (contr.) contraction of *o and *e
*oi (prep.) while, during; (conj.) and
*oi- (pref.) marks the genitive (X oi-Y = "X of Y")
*olomo (v.) to walk
*ovemu (v.) to begin to dissipate

*-pe (suf.) and then (attaches to subject status markers)
*puka (n.) door, gateway, gate

*takeke (prep./conj.) like, as
*takeuai (adj.) timid
*te (prep.) on, on top of, at
*teiu (v.) to go onto
*tiku (v.) to stand, to be standing
*toko (adj.) strong; (v.) to be strong
*tola (adj.) brave; (v.) to be brave
*tou (adv.) can (see grammar notes)

*u (part.) the (definite article, plu.; attaches to prepositions); (part.) marks
present tense, and that the subject of the sentence is identical to the subject
of the previous sentence and plural
*u (prep.) plural marker
*ula (adj.) weak
*umeke (v.) to twist (something)

Finnish

2010-10-07T04:45:46Z

Dedalvs: /* Proto-Uralic to Pre-Finnic */

==[[Proto-Uralic]] to Finnish sound changes==

Thus far mostly based on:
* Lauri Hakulinen: ''Suomen kielen rakenne ja kehitys'' • Otava 1979
* Kaisa Häkkinen: ''Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja'' • WSOY 2004
* Petri Kallio: ''[http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_kallio.pdf Kantasuomen konsonanttihistoriaa]'' · Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253 · 2007
* Juha Janhunen: ''[http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_janhunen.pdf The primary laryngeal in Uralic and beyond]'' · (same)

Currently in process of reformatting and reordering to include the information from the last two documents.

===Technotes===
* Here, /@/ is NOT an ASCIIfication of /ə/, but any vowel that assimilates to the preceding vowel. This comes useful with cases of compensatory lengthening and echo vowels.
* Similarly, /A O U/ are harmonic vowels which will assimilate to either /a o u/ or /æ ø y/ depending on the harmony. /a/ is to be understood as [ɑ].
* /ˣ/ is the assimilatory final, pronounced as lengthening of the next word's initial consonant, or in case of null initial, [ʔː] or hiatus. Very rarely, it occurs within words, too (usually sandwiched between two instances of the same vowel.)
* /C/ represents any consonant; /V/ represents any vowel; and /X/ represents any 2nd mora in a syllable (be it consonantal, diphthongal or chronemical).

I've grouped similar changes together under sub-headings, so the order of unrelated changes might not be exactly chronological whenever no reference was available. Also, since the document is headed towards Standard Finnish, I've had to cut a few corners anyway when maneuvering around dialectal changes... in a few cases picking the most represented outcome wasn't all that clear.

===Proto-Uralic to Pre-Finnic===
[Supposedly 4000 BCE to 3000 BCE]

The existence of "Proto-Finno-Samic" ("-Volgaic", "-Permic", "-Ugric") as distinct from PU is unclear, hence "Pre-Finnic". Changes shared with Samic are in indigo, those also shared with Mordvinic in green, and those with even wider distribution in orange.

'''Word-final */ŋ/''' → k in the lative ending (Samic and?), → n elsewhere (!dubious, pre-Uralic?)

'''Diphthongization''' (dubious)
* iw → y / _C (distribution? does this feed vowel length?)
* potentially: ow → uː / _C

'''Introduction of length''' from loss of preconsonantal *x.
* x → @ / _C (leaves no evidence in Ob-Ugric)

'''Coda nasal simplification'''
* m → n / _{t tsʲ #} (Finnic, Mordvinic; medially also Permic, Mansi)

'''Stressed ''*ë''''' merges with *a

'''Other stressed vowel changes'''
* aː æː → oː eː (but part of a general a æ → oː eː / [+STR] shift in Samic)

'''Unstressed vowels'''
* a → æ / {æ e ê i ü}(X)(C)C_ (if not an original distinction)
* aw æw → o (the presence of -w rarely is shared, so this may also be analogical)
* i → e / _C (≠ j, w) (but part of a general i → ɤ shift in Samic)
* ij iw → i u ?

===Pre-Finnic to Proto-Finnic===
[Ca. 3000 BC to 2000 BC]
(likely also incomplete; this is the section of changes not shared by other branches of Uralic)

'''Vowel changes'''
* V# → Vː (affects most old CV words, eg. ''muu nuo tuo''. Exceptions ''me te he se ne'', the first two of which display *-k in Livonian, -t in Far Northern dialects.)
* *ê *ô → e o / _(X)Ci ([[Proto-Uralic/new|new hypothetical vowels]] for PU, possibly semi-rounded [ɪ ʊ])         → y ɯ → y i / _(X)CA
* æ → e / _j unstress'd
* a → e / {o u}[+STR](X)C_j    → o / {a e i}[+STR](X)C_j    → a / elsewhere
(Other instances of unstressed /aj/ shift too, but analogical leveling has rendered it impossible to tell whether the original result was /ej/ or /oj/.)

'''Loss of remaining *x'''
* ixi → øː (''myödä''; but ''viedä'')
* uxi → oː (''juoda'', unless this is *ë)
* xi → @ / elsewhere (''maa'' (or *më) ''saada syy'' (or *syji) ''sää'' "filament" ''tuoda'', possibly ''suo'' ← *toxi)
* Possibly in newer formations, x → w / {U O}_C (''souta- nouta-''), → j / {I E}_C (''keima-'')
(*xA, *x# apparently did not occur)

'''Loss of *ŋ'''
* UŋA → Oː (''myö-tä''; but ''syyhy'' ~ S. *sëŋē )
* eŋi → øː (''pyörä'' - via *w ?)
* ŋi → @ / other V_  (''hiiri jää kaari kuu luo luoda pii'' "hammas" ''pyy pää sii'' "hirsi" ''sää'' "weather" ''vii-me'', ?? ''riihi uu(ttu)'')
* ŋ → remains _k    possibly → n / _t (''ensi onte-'')    → j / _Cʲ (''seiso- veitsi'', puna''ise''-) (or is it F_ ?)    → w / _{U O}_ (''pivo povi suvi tyvi vävy''), elsewhere _A (''ava- kevät''), _C (''jauha- jousi joutsen''), C_ (''aivo ahven pilvi sauva'') 

Note the similar fates *x *ŋ. Merger? (ŋ-vocalization cases not compatible with the corresponding j/w-vocalization cases in red.)

'''Loss of medial semivowels''' in ''i''-stems (retention elsewhere, ''kevyt kova nivo- sija'' etc, also ''kivi ovi savi''; ''lovi'' is ← Gmc)
* ? uwa → oː (''vuo'')
* Uwi → Uː (''luu puu suu tyyni'', cf. ''tyven'')
* ewi → øː (''lyö syö-'', first may also be *-x-)
* äwi → äw (''käy-'')
* wI → i (medial unstressed reduced /i/!) 
* ji → @ / front V_ (''kiehu- pii'' "Si" ''siili tie'', ''kyy''?)    → j / A_#, O_ U_ (''koi täi uida voi'', ?? ''koira'', unless simply *kojra)    → @ / A_{l r}(C)V (due to [je]? ''sääri ääri'', unless *säxiri *äxiri)    → i / C_{# C) 

*/yje/ → */øː/ → ''yö''

'''Dissimilation'''
* uw ij → ow ej / _C (''souta- nouta- keima-'' again; and perhaps ''jousi''?!)

'''Initial deaffrication'''. Newer initial affricates are found in loanwords and onomatopoeia.
* ʧ ʦʲ → ʃ sʲ / #_

'''Depalatalization''', commonly attributed to Germanic superstratum influence.
* ʦʲ(ː) sʲ ðʲ lʲ → ʦ(ː) s ð l
* nʲ → ni / #(C)i_V (i.e. after a short stressed /i/; ''miniä'')    → in / V_V (some other cases: ''kyynel kyynärä paina-'', ''oinas''??)    → n (elsewhere)

'''CCC simplification'''
* ntt → tt (''kattaa tuta'')
* wst → st / o_ ? (''nouse-'' → ''nosta-'')

From around here, isoglosses within Finnic start appearing.

''' Loss of *ð and *ʧ'''
* ð → t (may be gradation-related, shared with Mordvinic but not Samic. Put here to avoid requiring postulating intermediate *tʲ for the development of *ðʲ)
* ʧ ʧː → t tʃ (In South Estonian, *ʧ → ts / _k)

* Possibly in pre-Livonian: *tk → *kk before this (*kutki *kütke-j-mä → ''kukki kikiim'', but eg. *piðka → ''pitka'', *počka → ''potka'').
* Cf. also *kočka → F. kotka ~ kokko; NF latki- ~ SF lakki-)

'''Assibilation''', fed by all three previous changes
* t → ʦ / _i 
* tj → ʦ
except after a coronal obstruent (the clusters /tt st ʃt/) or before a derivational suffix

'''Esh-drift'''
* ʃ → ʂ → x (postdates old Baltic and Germanic loanwords; as well as the previous on account of blocking assibilation. Per Permic, the retroflex stage may date back quite far)
* s → x / _l (''pihlaja'')

'''Nasal simplification''' part 2. Note old Germanic loans feeding -ntj-! Probably postdates the previous, given no simplification in *nx (''vanha inho'' etc.)
* n → ∅ / _(t)s (''asia rasia nisä osa otsa kusi'') (distribution?)
Paradigmatically reverted in cases of *-ntsi ~ *-nte- such as ''kansi'', ''ponsi''; not however in ordinals: ''kolmas'' ~ ''kolmante-'' (also note Est. ''kaas'' vel. sim. - a later reprise per compensatory lengthening? - and Liv. ''vuontsa'' - suggesting Gmc. loan origin?)

Results as:

===Phonology of late Proto-Finnic===

'''Consonant inventory'''
{|
|-
! !! [[Labial|Lab.]] !! [[Dental|Dnt.]] !! [[Alveolar|Alv.]] !! [[Velar|Vel.]]
|- align="center"
! Nasals
| m || || n ||
|- align="center"
! Stops & affricate
| p || t || ʦ || k
|- align="center"
! Fricatives
| || || s || x
|- align="center"
! Lateral
| || || l ||
|- align="center"
! Rhotic
| || || r ||
|- align="center"
! Semivowels
| v || || colspan="2"| j
|}
(I'm marking *w → [ʋ] as /v/ for brevity from now on. This is for practicality only; the change is practically impossible to date.)

Syllable structure (C)V(@, i, U, C)(C)
Morpheme-finally, only /t k s m n j/ occured.
<s>Word-initial /r/ was rare outside of recent IE loanwords</s> (non-existant in PU? but found in PFU)
/#ji #je #vu/ did not occur.

Allowed medial clusters included the following (and possibly more, depending on how many consonantal root forms were in existence yet by this stage):
* /pː pt pʦ tː tk ʦː kː kt kʦ/ (/ʦk/?)
* /mp nt nʦ ŋk/
* /nx/
* /ps ks/ (/kst/?) and perhaps /tx kx(t)/ (if not simplified to /x(t)/ yet; check!)
* /tn km/ (only intermorphemically)
* /sm st sn sl sk xm xt xn xl xr xk/
* just about all approximant + non-approximant combinations
* /lj rj lv rv jv/
* /ntː ŋkː rtː rkː lkː/? 
* various CC combinations preceded by Vj, VU or V@

/vj vr vs (vx?)/ are forbidden and metathesize to /jv rv sv (hv?)/ in loans (''haiven laiva raiva- raivo'', ''järvi karva tarvas torvi'', ''kasva- rasva''; ''kaivata'' with analogous gradation?) (The last of these will have to be dated as erlier than *joŋsi → *jousi).
(Cf. J. Koivulehto: [http://www.kotikielenseura.fi/virittaja/hakemistot/jutut/1986_164.pdf Pinta ja rasva])

Note also kauha ~ kahva, kiuru ~ kirvinen, kuilu ~ kulju, pälvi ~ S. *pévlë and ''haava kaava naava'' < *hawwa *skawwa *fnawwa (before ''sauva'' < *sawŋa)

While several later common innovations affect both South Estonian and the remainder of Finnic, pre-Finnic *č is reconstructable in some cases per the former (*kačke- *kačku *kičke- *nočko *pučki *sičkajn)

'''Vowel inventory'''
/i iː y yː u uː /
/e eː øː o oː /
/æ æː a aː /
/ej ew oj ow/
/æj æw aj aw uj /

/aː æː/ were rare, originally only occuring in about half a dozen roots each.
(These new instances are of fuzzy origin, apparently loanwords acquired after the change to */oː eː/?)

/i e A o (u?)/ could occur in non-initial root syllables (plus /ej oj/ due to suffixal j).

===Proto-Finnic to Proto-Finnish===
[Ca. 2000 BCE to 1000 CE]

'''Difthong paradigm shift'''
j w → i U / V_{C #}
(not really phonetical; required for pre-diphthongal consonants not to gradate) - wait, but they ''do'' gradate in some dialects; needs bumping, then

'''Consonantal suffix and stem-forms'''
* i → ∅ / VC_, ks_ suffix-finally 
* e → ∅ / stem-finally after a coronal
(This change could be much older and is actually more complex, but I don't know what's the latest understanding)

'''Consonant gradation'''.
These all occur on the general condition that the folloing syllable is closed.
* pː tː tsː kː → pˑ tˑ tsˑ kˑ / {sonorant}_V (the half-long stage can still itself trigger gradation; no gradation is found in Veps or Livonian)
* p t ts s k → b d s z ɡ / {sonorant}_V 
(NB: gradation of modern /ht hk/ is analogy-borne)

'''Suffixal gradation''' (needs elaboration)
* p t s k → b d z ɡ / V[-STR]_V

'''Spirantization'''
* b d ɡ → β ð ɣ / except N_ (may be later - not evident in Votic)
** ɣ → j~v (in ''kataja'', ''jalava'', ''kajava'' etc.)
** βi → U / _# (3PS ''-Pi'')

Around this time there's also a paradigm shift wrt. /f/ in loanwords: the
reflex of initial /f/ changes from /p/ to /v/. This could signify a change of [w] to [ʋ] in the position, but also of [ɸ] to [f] in the loaning languages (or even the onset of Grimm's law)! Medial /f/ does not seem to ever turn to /p/.

'''Loss of /v/''' before labial vowels
* v → ∅ / #_{o u y}
The consonant may have persisted before long vowels, but since a glide was epenthetically added there anyway (see next), there's no way to tell. Compensatory lengthening may have occurred before *u (*wuðʲi → ''uusi'').
Shared with Samic, Mordvinic & Mari, but note that this seems to be a late ''areal'' change — it is later than the South Finnic change from *o to *ɤ per *wo-tta- "to take" → *vɤtta- → Es. ''võtma-'' (however, note the counterexample *wolka → ''õlg'').

Loss of */j/ before /i/ is likely of similar age, but Samic seems inconsistent (due to é → jé / #_ ? cf. also no medial loss: *velji → ''veli'', ~ *véljɤ)

'''V-epenthesis'''
* ∅ → v / #_{yː øː oː}
Notable exceptions: '''yö uoma''', the former probably homonym avoidance (''vyö'' "belt"), the latter a Samic loan - allowing to date the similar change in Samic as later. Per *voohla → ''vohla'' "goat kid" (*voohi → ''vuohi'' "goat") this would seem to be the later of the two changes involving initial *v.

'''Vowel shifts'''
* oi → o / [-STR] (but reverted back in many, though not all, cases where the ''-i'' was morphological)

* Vː → V / _i (Clearly postdates epenthesis: ''voi'' ← *vooji)

'''Assimilation''' of many consonant clusters to geminates, etc. (Dating provisional for most, perhaps older.) All of these require a morpheme boundary somewhere in the cluster. A basically equivalent criterion is requiring a preceding unstressed syllable. Of these, /rn pt kt kx tx/ (/kʃ tʃ/?) occurred root-medially, and the first three were retained (though rn → rː may have occurred in ''aarre''; cf. ''aarni'' - and kt → tː is required for ''tytär'', which appears to be the only loan with the cluster around this timeframe. South Estonian has even root-medially pt kt → tː.)
* kt(s) pt(s) → tː(s)
* xk → kː (happens also across word boundaries, precluding the formation of /?/)
* (t)(ː)sn → sː
* kx (tx) → xː     → @x / _C (''vaahtera'', ''jäähty-'' ''huuhto-''? Kar. also ''hiihna'')
* rn ln → rː lː
* pn tn kn ktn ptn (etc.) → nː (note esp. ''linna'' ~ Võ ''liin'', Vo ''lidna''; but ''vuonna'' ~ Vo ''voona'', ''vuona'' ~ Vo ''võdna'')
* pm tm km (etc.) → mː
* pst tst kst → st
* ks nʦ nt → s s t / _# (''jänis'' etc, ''kolmas'' etc, ''tuhat'')
(The consequent obscuring of many inflected forms due to this and the previous change caused many words to revert back, however. Note especially *pekstä, *pekse- → ''piestä, piekse-'')

'''Fricativ collapse, part 3'''
* ʦ → s
* ʦˑ/ː → θˑ/ː (remains gradational; ''etsi- itse joutsen katso- kitsas lietso- loitsi- kutsu- metsä ratsu otsa paatsama vatsa veitsi virtsa vitsa'')
* z → h 
* x(ː) → h (a spirantic pronunciation can still be found in coda position)



'''Shifts involving /h/'''
(unfinished)
* e → @ / h_ in suffixes
* p k → h / _t (With IE loanwords continuing to feed new /pt kt/, this rule remained active up until to the 20th century.)


===Proto-Finnish to Standard Finnish===
[Ca. 1000-1900 CE]
These changes are, for the most part, only attested in the Finnish-Carelian continuum.

'''"Flavor"''': Voiced prenasal stops become geminate nasals, and (around the same time as in a whole lot of other European languages!) long mid vowels become opening diphthongs. Also, the weak grade of geminates coincides with the strong grade of singletons:
* mb nd ŋg → mː nː ŋː
* eː øː oː → ie yø uo
* pˑ tˑ kˑ θˑ → p t k θ

'''Changes involving /j/'''
* j → i / C_ suffix-initially

'''More shifts with /h/'''
* Vh → hV / {Vi n l r}_# in eg. ''vaihe venhe perhe erhe orhi urho alhainen ylhäinen'' (dialectally regular)
** dubbelmetathesis: ''imeh'' → ''imhe'' → ''ihme''
* k h → ˣ / _#
* t → ∅ / h_r (''ahrain ihra kehrä ohra'') (cf. next)

'''Pre-sonorant stop vocalization''' (with an intermediate spirant stage) 
Predominantly Germanic loanwords; a few Baltic, and a Uralic etymology exists for *kopra *kotva *kupla *nakris *syklä. By the evidence of other Finnic languages, *Tl in loanwords is initially substituted by *kl (eg. *seeθla → *seekla).
* p → U / _S (''hauras kauris koura seura taulu teuras vauras äyräs''; also note ''kupla'', from a conservativ dialect)
* t remains _{v, j} (''katve ketju kotva latva lotja patja patvi vitja'')     → U / _r{A, O} (''aura nöyrä peura puuro uuras'')     → @ / _r{i, e} (''teeri'')     (any coda examples before i O??)
* k → @ / _j (''laaja raaja taaja vaaja'')[http://www.kotikielenseura.fi/virittaja/hakemistot/jutut/1982_121.pdf]     → i / {i, e}_S{i, e} (''eilen keila leili leiri neilikka peili teili teini tiili'') (May have rather occurred in loaning Finland Swedish dialects, except ''eilen'', of unkno'n origin & where Karelian explicitly retains /kl/.)     → U / {A, O, U}_S (S≠j) (''hauli kaula kaura käyrä myyrä mäyrä naula nauris naura- paula vaula väylä sauna syylä taula uuni vaunu''); {i e}_Sa (''neula seula siula siuna-'')


'''Spirant loss'''
* β → ∅ / _UC     → v / other _V
* ið → j / V[-STR]_V
* ð remains V[+STR](X)_     → l / l_     → r / r_     → ∅ / elsewhere
* ɣ → j / C_e     → v / U_U     → ? / V1V2_V2 (including the cases of V1=V2; also V2≠U)     → ∅ / elsewhere
* h → ∅ / V[-STR](X)_V

'''Subsequent vowel changes in unstressed syllables''' (unfinished, may need to be meshed with the prev. section)
* AO → Aː, Oː or Uː (seemingly irregularly)
* Ae → Ai
* Ue → eː
* VU → Vː / _#
* iU → Uː
* OU → Oː (''kokoontu-''; but ''aitous'' etc.)

'''Initial-syllable labialization'''
* ey → øy
* e i ie → ø y yø | _(X)(C)Cy (if the /y/ is a part of the root)
* i → y / _væ (this one is actually older than the others, but fits here better)

The final stages of '''interdental loss''' began after or around the time of the creation of the literary language, seen in spellings such as <tz dh>. By standardization it was however practically complete. The standard outcome is largely a spelling pronunciation based on the example of German and Swedish:
* θ(ː) → ts
* ð → d (commonly alveolar)
Most common dialectal variations for the former are t(ː) and ht~t, for the latter r and ∅.

===Modern Standard Finnish===
Modern Standard Finnish has the following consonant phonemes:
p t k (ʔ)
b d ɡ
m n ŋ
f s (ʃ) h
ʋ l r j
/b ɡ f ʃ/ only occur in loanwords and neologisms. /ʃ/ is rather marginal and usually replaced by /s/. [ʔ] occurs optionally word-initially before a vowel, and between two identical vowels.

The vowels are /i e æ ø y ɑ o u/.
Vowel harmony continues to apply to suffixes, however in loanwords and neologisms /æ ø y/ and /ɑ o u/ can co-occur (''psyko-'', ''hyla'', ''sekundääri''). Examples of /æ/ and /ɑ/ co-occurring remain rare; even the lexicalized compound ''tällainen'' is usually pronounced /ˈt̪ælːæ(i)ne̞/.
All vowels may occur long at any position of the word; however, (C)VVCC syllables occur only in very recent loans (''pointti'').

Any difthongs that end in -i/-y/-u and adhere to vowel harmony and the [[Obligatory Contour Principle]] are possible, tho in stressed syllables /ey/ is exceedingly rare (due to the change to /øy/; found only in the verb ''leyhy-'') and /iy/ nonexistant.

The following sound changes are commonplace in spoken Standard Finnish:
*n → ∅ / _#
*d → ∅/r in inherited vocabulary
*Va → Vː / unstress'd
*ie yö uo → ii yy uu / _A

===Proto-Finnic to Livonian===
''(OR)''

'''Palatalization 1''' (everywhere except in Votic, Finnish proper, some Estonian & Karelian dialects; possibly needs splitting)
* t ts s(C) n l r → tʲ tsʲ sʲ(C) nʲ lʲ rʲ / _i#

'''Deaffrication''' (near universal in Finnic, but note the exception here)
* ts(ʲ) → s(ʲ) / except n_

'''Common South Finnic changes''' (Estonian, Võro, Votic)
* e → ɤ / _C(C){a o u}
* ä → a / [-STR] (phonemicizes the prev. - also in Veps. Not evident in Võro, but might be a later reintroduction of harmony)
* h → ∅ / {# C}_ (initially only dialectally in Estonian)
* Vn → Vː / _s (in Livonian only in new loans such as ''kansa'', ''pensas''; in E/Võ/Vo also from *nts, see prev.)

'''Umlaut'''
* a ä → ä e / _C*i

'''Vowel reduction'''
* V → ə / [-STR] ≠a (*u *i survive in certain suffixes, but never in roots)
* a → ə / [-STR] VC(C)aC(C)_#, also always in verbal stems

'''Early length'''
* Vh → Vːɦ / _C (except hj hv?)

'''Liquid metathesis'''
* LV → VL / [-sonorant]_ (*atra → *atar, *putro → *putor, etc.) (may need relocation)

'''Voicing'''
* p t(ʲ) k s(ʲ) → b d(ʲ) g z(ʲ) / when not initial or next to another voiceless segment (yes, final consonants voice too!)

'''Early glottalization'''
* (C)VCV → (C)VʔCV

'''Apocope'''
* ə → ∅ / _#, VC_CV

'''Gemination etc.'''
* C → Cː / ʔ_V
* gj dj lj rj → jg dʲ lʲː rʲː
* dv zv lv rv jv → d z lː rː jː
* Cv → C / elsewh.

'''Length II / degemination'''
* VCːa → VːCa / [+sonorant] (preceeds general presonorant lengthening since *a → ō, *o → ūo from here)
* Cː → C / except V_ə in verbs (unless this is a reflex of the infinitiv!?)

'''Vowel shift 1'''
* aː au → ɔː ɔu (some new *aː develop in words like *parma → _paarm_ "gadfly")
* eː (øː) oː → iːe (yːø) uːo
* ɤ(ː) → ɨ(ː)

'''2nd glottalization'''
* ɦ → ʔ

'''Sibilants''' (hard to date)
* (t)sʲ (d)zʲ → (t)ʃ (d)ʒ

'''Vowel shift 2'''
* y ø → i e
** except äy ey → äu eu
* V → Vː / _[+sonorant]C(C)a (including diphthongs in -i, eg. *aitta → āita)
* a → aː / VC_
* e o → eː oː / _Ca
* o → oː / _[+sonorant]C#, _i
* eː oː → ie uo
** furthermore → je vo / #_
* ɔ(ː) → o(ː)



===Notes for other Finnic languages===
* cf. Kettunen: ''Viron kielen äännehistoria'', ''Vatjan kielen äännehistoria''

*All except Liv.: ks → s / _#
*Veps: mediofinal voicing + degemination, js si → ʃ sʲ (''viž kuź''!), ts(ː) → ʧ(ː), ä ü → a u / [-STR], eu → öu, loss of vowel length, l → u / V_C, ei → iː, j → dʲ / #_ (dialectally)
*Estonian & Veps: trimoraic apocope
*Estonian & Votic: o → ɤ / _(C*){i e}, _u, Vː → V / _h, h → ∅ / {n r l}_
*Estonian: jh wh → hj hv / V_, akj akr → ai aer, V → ∅ / VXC_#, high V → mid V / _nonhigh V, ü → i [-STR]
*Votic: k → ʧ / _{i ü e ö ä}, kj → ɟɟ, h → ∅ / #_, st → sː (→ s if grad.), NP → P / V[-STR]_, k p → h / _s (cf. the similar common change _t), s → h / _ʧ, ʧ → s / #ʧVh_

[[Category:Natlangs]]
[[Category:Sound changes]]

Finnish

2010-10-07T04:36:33Z

Dedalvs:

==[[Proto-Uralic]] to Finnish sound changes==

Thus far mostly based on:
* Lauri Hakulinen: ''Suomen kielen rakenne ja kehitys'' • Otava 1979
* Kaisa Häkkinen: ''Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja'' • WSOY 2004
* Petri Kallio: ''[http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_kallio.pdf Kantasuomen konsonanttihistoriaa]'' · Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 253 · 2007
* Juha Janhunen: ''[http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust253/sust253_janhunen.pdf The primary laryngeal in Uralic and beyond]'' · (same)

Currently in process of reformatting and reordering to include the information from the last two documents.

===Technotes===
* Here, /@/ is NOT an ASCIIfication of /ə/, but any vowel that assimilates to the preceding vowel. This comes useful with cases of compensatory lengthening and echo vowels.
* Similarly, /A O U/ are harmonic vowels which will assimilate to either /a o u/ or /æ ø y/ depending on the harmony. /a/ is to be understood as [ɑ].
* /ˣ/ is the assimilatory final, pronounced as lengthening of the next word's initial consonant, or in case of null initial, [ʔː] or hiatus. Very rarely, it occurs within words, too (usually sandwiched between two instances of the same vowel.)
* /C/ represents any consonant; /V/ represents any vowel; and /X/ represents any 2nd mora in a syllable (be it consonantal, diphthongal or chronemical).

I've grouped similar changes together under sub-headings, so the order of unrelated changes might not be exactly chronological whenever no reference was available. Also, since the document is headed towards Standard Finnish, I've had to cut a few corners anyway when maneuvering around dialectal changes... in a few cases picking the most represented outcome wasn't all that clear.

===Proto-Uralic to Pre-Finnic===
[Supposedly 4000 BCE to 3000 BCE]

The existence of "Proto-Finno-Samic" ("-Volgaic", "-Permic", "-Ugric") as distinct from PU is unclear, hence "Pre-Finnic". Changes shared with Samic are in indigo, those also shared with Mordvinic in green, and those with even wider distribution in orange.

'''Word-final */ŋ/''' → k in the lative ending (Samic and?), → n elsewhere (!dubious, pre-Uralic?)

'''Dephthongization''' (dubious)
* iw → y / _C (distribution? does this feed vowel length?)
* potentially: ow → uː / _C

'''Introduction of length''' from loss of preconsonantal *x.
* x → @ / _C (leaves no evidence in Ob-Ugric)

'''Coda nasal simplification'''
* m → n / _{t tsʲ #} (Finnic, Mordvinic; medially also Permic, Mansi)

'''Stressed ''*ë''''' merges with *a

'''Other stressed vowel changes'''
* aː æː → oː eː (but part of a general a æ → oː eː / [+STR] shift in Samic)

'''Unstressed vowels'''
* a → æ / {æ e ê i ü}(X)(C)C_ (if not an original distinction)
* aw æw → o (the presence of -w rarely is shared, so this may also be analogical)
* i → e / _C (≠ j, w) (but part of a general i → ɤ shift in Samic)
* ij iw → i u ?

===Pre-Finnic to Proto-Finnic===
[Ca. 3000 BC to 2000 BC]
(likely also incomplete; this is the section of changes not shared by other branches of Uralic)

'''Vowel changes'''
* V# → Vː (affects most old CV words, eg. ''muu nuo tuo''. Exceptions ''me te he se ne'', the first two of which display *-k in Livonian, -t in Far Northern dialects.)
* *ê *ô → e o / _(X)Ci ([[Proto-Uralic/new|new hypothetical vowels]] for PU, possibly semi-rounded [ɪ ʊ])         → y ɯ → y i / _(X)CA
* æ → e / _j unstress'd
* a → e / {o u}[+STR](X)C_j    → o / {a e i}[+STR](X)C_j    → a / elsewhere
(Other instances of unstressed /aj/ shift too, but analogical leveling has rendered it impossible to tell whether the original result was /ej/ or /oj/.)

'''Loss of remaining *x'''
* ixi → øː (''myödä''; but ''viedä'')
* uxi → oː (''juoda'', unless this is *ë)
* xi → @ / elsewhere (''maa'' (or *më) ''saada syy'' (or *syji) ''sää'' "filament" ''tuoda'', possibly ''suo'' ← *toxi)
* Possibly in newer formations, x → w / {U O}_C (''souta- nouta-''), → j / {I E}_C (''keima-'')
(*xA, *x# apparently did not occur)

'''Loss of *ŋ'''
* UŋA → Oː (''myö-tä''; but ''syyhy'' ~ S. *sëŋē )
* eŋi → øː (''pyörä'' - via *w ?)
* ŋi → @ / other V_  (''hiiri jää kaari kuu luo luoda pii'' "hammas" ''pyy pää sii'' "hirsi" ''sää'' "weather" ''vii-me'', ?? ''riihi uu(ttu)'')
* ŋ → remains _k    possibly → n / _t (''ensi onte-'')    → j / _Cʲ (''seiso- veitsi'', puna''ise''-) (or is it F_ ?)    → w / _{U O}_ (''pivo povi suvi tyvi vävy''), elsewhere _A (''ava- kevät''), _C (''jauha- jousi joutsen''), C_ (''aivo ahven pilvi sauva'') 

Note the similar fates *x *ŋ. Merger? (ŋ-vocalization cases not compatible with the corresponding j/w-vocalization cases in red.)

'''Loss of medial semivowels''' in ''i''-stems (retention elsewhere, ''kevyt kova nivo- sija'' etc, also ''kivi ovi savi''; ''lovi'' is ← Gmc)
* ? uwa → oː (''vuo'')
* Uwi → Uː (''luu puu suu tyyni'', cf. ''tyven'')
* ewi → øː (''lyö syö-'', first may also be *-x-)
* äwi → äw (''käy-'')
* wI → i (medial unstressed reduced /i/!) 
* ji → @ / front V_ (''kiehu- pii'' "Si" ''siili tie'', ''kyy''?)    → j / A_#, O_ U_ (''koi täi uida voi'', ?? ''koira'', unless simply *kojra)    → @ / A_{l r}(C)V (due to [je]? ''sääri ääri'', unless *säxiri *äxiri)    → i / C_{# C) 

*/yje/ → */øː/ → ''yö''

'''Dissimilation'''
* uw ij → ow ej / _C (''souta- nouta- keima-'' again; and perhaps ''jousi''?!)

'''Initial deaffrication'''. Newer initial affricates are found in loanwords and onomatopoeia.
* ʧ ʦʲ → ʃ sʲ / #_

'''Depalatalization''', commonly attributed to Germanic superstratum influence.
* ʦʲ(ː) sʲ ðʲ lʲ → ʦ(ː) s ð l
* nʲ → ni / #(C)i_V (i.e. after a short stressed /i/; ''miniä'')    → in / V_V (some other cases: ''kyynel kyynärä paina-'', ''oinas''??)    → n (elsewhere)

'''CCC simplification'''
* ntt → tt (''kattaa tuta'')
* wst → st / o_ ? (''nouse-'' → ''nosta-'')

From around here, isoglosses within Finnic start appearing.

''' Loss of *ð and *ʧ'''
* ð → t (may be gradation-related, shared with Mordvinic but not Samic. Put here to avoid requiring postulating intermediate *tʲ for the development of *ðʲ)
* ʧ ʧː → t tʃ (In South Estonian, *ʧ → ts / _k)

* Possibly in pre-Livonian: *tk → *kk before this (*kutki *kütke-j-mä → ''kukki kikiim'', but eg. *piðka → ''pitka'', *počka → ''potka'').
* Cf. also *kočka → F. kotka ~ kokko; NF latki- ~ SF lakki-)

'''Assibilation''', fed by all three previous changes
* t → ʦ / _i 
* tj → ʦ
except after a coronal obstruent (the clusters /tt st ʃt/) or before a derivational suffix

'''Esh-drift'''
* ʃ → ʂ → x (postdates old Baltic and Germanic loanwords; as well as the previous on account of blocking assibilation. Per Permic, the retroflex stage may date back quite far)
* s → x / _l (''pihlaja'')

'''Nasal simplification''' part 2. Note old Germanic loans feeding -ntj-! Probably postdates the previous, given no simplification in *nx (''vanha inho'' etc.)
* n → ∅ / _(t)s (''asia rasia nisä osa otsa kusi'') (distribution?)
Paradigmatically reverted in cases of *-ntsi ~ *-nte- such as ''kansi'', ''ponsi''; not however in ordinals: ''kolmas'' ~ ''kolmante-'' (also note Est. ''kaas'' vel. sim. - a later reprise per compensatory lengthening? - and Liv. ''vuontsa'' - suggesting Gmc. loan origin?)

Results as:

===Phonology of late Proto-Finnic===

'''Consonant inventory'''
{|
|-
! !! [[Labial|Lab.]] !! [[Dental|Dnt.]] !! [[Alveolar|Alv.]] !! [[Velar|Vel.]]
|- align="center"
! Nasals
| m || || n ||
|- align="center"
! Stops & affricate
| p || t || ʦ || k
|- align="center"
! Fricatives
| || || s || x
|- align="center"
! Lateral
| || || l ||
|- align="center"
! Rhotic
| || || r ||
|- align="center"
! Semivowels
| v || || colspan="2"| j
|}
(I'm marking *w → [ʋ] as /v/ for brevity from now on. This is for practicality only; the change is practically impossible to date.)

Syllable structure (C)V(@, i, U, C)(C)
Morpheme-finally, only /t k s m n j/ occured.
<s>Word-initial /r/ was rare outside of recent IE loanwords</s> (non-existant in PU? but found in PFU)
/#ji #je #vu/ did not occur.

Allowed medial clusters included the following (and possibly more, depending on how many consonantal root forms were in existence yet by this stage):
* /pː pt pʦ tː tk ʦː kː kt kʦ/ (/ʦk/?)
* /mp nt nʦ ŋk/
* /nx/
* /ps ks/ (/kst/?) and perhaps /tx kx(t)/ (if not simplified to /x(t)/ yet; check!)
* /tn km/ (only intermorphemically)
* /sm st sn sl sk xm xt xn xl xr xk/
* just about all approximant + non-approximant combinations
* /lj rj lv rv jv/
* /ntː ŋkː rtː rkː lkː/? 
* various CC combinations preceded by Vj, VU or V@

/vj vr vs (vx?)/ are forbidden and metathesize to /jv rv sv (hv?)/ in loans (''haiven laiva raiva- raivo'', ''järvi karva tarvas torvi'', ''kasva- rasva''; ''kaivata'' with analogous gradation?) (The last of these will have to be dated as erlier than *joŋsi → *jousi).
(Cf. J. Koivulehto: [http://www.kotikielenseura.fi/virittaja/hakemistot/jutut/1986_164.pdf Pinta ja rasva])

Note also kauha ~ kahva, kiuru ~ kirvinen, kuilu ~ kulju, pälvi ~ S. *pévlë and ''haava kaava naava'' < *hawwa *skawwa *fnawwa (before ''sauva'' < *sawŋa)

While several later common innovations affect both South Estonian and the remainder of Finnic, pre-Finnic *č is reconstructable in some cases per the former (*kačke- *kačku *kičke- *nočko *pučki *sičkajn)

'''Vowel inventory'''
/i iː y yː u uː /
/e eː øː o oː /
/æ æː a aː /
/ej ew oj ow/
/æj æw aj aw uj /

/aː æː/ were rare, originally only occuring in about half a dozen roots each.
(These new instances are of fuzzy origin, apparently loanwords acquired after the change to */oː eː/?)

/i e A o (u?)/ could occur in non-initial root syllables (plus /ej oj/ due to suffixal j).

===Proto-Finnic to Proto-Finnish===
[Ca. 2000 BCE to 1000 CE]

'''Difthong paradigm shift'''
j w → i U / V_{C #}
(not really phonetical; required for pre-diphthongal consonants not to gradate) - wait, but they ''do'' gradate in some dialects; needs bumping, then

'''Consonantal suffix and stem-forms'''
* i → ∅ / VC_, ks_ suffix-finally 
* e → ∅ / stem-finally after a coronal
(This change could be much older and is actually more complex, but I don't know what's the latest understanding)

'''Consonant gradation'''.
These all occur on the general condition that the folloing syllable is closed.
* pː tː tsː kː → pˑ tˑ tsˑ kˑ / {sonorant}_V (the half-long stage can still itself trigger gradation; no gradation is found in Veps or Livonian)
* p t ts s k → b d s z ɡ / {sonorant}_V 
(NB: gradation of modern /ht hk/ is analogy-borne)

'''Suffixal gradation''' (needs elaboration)
* p t s k → b d z ɡ / V[-STR]_V

'''Spirantization'''
* b d ɡ → β ð ɣ / except N_ (may be later - not evident in Votic)
** ɣ → j~v (in ''kataja'', ''jalava'', ''kajava'' etc.)
** βi → U / _# (3PS ''-Pi'')

Around this time there's also a paradigm shift wrt. /f/ in loanwords: the
reflex of initial /f/ changes from /p/ to /v/. This could signify a change of [w] to [ʋ] in the position, but also of [ɸ] to [f] in the loaning languages (or even the onset of Grimm's law)! Medial /f/ does not seem to ever turn to /p/.

'''Loss of /v/''' before labial vowels
* v → ∅ / #_{o u y}
The consonant may have persisted before long vowels, but since a glide was epenthetically added there anyway (see next), there's no way to tell. Compensatory lengthening may have occurred before *u (*wuðʲi → ''uusi'').
Shared with Samic, Mordvinic & Mari, but note that this seems to be a late ''areal'' change — it is later than the South Finnic change from *o to *ɤ per *wo-tta- "to take" → *vɤtta- → Es. ''võtma-'' (however, note the counterexample *wolka → ''õlg'').

Loss of */j/ before /i/ is likely of similar age, but Samic seems inconsistent (due to é → jé / #_ ? cf. also no medial loss: *velji → ''veli'', ~ *véljɤ)

'''V-epenthesis'''
* ∅ → v / #_{yː øː oː}
Notable exceptions: '''yö uoma''', the former probably homonym avoidance (''vyö'' "belt"), the latter a Samic loan - allowing to date the similar change in Samic as later. Per *voohla → ''vohla'' "goat kid" (*voohi → ''vuohi'' "goat") this would seem to be the later of the two changes involving initial *v.

'''Vowel shifts'''
* oi → o / [-STR] (but reverted back in many, though not all, cases where the ''-i'' was morphological)

* Vː → V / _i (Clearly postdates epenthesis: ''voi'' ← *vooji)

'''Assimilation''' of many consonant clusters to geminates, etc. (Dating provisional for most, perhaps older.) All of these require a morpheme boundary somewhere in the cluster. A basically equivalent criterion is requiring a preceding unstressed syllable. Of these, /rn pt kt kx tx/ (/kʃ tʃ/?) occurred root-medially, and the first three were retained (though rn → rː may have occurred in ''aarre''; cf. ''aarni'' - and kt → tː is required for ''tytär'', which appears to be the only loan with the cluster around this timeframe. South Estonian has even root-medially pt kt → tː.)
* kt(s) pt(s) → tː(s)
* xk → kː (happens also across word boundaries, precluding the formation of /?/)
* (t)(ː)sn → sː
* kx (tx) → xː     → @x / _C (''vaahtera'', ''jäähty-'' ''huuhto-''? Kar. also ''hiihna'')
* rn ln → rː lː
* pn tn kn ktn ptn (etc.) → nː (note esp. ''linna'' ~ Võ ''liin'', Vo ''lidna''; but ''vuonna'' ~ Vo ''voona'', ''vuona'' ~ Vo ''võdna'')
* pm tm km (etc.) → mː
* pst tst kst → st
* ks nʦ nt → s s t / _# (''jänis'' etc, ''kolmas'' etc, ''tuhat'')
(The consequent obscuring of many inflected forms due to this and the previous change caused many words to revert back, however. Note especially *pekstä, *pekse- → ''piestä, piekse-'')

'''Fricativ collapse, part 3'''
* ʦ → s
* ʦˑ/ː → θˑ/ː (remains gradational; ''etsi- itse joutsen katso- kitsas lietso- loitsi- kutsu- metsä ratsu otsa paatsama vatsa veitsi virtsa vitsa'')
* z → h 
* x(ː) → h (a spirantic pronunciation can still be found in coda position)



'''Shifts involving /h/'''
(unfinished)
* e → @ / h_ in suffixes
* p k → h / _t (With IE loanwords continuing to feed new /pt kt/, this rule remained active up until to the 20th century.)


===Proto-Finnish to Standard Finnish===
[Ca. 1000-1900 CE]
These changes are, for the most part, only attested in the Finnish-Carelian continuum.

'''"Flavor"''': Voiced prenasal stops become geminate nasals, and (around the same time as in a whole lot of other European languages!) long mid vowels become opening diphthongs. Also, the weak grade of geminates coincides with the strong grade of singletons:
* mb nd ŋg → mː nː ŋː
* eː øː oː → ie yø uo
* pˑ tˑ kˑ θˑ → p t k θ

'''Changes involving /j/'''
* j → i / C_ suffix-initially

'''More shifts with /h/'''
* Vh → hV / {Vi n l r}_# in eg. ''vaihe venhe perhe erhe orhi urho alhainen ylhäinen'' (dialectally regular)
** dubbelmetathesis: ''imeh'' → ''imhe'' → ''ihme''
* k h → ˣ / _#
* t → ∅ / h_r (''ahrain ihra kehrä ohra'') (cf. next)

'''Pre-sonorant stop vocalization''' (with an intermediate spirant stage) 
Predominantly Germanic loanwords; a few Baltic, and a Uralic etymology exists for *kopra *kotva *kupla *nakris *syklä. By the evidence of other Finnic languages, *Tl in loanwords is initially substituted by *kl (eg. *seeθla → *seekla).
* p → U / _S (''hauras kauris koura seura taulu teuras vauras äyräs''; also note ''kupla'', from a conservativ dialect)
* t remains _{v, j} (''katve ketju kotva latva lotja patja patvi vitja'')     → U / _r{A, O} (''aura nöyrä peura puuro uuras'')     → @ / _r{i, e} (''teeri'')     (any coda examples before i O??)
* k → @ / _j (''laaja raaja taaja vaaja'')[http://www.kotikielenseura.fi/virittaja/hakemistot/jutut/1982_121.pdf]     → i / {i, e}_S{i, e} (''eilen keila leili leiri neilikka peili teili teini tiili'') (May have rather occurred in loaning Finland Swedish dialects, except ''eilen'', of unkno'n origin & where Karelian explicitly retains /kl/.)     → U / {A, O, U}_S (S≠j) (''hauli kaula kaura käyrä myyrä mäyrä naula nauris naura- paula vaula väylä sauna syylä taula uuni vaunu''); {i e}_Sa (''neula seula siula siuna-'')


'''Spirant loss'''
* β → ∅ / _UC     → v / other _V
* ið → j / V[-STR]_V
* ð remains V[+STR](X)_     → l / l_     → r / r_     → ∅ / elsewhere
* ɣ → j / C_e     → v / U_U     → ? / V1V2_V2 (including the cases of V1=V2; also V2≠U)     → ∅ / elsewhere
* h → ∅ / V[-STR](X)_V

'''Subsequent vowel changes in unstressed syllables''' (unfinished, may need to be meshed with the prev. section)
* AO → Aː, Oː or Uː (seemingly irregularly)
* Ae → Ai
* Ue → eː
* VU → Vː / _#
* iU → Uː
* OU → Oː (''kokoontu-''; but ''aitous'' etc.)

'''Initial-syllable labialization'''
* ey → øy
* e i ie → ø y yø | _(X)(C)Cy (if the /y/ is a part of the root)
* i → y / _væ (this one is actually older than the others, but fits here better)

The final stages of '''interdental loss''' began after or around the time of the creation of the literary language, seen in spellings such as <tz dh>. By standardization it was however practically complete. The standard outcome is largely a spelling pronunciation based on the example of German and Swedish:
* θ(ː) → ts
* ð → d (commonly alveolar)
Most common dialectal variations for the former are t(ː) and ht~t, for the latter r and ∅.

===Modern Standard Finnish===
Modern Standard Finnish has the following consonant phonemes:
p t k (ʔ)
b d ɡ
m n ŋ
f s (ʃ) h
ʋ l r j
/b ɡ f ʃ/ only occur in loanwords and neologisms. /ʃ/ is rather marginal and usually replaced by /s/. [ʔ] occurs optionally word-initially before a vowel, and between two identical vowels.

The vowels are /i e æ ø y ɑ o u/.
Vowel harmony continues to apply to suffixes, however in loanwords and neologisms /æ ø y/ and /ɑ o u/ can co-occur (''psyko-'', ''hyla'', ''sekundääri''). Examples of /æ/ and /ɑ/ co-occurring remain rare; even the lexicalized compound ''tällainen'' is usually pronounced /ˈt̪ælːæ(i)ne̞/.
All vowels may occur long at any position of the word; however, (C)VVCC syllables occur only in very recent loans (''pointti'').

Any difthongs that end in -i/-y/-u and adhere to vowel harmony and the [[Obligatory Contour Principle]] are possible, tho in stressed syllables /ey/ is exceedingly rare (due to the change to /øy/; found only in the verb ''leyhy-'') and /iy/ nonexistant.

The following sound changes are commonplace in spoken Standard Finnish:
*n → ∅ / _#
*d → ∅/r in inherited vocabulary
*Va → Vː / unstress'd
*ie yö uo → ii yy uu / _A

===Proto-Finnic to Livonian===
''(OR)''

'''Palatalization 1''' (everywhere except in Votic, Finnish proper, some Estonian & Karelian dialects; possibly needs splitting)
* t ts s(C) n l r → tʲ tsʲ sʲ(C) nʲ lʲ rʲ / _i#

'''Deaffrication''' (near universal in Finnic, but note the exception here)
* ts(ʲ) → s(ʲ) / except n_

'''Common South Finnic changes''' (Estonian, Võro, Votic)
* e → ɤ / _C(C){a o u}
* ä → a / [-STR] (phonemicizes the prev. - also in Veps. Not evident in Võro, but might be a later reintroduction of harmony)
* h → ∅ / {# C}_ (initially only dialectally in Estonian)
* Vn → Vː / _s (in Livonian only in new loans such as ''kansa'', ''pensas''; in E/Võ/Vo also from *nts, see prev.)

'''Umlaut'''
* a ä → ä e / _C*i

'''Vowel reduction'''
* V → ə / [-STR] ≠a (*u *i survive in certain suffixes, but never in roots)
* a → ə / [-STR] VC(C)aC(C)_#, also always in verbal stems

'''Early length'''
* Vh → Vːɦ / _C (except hj hv?)

'''Liquid metathesis'''
* LV → VL / [-sonorant]_ (*atra → *atar, *putro → *putor, etc.) (may need relocation)

'''Voicing'''
* p t(ʲ) k s(ʲ) → b d(ʲ) g z(ʲ) / when not initial or next to another voiceless segment (yes, final consonants voice too!)

'''Early glottalization'''
* (C)VCV → (C)VʔCV

'''Apocope'''
* ə → ∅ / _#, VC_CV

'''Gemination etc.'''
* C → Cː / ʔ_V
* gj dj lj rj → jg dʲ lʲː rʲː
* dv zv lv rv jv → d z lː rː jː
* Cv → C / elsewh.

'''Length II / degemination'''
* VCːa → VːCa / [+sonorant] (preceeds general presonorant lengthening since *a → ō, *o → ūo from here)
* Cː → C / except V_ə in verbs (unless this is a reflex of the infinitiv!?)

'''Vowel shift 1'''
* aː au → ɔː ɔu (some new *aː develop in words like *parma → _paarm_ "gadfly")
* eː (øː) oː → iːe (yːø) uːo
* ɤ(ː) → ɨ(ː)

'''2nd glottalization'''
* ɦ → ʔ

'''Sibilants''' (hard to date)
* (t)sʲ (d)zʲ → (t)ʃ (d)ʒ

'''Vowel shift 2'''
* y ø → i e
** except äy ey → äu eu
* V → Vː / _[+sonorant]C(C)a (including diphthongs in -i, eg. *aitta → āita)
* a → aː / VC_
* e o → eː oː / _Ca
* o → oː / _[+sonorant]C#, _i
* eː oː → ie uo
** furthermore → je vo / #_
* ɔ(ː) → o(ː)



===Notes for other Finnic languages===
* cf. Kettunen: ''Viron kielen äännehistoria'', ''Vatjan kielen äännehistoria''

*All except Liv.: ks → s / _#
*Veps: mediofinal voicing + degemination, js si → ʃ sʲ (''viž kuź''!), ts(ː) → ʧ(ː), ä ü → a u / [-STR], eu → öu, loss of vowel length, l → u / V_C, ei → iː, j → dʲ / #_ (dialectally)
*Estonian & Veps: trimoraic apocope
*Estonian & Votic: o → ɤ / _(C*){i e}, _u, Vː → V / _h, h → ∅ / {n r l}_
*Estonian: jh wh → hj hv / V_, akj akr → ai aer, V → ∅ / VXC_#, high V → mid V / _nonhigh V, ü → i [-STR]
*Votic: k → ʧ / _{i ü e ö ä}, kj → ɟɟ, h → ∅ / #_, st → sː (→ s if grad.), NP → P / V[-STR]_, k p → h / _s (cf. the similar common change _t), s → h / _ʧ, ʧ → s / #ʧVh_

[[Category:Natlangs]]
[[Category:Sound changes]]

Inverse Relay 2/Kamakawi

2010-09-04T20:59:37Z

Dedalvs: /* Smooth English */

== Translation by Arthaey Angosii ==

Au ale uei ala e aila pe lenelele. Meuto ale. A itiva pake i kititiú
hie aupe ale uei iu pake heva ape. U uei i ala e falele. Au li kapolo
kawau'u i amo, ae ale uei i amo heva, au liwi uamo i uei. Au ale uei
ala u ava fale hevaka ko a, upe neale uei e aila. U kala oi apule uei
u hava ale'u ea'a eyana heva e aila. Ale uei e palei pe etielele.

===Smooth English===

We all travel to the ocean in the spring. The traveling is difficult. Snow still covers the passes when we first cross the mountains. Then we are at the forest. Fallen trees prevent our crossing. We arrive at the green windy steppes, and then at the ocean. Over the ocean, we talk and sell very good traveling food. We all travel home in the winter.

==Corrected version by David Peterson==

Au ale uei ie aila lenelele.{{ref|1|1}} Meuto ale. A kititiú itiva pake
hie aupe ale uei iu pake heva ape.{{ref|2|2}} U ala ie falele.{{ref|3|3}} Au li kapolo
kawau'u i amo, au ale uei i amo heva, au liwi uamo i uei.{{ref|4|4}} Ae ale
i ava fale hevaka ko, upe neale ie aila.{{ref|5|5}} U kala oi apule
iu hava aleale ea'a eyana heva aila.{{ref|6|6}} Ale uei ie palei etielele.{{ref|7|7}}

===Notes===
*{{note|1|1}}Ordinarily one doesn't use articles after a preposition in Kamakawi (on account of their diachrony). Plus, here I think the regular object marker is called for. Also, the word for "spring" works as an adverb, too.
*{{note|2|2}}Arthaey coined an ''awesome'' word here in "snow-covered", but I'd use it as a verb rather than an adjective here.
*{{note|3|3}}Here I'd use ''ala'' as a verb rather than a preposition. Also of interest: I mistook ''my own word'' here. In my translation into Kelen, I read ''falele'', which means "forest", as something like "grass plains". What a goof!
*{{note|4|4}}The pronoun ''uei'' doesn't occur in the previous clause, so it must be introduced as a new subject with ''au''.
*{{note|5|5}}''Ae'' can be used since the previous object is ''uei''. The object markers were omitted in both clauses. Both subject pronouns can be removed on account of the subject status markers.
*{{note|6|6}}Missing object marker before ''u'', unnecessary subject pronoun, but the change to ''aleale'' is something that my grammar simply could not have explained. That changed it to "traveling food". I also ''completely'' misunderstood what "selling things across the ocean" meant. Now I get it.
*{{note|7|7}}Missing object marker, but otherwise, nice thematic choices!

===Smooth English===

We go to the ocean in spring. The going is difficult. The mountain pass is still covered with snow when we first cross the mountains. We come to the forest. Fallen trees block our way. We come to the windy grass plain, and then reach the ocean. We talk and sell our very good traveling food across the ocean. We go home in the winter.

Inverse Relay 2/Kēlen

2010-08-22T20:28:11Z

Dedalvs:

== Translation by David Peterson ==

il ñi liēþ rā anālhāri il jīlpēneha; la jarēþa jaŋūta; pa jalāeþa anrōllōl tō jāo ñi liēþ rā jalāe ālme; la liēþ sū anhēīñi; se anpāsre to jakēþa jatāra mo jālme; il ñi liēþ rā anmāxxānwi anrēlān luhañen il ñi anālhāri ansēlne; ñalta jahōhhe jahē ja ānen liēþ jañicālte sū jahāwekien; il ñi liēþ rāmāra il jīlcīlre;

===Smooth English===

We go to the ocean in the spring. The going is difficult. The mountain pass is still covered with snow, so we cross the mountains. We are at the grass. Fallen trees prevent us from crossing. We're approaching the windy grass plains when we reach the ocean. We sell the good food we have on the shore. We go home in the winter.

==Corrected version by Sylvia Sotomayor==

il ñi liēþ rā anālhāri il jīlpēneha;
pa jarēþa anŋūta
la jalāeþa jarōllōl ewaþ ñi liēþ rā jalāe ālme;
la liēþ sū anhēīñi;
selte jālme japāsre to jakēþa jatāra;
il ñi liēþ rā anmāxxānwi nīkan jarēlān jēspe il ñi anālhāri ansēlni;
ñalta jahōhhe jahē tō ja ñalta jañicālte sū jahāwekien;
il ñi liēþ rāmāra il jīlcīlre;

===Smooth English===

We go to the ocean in Spring. The journey is difficult. The mountain
pass is snow-covered but we cross the mountaints. We are at an expanse
of 'grass'. A fallen trunk gives us a hindered crossing. We go to a
wide plain with a continuing wind when we make sight of the ocean. We
make good cooked food from the things we trade at the shore. We go
home in the Winter.

Inverse Relay 2/Kēlen

2010-08-22T20:13:03Z

Dedalvs:

Inverse Relay 2/Khangaþyagon

2010-08-22T20:12:03Z

Dedalvs:

== Translation by Sylvia Sotomayor ==

Gelar þoa'am linisip. Galgudahi gitommonban. Dahi tilse talpagosebgri
mulsa'ekwani shosh gelar talpbangur. Dahar salaðersham ifetuz. Ulti terkha
snarutouf yar nazgu. Gelar salaðershgu khælsart singart. Iðuzhar þoa. Apar
treshouf yurish beb enþar yi grenna'ut. Gelar undalam harrasip.

===Smooth English===

==Corrected version by Pete Bleackley==

gelangar {{ref|1|1}} yar {{ref|2|2}} þoa'am linisip. galgudahing gitommonban. dahinguf {{ref|3|3}} tilse talpagosebgri mulsa'ekwaninguf {{ref|4|4}} shosh gelangar yar talpbangur. dahangar yar salaðersham ifetuz. ulting terkha snarutosht {{ref|5|5}} yar nazgu. gelangar yar salaðershgu khælsart singart. iðuzhangar yar þoa. apangar yar þæsk {{ref|6|6}} yurish beb enþangar yar yi grenna'ut. gelangar yar undalam harrasip.

===Notes===
*{{note|1|1}}I've put everything into the past tense, as it seems to fit the narrative better.
*{{note|2|2}}Khangaþyagon is not pro-drop.
*{{note|3|3}}The existential verb is indicated by putting "dah" in the passive.
*{{note|4|4}}Adverbs agree with the verb!
*{{note|5|5}}Past participle, rather than passive infinitive.
*{{note|6|6}}Decided to coin a new word for this.
===Smooth English===

We went to the sea in spring. That journey was difficult. There was snow on the mountain path like a blanket, but we went by those mountains. We were at the plain of mint. A fallen oak blocked our way. We went across the plain with a small wind. We saw the sea. We made good food and traded it on the beach. We went home in winter.

Inverse Relay 2/Kēlen

2010-08-22T07:22:19Z

Dedalvs:

Inverse Relay 2/Kamakawi

2010-08-22T07:21:34Z

Dedalvs:

== Translation by Arthaey Angosii ==

Au ale uei ala e aila pe lenelele. Meuto ale. A itiva pake i kititiú
hie aupe ale uei iu pake heva ape. U uei i ala e falele. Au li kapolo
kawau'u i amo, ae ale uei i amo heva, au liwi uamo i uei. Au ale uei
ala u ava fale hevaka ko a, upe neale uei e aila. U kala oi apule uei
u hava ale'u ea'a eyana heva e aila. Ale uei e palei pe etielele.

===Smooth English===

We all travel to the ocean in the spring. The traveling is difficult. Snow still covers the passes when we first cross the mountains. Then we are at the forest. Fallen trees prevent our crossing. We arrive at the windy steppes, and then at the ocean. Over the ocean, we talk and sell very good traveling food. We all travel home in the winter.

==Corrected version by David Peterson==

Au ale uei ie aila lenelele.{{ref|1|1}} Meuto ale. A kititiú itiva pake
hie aupe ale uei iu pake heva ape.{{ref|2|2}} U ala ie falele.{{ref|3|3}} Au li kapolo
kawau'u i amo, au ale uei i amo heva, au liwi uamo i uei.{{ref|4|4}} Ae ale
i ava fale hevaka ko, upe neale ie aila.{{ref|5|5}} U kala oi apule
iu hava aleale ea'a eyana heva aila.{{ref|6|6}} Ale uei ie palei etielele.{{ref|7|7}}

===Notes===
*{{note|1|1}}Ordinarily one doesn't use articles after a preposition in Kamakawi (on account of their diachrony). Plus, here I think the regular object marker is called for. Also, the word for "spring" works as an adverb, too.
*{{note|2|2}}Arthaey coined an ''awesome'' word here in "snow-covered", but I'd use it as a verb rather than an adjective here.
*{{note|3|3}}Here I'd use ''ala'' as a verb rather than a preposition. Also of interest: I mistook ''my own word'' here. In my translation into Kelen, I read ''falele'', which means "forest", as something like "grass plains". What a goof!
*{{note|4|4}}The pronoun ''uei'' doesn't occur in the previous clause, so it must be introduced as a new subject with ''au''.
*{{note|5|5}}''Ae'' can be used since the previous object is ''uei''. The object markers were omitted in both clauses. Both subject pronouns can be removed on account of the subject status markers.
*{{note|6|6}}Missing object marker before ''u'', unnecessary subject pronoun, but the change to ''aleale'' is something that my grammar simply could not have explained. That changed it to "traveling food". I also ''completely'' misunderstood what "selling things across the ocean" meant. Now I get it.
*{{note|7|7}}Missing object marker, but otherwise, nice thematic choices!

===Smooth English===

We go to the ocean in spring. The going is difficult. The mountain pass is still covered with snow when we first cross the mountains. We come to the forest. Fallen trees block our way. We come to the windy grass plain, and then reach the ocean. We talk and sell our very good traveling food across the ocean. We go home in the winter.

Inverse Relay 2/Kamakawi

2010-08-22T06:53:12Z

Dedalvs:

Inverse Relay 2/Kamakawi

2010-08-22T06:51:06Z

Dedalvs:

Inverse Relay 2/Kamakawi

2010-08-22T06:50:03Z

Dedalvs: Created page with '== Translation by Arthaey Angosii == Au ale uei ala e aila pe lenelele. Meuto ale. A itiva pake i kititiú hie aupe ale uei iu pake heva ape. U uei i ala e falele. Au li kapolo …'

Inverse Relay 2/Kēlen

2010-08-22T06:45:02Z

Dedalvs: Created page with '== Translation by David Peterson == il ñi liēþ rā anālhāri il jīlpēneha; la jarēþa jaŋūta; pa jalāeþa anrōllōl tō jāo ñi liēþ rā jalāe ālme; la liēþ s…'

Conlang Relay 17/Kamakawi

2010-04-25T22:34:31Z

Dedalvs:

==Text==
===U Meneivenei Nowoku===

Ka i nanai oi-Meneivenei ke tomi'u ti Emi--io, ti imata, ke tovukale Emi i nea fei. Kapalele, ka he polinu ke pote ie talima. Ie fa'u'u o pote, ka huyaya Meneivenei, kaupe ale meneivene ko iti. Kupe ewemia Emi ae. Ku euku i nea kupe ni'u i nea heva. Ku nemilele i Emi pe.

==Smooth English==
===The Bad Little Deers===

The Little Deer had a friend named Human, but, to tell the truth, Human was annoying him. The animal began fighting the two-legged one. While fighting, the Little Deer screamed, and myriad more deer came fast. And then, they chased Human. They captured him and they bit him up. They killed Human there.

==Relevant Grammar (Overview)==
*Typological facts: word order = VSO; prepositional; NG; NA; NR.

*A PP or adverb can be moved to the front of a clause, but otherwise
word order is maintained.

*Kamakawi is a pro-drop language. If the subject marker /ku/ or
/ke/ is used, the subject may be omitted, as it can be retained
from the previous clause.

*Subject status markers let the hearer know if the subject of the new
sentence (embedded or otherwise) is the same as the subject of
the previous sentence. There are three possibilities: (1) It's identical;
(2) it's from the previous clause, but isn't the previous clause's subject;
(3) it's brand new (or more than a clause old). To mark these statuses,
a particle is used which preposes the verb. The markers are as follows:

(k)e = (1)
(k)ae = (2)
(k)a = (3)

Certain discourse particles (words like "because" and "so that") are
suffixed directly to these subject status markers. So if you had a
sentence like Kale X Y, it'd mean "Because Y did X".

*Adverbs occur sentence-finally, generally. Adverbs are sometimes
used like modals in English. For example, if you say Ka mama eine
i nawa (PAST hug woman PREP fish), it'd mean "The woman hugged
a fish". If you say Ka mama eine i nawa tou (PAST hug woman PREP
fish can), it'd mean "The woman could hug a fish".

*Where a verb has 2 arguments, the preposition /i/ marks the less
agent-like of the two. For this reason, it's used to cover a whole
range of prepositional functions, including spatial and temporal.

*Certain verbs take adverbial complements. They're listed in the
lexicon as X...Y. For these verbs, any objects and subjects come in
between the members X and Y. Otherwise, the two function as a
single verb with a single meaning.

*There's a particular construction in here that may cause confusion.
In Kamakawi, you can't say anything like "I have an uncle" or "I have
a boss" in the same way as you can with English (with a verb like "to
have"). Instead, you use the following construction. Let's say you
wanted to say "I have a fish". You'd say the following:

A i nawa oi'i.
/new.sbj. there.is fish GEN.-1sg./
"I have a fish" (lit. "There is a fish with me")

The genitive preposition used depends on the nature of the relationship,
but that's not something you should have to worry about for the
relay.

==Lexicon==
*ae (prep.) in (combines with verbs to form complex verbs)
*ale...ko (v.) to arrive

*Emi (n.) human being (here used as a name)
*euku (v.) to capture, to trap
*ewemia...ae (v.) to chase down

*fa'u'u (n.) pit of a pitted fruit (a part of the phrase "ie fa'u'u o x", which
means "in the middle of x")
*fei (adv.) up (combines with verbs to make complex verbs)

*he (v.) to begin, to start
*huyaya (v.) to scream

*i (prep.) marks direct objects; marks general locations and/or times
*i (v.) to exist (equiv. to English "there is/are")
*ie (contr.) contraction of /i/ and /e/
*imata (n.) truth (a part of the phrase "ti imata", which means "in truth",
or "truthfully")
*io (conj.) but
*iti (adv.) fast

*ka (part.) marks past tense, and that the subject of the sentence is
new or different
*kapalele (expr.) and thus, as a result of that
*kau (part.) marks past tense, and that the subject of the sentence is
new or different and plural
*kaupe (contr.) contraction of *kau and *-pe
*ke (part.) marks past tense, and that the subject of the sentence is
the same as the last sentence and singular
*ko (adv.) here (can combine with verbs to create complex verbs)
*kou (pron.) 3sg. pronoun that has no reference (a generic pronoun
like "one")
*ku (part.) marks past tense, and that the subject of the sentence is
the same as the last sentence and plural
*kupe (contr.) contraction of *ku and *-pe

*meneivene (n.) deer
*Meneivenei (n.) little deer (here used as a name)

*nanai (n.) friend
*nea (pron.) he (third person singular masculine pronoun)
*nemilele (v.) to kill
*ni'u...heva (v.) to bite all up, to bite all over
*nowoku (adj.) bad, evil

*o (prep.) marks the genitive (X o Y = "X of Y")
*oi- (pref.) marks the genitive (X oi-Y = "X of Y")

*pe (adv.) at that place, there
*-pe (suf.) and then (attaches to subject status markers)
*polinu (n.) quadruped
*pote (v.) to fight; (n.) fighting, fight

*talima (n.) biped
*ti (prep.) with (instrumental); marks oblique phrases; by, because of
*tomi (v.) to name, to call (object takes *ti)
*tomi'u (v.) passive of *tomi
*tovukale...fei (v.) to annoy

*u (part.) the (definite article, plu.; attaches to prepositions); (part.) marks
present tense, and that the subject of the sentence is identical to the subject
of the previous sentence and plural
*u (prep.) plural marker

==Glossary==
1 = first person
3 = third person
A = adjective
adj. = adjective
adv. = adverb
conj. = conjunction
contr. = contraction
dem. = demonstrative
G = genitival phrase
GEN. = genitive
N = noun
n. = noun
nm. = name
O = object
P = preposition
part. = particle (generally freestanding)
PP = prepositional phrase
pref. = prefix
prep. = preposition
pron. = pronoun
R = relative clause
S = subject
sbj. = subject
sg. = singular
suf. = suffix
V = verb
v. = verb that can be transitive or intransitive
vi. = intransitive verb
vt. = transitive verb