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High German

2018-01-29T19:43:00Z

Blackkdark: /* Sources and External Links */

High German, or Hochdeutsch, (the stage is called '''New High German''') is the name of the standard form of Modern German. It is a [[West Germanic]] and is related to [[Low German]], [[Dutch]], and [[Anglo-Saxon]]/[[Modern English]]. Today it is the official language of Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Liechtenstein.

{{Language|
| English = High German
| native = HochDeutsch
| dialect english =
| country = Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein
| nativecountry = Deutschland, Schweiz, Österreich, Liechtenstein
| universe = Real world
| speakers = 105 million
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      [[German ]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1800-Present C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}

=Outline of the History of High German=
High German has 4 primary written stages, similar to [[English]]. The four stages are as follows:
* '''[[Old High German]]'''
* '''[[Middle High German]]'''
* '''[[Early New High German]]'''
* '''New High German'''

The last stage is the Modern German of today.

=Difference between High and [[Low German]]=
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where;
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

All of these stages occur in the Highest of High German dialects, but Standard High German does not have all of them. The shift of /k/>/kx/ in stage 2 did not occur in the standard, although it did in [[Upper German]] dialects, such as [[Bavarian|Southern Bavarian]]. Also the only part of stage 3 which actually became part of standard '''High German''' was /d/>/t/. The other two happened only in the '''Highest of High German''' or '''Upper German''' dialects

=Orthography=
High German is written with the Latin alphabet. It has extra letters which represent some of the sounds of the German language, which are not otherwise found in the [[Roman alphabet|Latin alphabet]]. These include '''Ö ö, Ü ü, Ä ä, ß'''.

=Phonology=
==Consonants==
 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || (ʒ) || || ç || {{IPA|x}} || || {{IPA|h}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || pf || || {{IPA|ʦ}} || || {{IPA|ʧ}} || (ʤ) || || || (kx)
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}

</div>

* The diagraph '''ch''' is /x/ after a back vowel, and /ç/ elsewhere.
* '''v''' and '''f''' are (usually) both pronounced /f/, and '''w''' is pronounced /v/.
* /ŋ/ occurs as '''ng''' and /ŋk/ is '''nk'''.
* '''sch''' is pronounced /ʃ/. '''tsch''' is pronounced /ʧ/.
* Initially '''s''' is pronounced /z/ before vowels, and /ʃ/ before a consonant (such as '''st''' and '''sp''').
* '''j''' is pronounced /j/.
* The spellings '''tz''' and '''z''' are pronounced /ʦ/.
* '''ß''' and '''ss''' are pronounced /s/.
* German has [[Final Devoicing|final devoicing]]. This means that all voiced consonants with voiceless forms become those voiceless forms, at the end of the word.

==Vowels==

 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - ɪ || yː - ʏ || || uː - ʊ
|-
| Mid || eː - ɛ || øː - œ || ə || oː - ɔ
|-
| Low || || || aː/a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax
|}

</div>

* In order to form the long version of a vowel, add '''-h''' after the vowel or in rare cases double the vowel, although that is more common in [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].
* Final '''e''' is pronounced /ə/.
* '''ü''' is pronounced /yː/, /ʏ/.
* '''ö''' is pronounced /øː/, /œ/.
* '''ä''' is pronounced /eː/, /ɛ/.

===Diphthongs===
*'''eu''' and '''äu''' are pronounced /ɔʏ/, /ɔɪ/.
*'''ei''' and '''ai''' are pronounced /aɪ/.
*'''au''' is pronounced /aʊ/.

=Grammar=
==The General Stuff==
===Gender and Number===
[[Noun]]s, [[Adjective]]s, [[Article]]s, and to some extent [[Pronoun]]s are all affected by [[Gender]] and [[Number]].
There are three genders and two numbers in High German. The three genders are [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]], and the numbers are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Usually all forms of the Plural are the same, when it comes to adjectives and articles.

===Case===
In German, there are four cases, [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]]. These affect articles, pronouns, adjectives, and nouns. The prepositions of German also affect whether an phrase is genitive, dative, or accusative.

==Articles==
There are [[definite articles]] and [[indefinite articles]] in German as well as in [[Modern English|English]]. Articles are affected by [[Case|case]], [[Gender|gender]], and [[Number|number]]. The plural is the same across the genders.

===Definite===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || der || die || das || die
|-
| '''Genitive''' || des || der || des || der
|-
| '''Dative''' || dem || der || dem || den
|-
| '''Accusative''' || den || die || das || die
|}

===Indefinite===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ein || eine || ein || meine†
|-
| '''Genitive''' || eines || einer || eines || meiner
|-
| '''Dative''' || einem || einer || einem || meinen
|-
| '''Accusative''' || einen || eine || ein || meine
|}
† There is no plural form of '''ein''', but there are other indefinite article-style words that do, such as '''mein''' which means '''my'''.

==Nouns==
Gender is arbitrary in German, but Nouns referring to living being usually are the gender of that being. The ending of a noun is usually helpful in figuring out which gender a noun is, although it is not always the case.

Also, the first letter all German nouns is always capitalized.

===Genders of Nouns===
* Masculine
** Nouns ending with '''-en''' are usually masculine (that are not derived from verbs). Ex. Der Garten, der Norden.
** Nouns ending '''-er''' are usually masculine. Ex. Der Lehrer, die Amerikaner
** Nouns ending with '''-ismus''' are masculine. Ex. Der Feminismus, Der Kommunismus,
* Feminine
** To convert masculine nouns ending to feminine, add '''-in''' to it. Ex. Die Lehrer'''in''', Die Freund'''in'''.
** Most nouns ending with '''-e'''. Ex. Die Frage, Die Straße,
** Nouns ending with '''-ion, -ik, -ie, -unft, -tät, -ei, -heit, -keit, -schaft,''' and '''-ung''' are almost always feminine. Ex. Die Logik, Die Magie, Die Universität, Die Vorlesung, Die Gesundheit, etc.
* Neuter
** Young living beings are Neuter. Ex. Das Kind, Das Lamm, Das Baby,
** The ending '''-chen''' and '''-lein''' are diminutives and are always neuter. Ex. Das Mädchen, Das Märchen. 
'''-lein''' is used more in the south than in the north, so it's less common in the standard form of German. 
** Metals and infinitive-nouns are always neuter. Ex. Das Gold, Das Metall, Das Singen, Das Essen,

===Forming the Plural===
The formation of the plural is different for many different nouns. The idea of the Umlaut is important in forming the plural as well.
*For monosyllabic words, the plural is usually for by adding '''-e''' in the masculine and feminine and '''-er''' in some neuter nouns.
*For Polysyllabic masculine and neuter nouns, many take no ending, but most others take '''-e''' as an ending.
*For most Polysyllabic feminine nouns that end with '''-e''', '''-er''' or '''-el''', the ending is '''-n''' or '''-en'''. If the ending is '''-in''' then the total ending is '''-innen'''.
*Foreign words (except those from Latin) and new words usually take the ending '''-s'''.

===Noun Declensions===
There are many different kinds of German Nouns. Here are a few fully declined ones: 
'''Masculine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Tag 'Day'
! Tage 'Days'
! Apfel 'Apple'
! Äpfel'Apples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Der Tag || Die Tage || Der Apfel || Die Äpfel
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Des Tag(e)s || Der Tage || Des Apfels || Der Äpfel
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dem Tag(e) || Den Tagen || Dem Apfel || Den Äpfeln
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den Tag || Die Tage || Den Apfel || Die Äpfel
|}
'''Feminine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hand 'Hand'
! Hände 'Hands'
! Freude 'Joy'
! Freuden 'Joys'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Der Hand || Der Hände || Der Freude || Der Freuden
|-
| '''Dative''' || Der Hand || Den Händen || Der Freude || Den Freuden
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden
|}
'''Neuter:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Schiff 'Ship'
! Schiffe 'Ships'
! Volk 'Folk, People'
! Völker 'Folks, Peoples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Volk || Die Völker
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Des Schiff(e)s || Der Schiffe || Des Volk(e)s || Der Völker
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dem Schiff(e) || Den Schiffen || Dem Volk(e) || Den Völkern
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Volk || Die Völker
|}

==Personal Pronouns==
'''First person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ich || wir
|-
| '''Genitive''' || meiner || uns(e)rer
|-
| '''Dative''' || mir || uns
|-
| '''Accusative''' || mich || uns
|}

'''Second person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular Informal
! Plural Informal
! Plural/Singular Formal
|-
| '''Nominative''' || du || ihr || Sie‡
|-
| '''Genitive''' || deiner || eu(e)rer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Dative''' || dir || euch || Ihnen
|-
| '''Accusative''' || dich || euch || Sie
|}
‡The formal plural pronoun '''Sie''' is the same form as the 3rd person plural pronoun '''sie''' but is also always capitalized.

'''Third person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Mascu. Sing.
! Fem. Sing.
! Neut. Sing.
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || er || sie || es || sie
|-
| '''Genitive''' || seiner || ihrer || seiner || ihrer
|-
| '''Dative''' || ihm || ihr || ihm || ihnen
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ihn || sie || es || sie
|}

==Possessive Pronouns==

'''Attributively-used''' they agree with the noun they refer to in case, number and gender. They stand always in front of the noun.

{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! 1st Sg.
! 2nd Sg.
! 3rd Sg. masc.
! 3rd Sg. fem.
! 3rd Sg. neut.
! 1st Pl.
! 2nd Pl.
! 3rd Pl.
! 2nd Formal
|-
| '''Nominative Sg. m./n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr
|-
| '''Nominative Sg. f''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|-
| '''Nominative Pl.''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|-
| '''Genitive Sg. m./n.''' || meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres
|-
| '''Genitive Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Genitive Pl. '''|| meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Dative Sg. m./n.''' || meinem || deinem || seinem || ihrem || seinem || unserem || eurem || ihrem || Ihrem
|-
| '''Dative Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Dative Pl. '''|| meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren
|-
| '''Accusative Sg. m.''' || meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren
|-
| '''Accusative Sg. f.''' || meine || deinen || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|-
| '''Accusative Sg. n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr
|-
| '''Accusative Pl. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|}

'''mein Haus''' - ''my house '' 
'''deiner Frau''' - ''of your wife, to your wife'' 
'''ihrem Buch''' - ''to her book ''

'''Predicatively-used''' they function as follows:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! 1st Sg.
! 2nd Sg.
! 3rd Sg. masc.
! 3rd Sg. fem.
! 3rd Sg. neut.
! 1st Pl.
! 2nd Pl.
! 3rd Pl.
! 2nd Formal
|-
| '''Masculine Sg.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Feminine Sg. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihrer || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|-
| '''Neuter Sg. '''|| meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres
|-
| '''Plural''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|}

'''Dieser Baum ist meiner.''' - ''This tree is mine.'' 
'''Seines ist es nicht.''' - ''This isn't his.''

==Adjectives and Adverbs==
===Adjectives===
German adjectives have different behaviours and patterns depending on whether there are articles or not, and whether those articles are definite or indefinite. Predicate adjectives take no endings.

'''Gut = Good'''
With Definite articles and demonstratives, so-called '''der'''-Words:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Der '''gute''' Hund|| Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot|| Die '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Des '''guten''' Hundes || Der '''guten''' Katze || Des '''guten''' Bootes || Der '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dem '''guten''' Hunde || Der '''guten''' Katze || Dem '''guten''' Boot || Den '''guten''' Völkern
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den '''guten''' Hund || Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot || Die '''guten''' Völker
|}
With the Indefinite articles and possessives, so-called '''ein'''-words:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ein '''guter''' Hund|| eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Genitive''' || eines '''guten''' Hundes || einer '''guten''' Katze || eines '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Dative''' || einem '''guten''' Hunde || einer '''guten''' Katze || einem '''guten''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern
|-
| '''Accusative''' || einen '''guten''' Hund || eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker
|}

Articles without articles of any form:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || '''guter''' Hund|| '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Genitive''' || '''guten''' Hundes || '''guter''' Katze || '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Dative''' || '''gutem''' Hunde || '''guter''' Katze || '''gutem''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern
|-
| '''Accusative''' || '''guten''' Hund || '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker
|}
===Adverbs===
In High German, the change from an adjective to an adverb does not require an ending, as it would in [[Modern English]] or [[French]]. The adverb form is usually the same as the nominative masculine form of the adjective.

The Word Order for Adverbs usually follows a pattern of the ordering of 1. Time, 2. Manner, and 3. Place. This means '''Gut''' in German can mean both '''well''' and '''good'''. There are other words which are strictly adverbs, such as '''sehr''', which means '''very'''.

==Prepositions==
Prepositions are classified by the cases that follow them. Some have the accusative case follow, some the dative, and some the genitive. However some take either accusative or dative, based on whether or not it is a there is motion involved.
===Accusative===
bis - until, as far as 
durch - through, by means of 
entlang - along, down 
für - for 
gegen - against, around 
ohne - without 
um - around 
===Dative===
aus - out of, from, made of, 
außer - at, 
bei - at, near, with, 
gegenüber von - opposite, across from, 
mit - with 
nach - to, after, according to, 
seit - since, for a period of time, 
von - from, of, by 
zu - to 

===Accusative and Dative===
an - on, to go to, 
auf - on, to, in, at 
hinter - behind, 
in - in, into, to, 
neben - next to, beside, 
über - over, above, across, 
unter - under, 
vor - in front of, before 
zwischen - between, 
===Genitive===
anstatt - instead of, 
statt - instead of, 
trotz - in spite of 
während - during 
wegen - because of, 
==Conjunctions==
There are different conjunctions which affect a sentence in different ways. [[Coordinating Conjunction]]s usually do not affect the word or of a German sentence, whereas [[Subordinating Conjunction]]s usually involve the transposed word order mentioned below.
===Coordinating Conjunctions===
aber - but 
denn - because, for 
oder - or 
sondern - but, rather, 
und - and 
===Subordinating Conjunctions===
als, wann, wenn - when 
bevor - before 
bis - until 
da - since, 
damit - so that, 
dass - that 
ob - whether, if 
obwohl - although 
seit - since 
während - while 
weil - because 
wenn - if 

==Verbs==
 Main Page: [[High German Verbs]] 
German Verbs have two major subdivisions, [[Strong]] and [[Weak]]. German verbs are conjugated according to 3 [[Person|persons]], 2 [[Number|numbers]], 2 inflecting [[Tense|tenses]], and 3 [[Mood|moods]], although German is rather intermediate when it comes to verbal inflection. The [[German Strong Verbs]] often have some patterns and classifications which are used for identifying them.

The [[infinitive]] of a verb is formed by adding '''-en''' to the end.

The [[imperative]] is formed, in the 2nd person singular informal by only the verb stem, the 2nd person plural informal is formed by adding '''-t''' to the stem. The 2nd personal formal is formed by adding '''-en''' to the stem and adding '''Sie''' afterwards. The "let's" or first person plural imperative is formed by adding '''-en''' and '''wir''' after words or, as in English, with the imperative of '''lassen''' and '''uns'''. Examples: Verb: Gehen - to go 
'''Geh nach Hause!''' 
'''Geht nach Hause!''' 
'''Gehen Sie nach Hause!''' 
Go home! 
'''Gehen wir nach Hause. / Lass uns nach Hause gehen. '''(speaking to one person)''' / Lasst uns nach Hause gehen.''' (speaking to several persons) - let's go home. 

===Modals===
There are a few verbs which are essential for German. These are called Modals or [[Modal Auxiliaries]]. There are 6 primary modals, and one which has a subjunctive form in common use. The latter would be '''Möchten''' which is the subjunctive of '''Mögen'''. The modal in the present tense is as follows:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="15" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''dürfen''' may, to be allowed|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''können''' can, to be able, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''müssen''' must, to have to, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''sollen''' should, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''mögen''' to like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''möchten''' would like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''wollen''' to want,
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen
|-
| '''2nd person''' || darfst || dürft || kannst || könnt || musst || müsst || sollst || sollt || magst || mögt || möchtest || möchtet || willst ||wollt
|-
| '''3rd person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen
|}

===Auxiliaries===
The most important auxiliaries are '''sein''' (to be), '''werden''' (to become, shall, will), and '''haben''' (to have). '''Sein''' and '''Haben''' are both used to form the [[Present Perfect]] tense, and '''Werden''' is used to form the [[Future]] tense.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Sein''' to be|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Haben''' to have ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Werden''' to become
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || bin || sind || habe || haben || werde || werden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || bist || seid || hast || habt || wirst || werdet
|-
| '''3rd person''' || ist || sind || hat || haben || wird || werden
|-
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Imperfect Tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || war|| waren || hatte || hatten || wurde || wurden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || warst|| wart || hattest|| hattet || wurdest || wurdet
|-
| '''3rd person''' || war || waren || hatte|| hatten || wurde || wurden
|-
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Perfect Form'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || bin gewesen || sind gewesen || habe gehabt || haben gehabt || bin geworden || sind geworden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || bist gewesen || seid gewesen || hast gehabt || habt gehabt || bist geworden || seid geworden
|-
| '''3rd person''' || ist gewesen || sind gewesen || hat gehabt || haben gehabt || ist geworden || sind geworden
|}

===Present Tense===
In the present tense, German verbs follow a common pattern. Quite a few verbs have change or umlaut the vowel in the second person informal singular and the third person singular. Verbs that end with an alveolar fricative or affricate have identical '''du'''-forms and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Verbs ending '''-d''' or '''-t''' insert an '''-e-''' in the '''du''', '''ihr''', and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Here are examples:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lerne || lernen || antworte || antworten || heiße || heißen || fahre || fahren
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lernst || lernt || antwortest || antwortet || heißt || heißt || fährst || fahrt
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lernt || lernen || antwortet || antworten || heißt || heißen || fährt || fahren
|}

===Perfect Tense===
The present perfect is used in High German in the same senses that English uses the [[Simple Past]] and the [[Perfect]] tenses. For weak verbs, in order to form the Present tense, first a form of '''haben''' (or '''sein''') must be used, and at the end of the clause comes the verb. For the verb, '''ge-''' must be attached to beginning of the stem and '''-t''' must be attached to the end. In many strong verbs, '''ge-''' is still often attached, but sometimes '''-en''' is the ending. Also many strong verbs involve a vowel stem change as well.

Most Verbs take '''haben''' as the auxiliary verb, but verbs of motion and select others take the verb '''sein''' as the auxiliary.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present Perfect Tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || habe gelernt || haben gelernt || habe geantwortet || haben geantwortet|| habe geheißen || haben geheißen || habe gefahren || haben gefahren
|-
| '''2nd person''' || hast gelernt || habt gelernt || hast geantwortet|| habt geantwortet|| hast geheißen || habt geheißen || hast gefahren || habt fahren
|-
| '''3rd person''' || hat gelernt || haben gelernt || hat geantwortet|| haben geantwortet|| hat geheißen|| haben geheißen || hat gefahren || haben gefahren
|}

===Imperfect===
The Imperfect tense in High German is used more as a written tense than as a spoken one, although a few key words are used more often in speech as well, such as the Modals and Auxiliaries. The Imperfect tense is used to describe something that happened a while in the past. It differs greatly from the Romance and Slavic Language idea of Imperfect. It is used in telling stories of things that happened a long time ago.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Imperfect tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || hieß || hießen || fuhr || fuhren
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lerntest || lerntet || antwortetest || antwortetet || hießest || hießt || fuhrst || fuhrt
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || hieß || hießen || fuhr || fuhren
|}

==Word Order==
German word order is fairly unique and has particular features with which a learner must become acquainted. The normal order is SVO, and occasional OVS, because German has a structure know as V2 or 2nd Position Verb rule, as described here:
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|"...I find German to be the strangest in the area of syntax. German has several interesting word order issues. Now a simple German sentence can be SVO. But German, as well as most other Germanic language such as Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, and Dutch, follow what I call the 2nd Position Verb rule. This states that no matter where the objects and subjects move, the conjugated verb or Finite verb stays in the second position. So this means that SVO or OVS are very common. Here is an example, You can say in German: 
'''Ich sehe den Himmel.''' (I see the sky.) or 
'''Den Himmel sehe ich.''' (The sky see I.) 
We can see how the verb stays when the other elements move. Now for questions it is acceptable to have a verb in the first position, using a standard inverted word order. However for many statements the verb second ideal needs to stay in place." [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546]
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''
|}

However, German and [[Dutch]] both have a unique trait in having something called Transposed or Dependent Clause word order. This type of word order only occurs inside dependent clauses, and what happens is that the inflected or [[finite]] verb is sent to the end. It is described as this:
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|"Now the pattern that Dutch and German have, but is not really shared with the other Germanic languages, is the movement of the conjugated verb to the end of a dependent clause. This might seem strange at first, but one must learn to notice it. An example would be: 
'''Der Mann, den ich gestern sah, ist gegangen.''' 
('''The man, whom I yesterday saw, left.''') 
Instead of; '''The man, whom I saw yesterday, left.'''" [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] 
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''
|}
Another interesting feature is the movement of the [[Infinitive]]s and [[Past Participle]]s to the end of the sentence. This is a trait that written German got from Latin, and then it became common in spoken German as well. It also leads to idioms such as '''Ich kann Deutsch.''' (Lit. '''I can German''', but means, '''I can speak German''') which comes from the expression '''Ich kann Deutsch sprechen.''' In the cases of Transposed word order, the inverted verb goes after the infinitives and participles.

=High German Conlangs=
Below are conlangs that are mainly based on [[Old High German]], [[Middle High German]], and modern High German dialects:
* [[Da Mätz se Basa]]
* [[Koulesch]]
* [[Faloch]]

=Sources and External Links=
<references />

Stern, Guy, and Everett Bleiler. Essential German Grammar. Mineola, New York. Dover Publications inc, 1961.

Dippmann, Gerda, and Johanna Watzinger-Tharp. A Practical review of German Grammar. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall inc. 2000.

Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

=Translations=

[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]
{{Natlangs}}
[[Category:Linguistics]]

Anglo-Saxon

2010-09-06T04:08:38Z

Blackkdark: /* Nouns */

Anglo-Saxon or Old English (OE '''Englisc''') is the ancestor of [[Modern English]]. It is a West Germanic Language and like Dutch and Low Saxon (Low German) it did not go through the [[High German Consonant Shift]].

{{Language|
| English = Anglo-Saxon
| native = Englisc
| dialect english =
| country = Anglo-Land (England)
| nativecountry = Angelcynn
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      Anglo-Frisian        Anglic
| wordorder = Unimportant/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 400-1066 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}

=Stages=
English has had 4 primary stages:
* '''Anglo-Saxon''' also known as '''Old English'''
* '''[[Middle English]]'''
* '''[[Early Modern English]]'''
* '''[[Modern English]]'''

The separation of '''Anglo-Saxon''' from '''Middle English''' is marked by [[The Battle of Hastings]] in 1066. The separation of '''Middle English''' and the '''Modern English''' stages is the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

Modern English words have many different origins, but a majority come from [[Anglo-Saxon]], [[Old French|Old Norman French]], and a little [[Old Norse]]. However in the global world today, many words from many other languages have entered the English language.

=The People, Dialects, and Literature=
The story was that the British leader Vortigern invited the Saxons to Britain to help fight off the Picts and Scots. A large migration of Saxons, Frisians, Franks, Jutes and Angles later moved from modern Northern Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands to England. The next few centuries they expanded westward constantly and gained more land. The Anglo-Saxons then fought with the Romano-British people already living there until they owned most of Modern England.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Danish Vikings invaded the Northern parts of England. The [[Old Norse]] influence can still be seen today including things such as the pronoun '''they'''.

The Dialects were split into 4 major ones: Northumbrian, Midlands, Kentish, and West Saxon. The majority of the texts we have are from the West Saxon region.

The most well known text in Anglo-Saxon is that of the Heroic Epic, [[Beowulf]]. Old English literature is known for alliteration. There are many Anglo-Saxon riddles, religious documents, heroic tales, and poems. A chronicle known as the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] was a chronicle of the events of the Kingdom, and was likely started in the 10th century and was continually updated into the 12th, although there are differences in the key Chronicle documents.

There is no standard spelling in Anglo-Saxon, so many words had more than one spelling.

=Orthography and Phonology=
==Runic==
[[Image:Anglo-saxon runes.gif|thumb|right|Anglo-Saxon Runic alphabet]]
Early forms of Anglo-Saxon writing was in [[Runic]]. It was an expansion of the original 24 rune Fuþark, and had become Fuþorc. Because the language had shifted to include new sounds, the alphabet itself shifted and included several new letters that had not been in the Elder Fuþark. However they did not develop the one Staff system similar to the runic designs in Norway, Sweden and Denmark.

When the Latin Alphabet was introduced, Anglo-Saxon added two symbols to the Latin alphabet from Runic, those would be "þ" /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/ and "Ƿ" /[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]/ from runic, called Thorn and Wynn respectively.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Inter-dental||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || || || ŋ
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || p || b || || || || || t || d || || || || || k || g ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || f || v || θ || ð || s || z || ʃ || (ʒ) || || ç || x || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || (ʦ) || (ʣ) || ʧ || ʤ || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants & glides || ʍ || w || || || || || || || || || || j
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || ̥r || r || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || ̥l || l/ɫ
|}

</div>
[[Image:Wynn.png|right|thumb|100px|'''Ƿƿ''' ''wynn'', Old English '''[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]''', which is missing in many Unicode fonts.]]
* Placing '''h-''' before '''r''', '''l''', or '''w'''/'''ƿ''' yields the voiceless form of each sound /̥r ̥l ʍ/.
* When '''c''', '''g''' or '''sc''' are next to a front vowel (most often '''i''' but '''e''' and '''y''' can affect it sometimes too) they become /ʧ j ʃ/ respectively. This is how words like '''gear''' became '''year'''. '''-g''' is often not pronounced or becomes part of a diphtong, such as '''dæg''' /daj/. When it ends with '''-ig''' it has a pronunciation of /-i/, dropping the '''g''' altogether. From this, [[Modern English]] gets the '''-y''' ending (like '''halig''' > '''holy''', '''sceadwig''' > '''shady''', '''manig''' > '''many''')
* The diagraph '''cg''' is pronounced /ʤ/.
* '''þ''' and '''ð''' is pronounced /θ/ except in the case below.
* Fricatives, particularly '''f, þ/ð, s''' are voiceless most of the time /f θ s/, and are voiced intevocalically or adjacent to voiced consonants as /v ð z/. This is why '''v''' and '''f''' were not in Old English.
* '''h''' is pronounaced /ç/ after front vowels and /x/ after back vowels.
* The sound /w/ is often spelt with the letter '''Ƿ'''/'''ƿ''' (wynn). From the Runic Alphabet.

===Vowels===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - i || yː - y || || uː - u
|-
| Mid || eː - e || || ə || oː - o
|-
| Low || æ || || aː/a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax
|}

</div>

* With a macron the vowel becomes long.
*'''ī''', '''ȳ''', '''ē''', '''ǣ''', '''ā''', '''ō''', and '''ū''' are pronounced /iː yː eː æː aː oː uː/ respectively.
* Without a macron the vowels are short.
* '''i''', '''y''', '''e''', '''æ''', '''a''', '''o''', and '''u''' are pronounced /i y e æ a o u/ or /ɪ ʏ ɛ æ ɔ ʊ/ respectively, depending on the source.
* '''e''' at the end of a word, and unstressed often becomes /ə/.

=Grammar=
==Nouns==
 Main Article: [[Anglo-Saxon Nouns]] 
===Gender and Number===
There are there Genders in Old English: [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]]. These are the same genders in [[Latin]], as well as modern [[Russian]] and [[High German|German]]. Like most languages which have genders, Nouns which reflect living things are usually indicated in the [[Gender]] of the noun, but a majority is completely random.

The two numbers of Anglo-Saxon are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Pronouns have the Dual number as well.

===Cases===
Unlike [[Modern English]], Anglo-Saxon was filled with noun inflections denoting the case of the noun. The only one that survived through the [[Middle English]] era was the '''-'s''' ending denoting the original Genitive case. The cases were [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]].

===Strong and Weak===
Like with Verbs, Anglo-Saxon had many nouns which changed their stems, both in the plural and sometimes during some of the cases of the singular. These are the reasons for irregular nouns in [[Modern English]] with stem changes, such as Man-Men (AS Mann-Menn in Nom.). This is often how Anglo-Saxon nouns are categorized.

===Example charts===
'''Masculine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Dæg¹ 'Day'
! Dagas 'Days'
! Stān 'Stone'
! Stānas 'Stones'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|-
| '''Genitive''' || dæges || daga || stānes || stāna
|-
| '''Dative''' || dæge || dagum || stāne || stānum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|}
¹'''Dæg''' was pronounced much like the word '''Die''' in [[Modern English]], or the Australian/Cockney pronunciation of '''"Day."'''
* Note that both Nouns here are Strong 

'''Feminine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hond² 'Hand'
! Honda 'Hands'
! Ƿynn³ 'Joy'
! Ƿynna 'Joys'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hond || hondu || Ƿynn || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Genitive''' || honda || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Dative''' || honda || hondum || Ƿynne || Ƿynnum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hond || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|}
²'''Hond''' could also be spelt/pronounced '''Hand'''. 
³'''Ƿ''' could also be spelt '''W''', so '''Ƿynn''' could easily be '''Wynn'''. 
* Note the '''Hond''' is strong ja-stemmed and '''Wynn''' is regular strong.

'''Neuter:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Scip⁴ 'Ship'
! Scipu 'Ships'
! Dēor⁵ 'Animal'
! Dēor 'Animals'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|-
| '''Genitive''' || scipes || scipa || dēores || dēora
|-
| '''Dative''' || scipe || scipum || dēore || dēorum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|}

⁴'''Scip''' is pronounced the same way as the modern equivalent, '''Ship'''. 
⁵'''Dēor''', related to the German word '''Tier''' (animal), slowly became used for game animals, and later becomes '''Deer''' in Modern English. 
* Note that both nouns are strong here.

==Articles==
During the earlier ages of the Anglo-Saxon language, there were no articles. Later, especially after the Viking invasion and towards the end of the Anglo-Saxon era, articles were developed. They too declined by case and number, and included the [[Instrumental]] case, which was the same as Dative Nouns. This also includes the meaning of '''that''' in the demonstrative sense. Here are the articles:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || sē || sēo || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Genitive''' || ðæs || ðǣre || ðæs || ðāra, ðǣra
|-
| '''Dative''' || ðǣm || ðǣre || ðǣm || ðǣm, ðām
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ðone|| ðā || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || ðē, ðon || ðǣre || ðē, ðon || ðǣm, ðām
|}

==Personal Pronouns==
Personal pronouns in Anglo-Saxon are quite different than Modern English. They too are declined according to the four major cases, but also have an extra number illustration when there 2, [[Dual]]. With the dual, the verbs take the plural endings, and it only applies to the first and second person pronouns. Here are the Charts for the Pronouns: 
'''First person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ic, ih || Ƿit, wit || Ƿē, wē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || mīn || uncer || ūre
|-
| '''Dative''' || mē || unc || ūs
|-
| '''Accusative''' || mē|| unc || ūs
|}

'''Second person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || þū || git || gē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || þīn || incer || ēoǷer, ēower
|-
| '''Dative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|-
| '''Accusative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|}

'''Third person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Mascu. Sing.
! Fem. Sing.
! Neut. Sing.
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hē || hēo || hit || hīe
|-
| '''Genitive''' || his || hiere || his || hiera
|-
| '''Dative''' || him || hiere || him || him, heom
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hine || hīe || hit || hīe
|}

==Adjectives==
Adjectives also decline by gender, number, and case. Because one adjective has to cover all three genders, two numbers, and four (five with the Strong) cases, there are more adjective forms than there are any other part of speech, with the possible exception of the verb. They too have Strong and Weak forms and can have root vowel stems which are umlauted. The plurals of the Weak forms are uniform across genders, but not in the Strong forms. The same adjective could be Weak or Strong depending on context and the noun.

===Examples===
'''Gōd = Good''' 
'''Weak''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōda || gōde || gōde || gōdan
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdena
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōde || gōdan
|}

'''Strong''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Pl. Masc.
! Pl. Fem.
! Pl. Neut.
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōd || gōd || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdes || gōdre || gōdes || gōdra || gōdra || gōdra
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdum || gōdre || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdne || gōde || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || gōde || gōdre || gōde || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|}

==Prepositions and Conjunctions==
Here is a list of Prepositions and Conjuctions.
===Prepositions===
æt - (dat.) at, from, (acc.) until, to 
tō - (dat.) to, towards, at, 
wið, wiþ - against, 
æfter - (dat.) after, 
on - (dat.) in, on, (acc.) into, onto 
mid - (dat.) with, 
of - (dat.) of, from, 
be - (dat. and acc.) by, near, along, about, 
beforan - (dat. and acc.) before, ahead of 
fram - (dat.) from, by, 
ofer - (dat.) over, upon (acc.) over to, across, 
þurh - (acc.) through 
under - (dat.) under (acc.) under, 
ymbe - (acc.) near, by, about, 
in - (dat.) in, (acc.) into, 
būtan - (dat. or acc.) outside, except, without, 
betweox - (dat. or acc.) between, among, 
binnan - (dat.) within, (acc.) to within, 
oð - (acc.) up to, until, 
geond - (acc.) through, throughout, 
bufan (dat.) above, (acc.) upwards, 
innan - (dat.) within (acc.) into, 

===Conjunctions===
æfter - after, 
ǣr - before 
gif - if, 
hwæðer, hwæþer - whether 
þā, ðā - when, 
hwīle - while, 
swā - as, such, (this word has a phonetic/semantic cognate in [[Old Norse]], sva.) 
swelce - as if, 
þæt, ðæt - that, so that, 
þǣr, ðǣr - where, 
þēah, ðēah - though, 
siððan, siþþan - since, after, (this one is also in [[Old Norse]] and [[Middle English]] such as the first line in [[Sir Gawayn and the Grene Knyght]].) 

==Verbs==
 Main Page: [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] 
===Verbal Comparison, Patterns, and General Overview===
Like nouns and adjectives, Verbs have [[Strong]] and [[Weak]] forms. The Strong forms usually involve vowel shifts in the stem, even in the present tense. It is also inflected based on [[person]], [[number]], [[tense]], and [[mood]].

It is known for having -st in the second person, which was used for '''thou''' in the [[Middle English]] era. It is also used in [[High German|German]] for the '''du''' form, which is the cognate to '''þū''' and '''thou''' (which is also a cognate to [[Latin]] '''tu'''). [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] are known for the signature -ð/-þ ending in the 3rd person singular, which was also used into the [[Early Modern English]] era, which [[Shakespeare]] is apart of, examples from that era include the words: hath, goeth, doth, knoweth, etc.

The infinitive ending is commonly '''-an''' or '''-en''', which is similar to the modern [[High German|German]] '''-en''' infinitive ending. Also the orthographic cognate '''ge-''' is used in both German and Anglo-Saxon to represent the past tense, even if they are not pronounced the same way, and in Standard [[High German]], the prefix is required, whereas the Anglo-Saxon one is more optional. The [[Weak]] past tense marker inserts '''-ed-''', whereas the [[Strong]] past tense usually involves a vowel change.

Although Anglo-Saxon did have the Subjunctive and Imperative, the examples shall be focused on the Present and Past tenses.

==='''Weak Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lufian''' to love || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Fremman''' to do
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufie || lufiað || fremme || fremmað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufast || lufiað || fremest || fremmað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufað || lufiað || fremeð || fremmað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufodest || lufodon || fremedest || fremedon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|}

==='''Strong Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Singan''' to sing || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Niman''' to take
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || singe || singað || nime || nimað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || singest || singað || nimest || nimað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || singeð || singað || nimeð || nimað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || sang || sungon || nam || nāmon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || sunge || sungon || nāme || nāmon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || sang || sungon || nam|| nāmon
|}

==='''The Verb Bēon and Wesan '''===
There are two forms of the verb [[to be]] in Anglo-Saxon. They both share the same past tense, rooted in '''wesan'''. The verb form '''wesan''' was preserved in the past tense, in the form of '''was''' and '''were'''.

These verb forms were also preserved into the [[Middle English]] era, in an [[Epic]] called [[Brut]]: 
"Al swa muchel thu bist woruh, swa thu velden ært." 
(All as much thou art worth, as thou kind art) 
You are worth as much as you are kind. 

{|class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Bēon''' to be || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Wesan''' to be
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || bēo || bēoð || eom|| sind, sindon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || bist || bēoð || eart || sind, sindon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || bið || bēoð || is || sind, sindon
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense''' (for both)
|-
| || colspan="2"| sing. ||colspan="2"| pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || colspan="2"| wæs ||colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''2nd person''' || colspan="2"| wǣre || colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''3rd person''' || colspan="2"| wæs || colspan="2"|wǣron
|}

=Texts=
There are many primary texts in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous of which would be [[Beowulf]]. Other text's include, ''The Wife's Lament'', ''The Wanderer'', ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', ''Judith'', ''Cædmon's Hymn'', just to name a few.

=Sources and External Links=
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/runic.htm#futhorc

http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html

http://members.tripod.com/babaev/archive/grammar43.html

http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/index.htm

http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html

Finegan, Edward. "English." The World’s Major Languages. Ed. Bernard Comrie. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1990

Atherton, Mark. Teach Yourself Old English. Coventry, England, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.: 2006.

Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

=Translations=
Faind [[Anggloo-Saksyn|dhys peedx]] in [[Tawyr Oorthaagryfii]].

[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]

Timothy Patrick Snyder

2010-03-08T12:46:17Z

Blackkdark: /* Anthropology */

Co-Creator of [[Tower Orthography]] with Rebecca Spatz. His username is [[User:Blackkdark|Blackkdark]].
He is currently studying Linguistics, Anthropology, and English at Temple University in Philadelphia. He specialises in Historical/Comparative Linguistics.

=Specialties=
==Linguistics==
Timothy specialises in historical and comparative linguistics, especially of [[Romance Languages| Romance]] and [[Germanic languages]]. He has studied several major and minor languages of this family of languages. He has also studied ancient scripts such as Egyptian, Cuneiform, Ancient Chinese, Sanskrit, Anglo-Saxon Fuþorc Runic, Elder Fuþark Runic, Younger Fuþark Runic, Ancient Greek, Umbrian, Tuscan, and Phoenician.

Languages he has studied at one time or another include: [[High German]], [[Low German]], [[Dutch]], [[Danish]], [[Swedish]], [[Norwegian]], [[Old Norse]], [[Icelandic]], Old High German, [[Anglo-Saxon]], [[Middle English]], [[Modern English]], [[Italian]], [[Romanian]], [[Portuguese]], [[Spanish]], [[French]], [[Latin]], [[Ancient Greek]], Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, [[Polish]], [[Russian]], Finnish, Hungarian, [[Ancient Egyptian]], Hebrew, Mandarin Chinese, and Japanese.

He also has extensively learned the [[IPA]].

==Anthropology==
He is majoring in Anthropology with a heavy weight on cultural and linguistic anthropology, although he has studied Archeology and Forensic Anthropology as well.

=TAG Productions Ink=
TAG productions ink is a small film group that Timothy was a co-founder of. TAG stands for Timothy Anthony Greg, the founders of it. They mostly make Youtube videos at this link [http://www.youtube.com/TAGproductionsink TAG Productions Ink]. Timothy directed and acted in most of them, as well as his friends Anthony and Greg. The first video produced was a dancing music video to a ska swing song called [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wP6PIERHY08 Jumping Jack]. There is also a two part zombie film called '''ATAG of the Living dead''', they can be found at [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAMKJzGclKk Chapter 1] and [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FkarBSQionE Chapter 2]. For a project for Chaucer class, Timothy with TAG Productions Ink and a classmate, produced 4 movies in [[Middle English]], all of which were co-written, directed by, and translated by Timothy: 
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2FmbrbMsHs The Student's Tale Part 1] 
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1TnEK4i83QE Weapons of Medieval Destruction Ad] 
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oiswlwUl9og The Student's Tale Part 2] 
[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n9twtY8RFDk The Student's Tale Part 3] 
A recent video produced by TAG is called [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pjor6Dm2wss Greg's Quest]. It currently has subtitles in German, French, Italian, English, Middle English, Pirate English, Portuguese, Russian, and Polish,

=Online Articles by Timothy=
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Why-is-English-so-Messed-up-80514694 Why is English so Messed Up?] 
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Where-do-Accents-Come-from-80519891 Where do Accents come from?] 
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Cognates-Aren-t-they-Great-80632298 Cognates, Aren't they Great?] 
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Idioms-Nightmares-of-Language-80754197 Idioms, Nightmares of Language] 
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Religion-in-Language-Part-1-80779275 Religion in Language] 
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Is-Middle-English-a-Creole-109334831 Is Middle English a Creole?] (Essay for a Linguistic Anthropology Class) 
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Early-European-Alphabets-109335694 Early European Alphabets] 
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/The-Danish-Vowel-Shift-109284986 The Danish Vowel Shift] and [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Danish-Vowel-Shift-Appendix-109285452 The Appendix and Bibliography](click download on the left to view the articles).

==The English Grammar Series==
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-Grammar-80516692 Table of Contents]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-1-Nouns-80510290 English Nouns]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-2-Articles-80510545 English Articles]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-3-Personal-Pronouns-80511076 Personal Pronouns]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-4-Other-Pronouns-80511425 Other Pronouns]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-5-Conjuctions-80511820 English Conjunctions]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-6-Preposition-80512018 English Prepositions]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-7-Verbs-Present-Future-80512430 English Verbs: Present and Future]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-8-Verbs-Simp-Cmpd-80512727 English Verbs: Simple and Compound Past]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-9-Verbs-The-3-Moods-80512995 English Verbs: the Three Moods]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-10-Verbs-Voicing-80513191 English Verbs: Voicing]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-11-Irregular-Verbs-80513388 English Verbs: Irregular Verbs]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/English-12-Special-Irregulars-80513714 English Verbs: Special Irregulars]

==The Advanced Grammar Series==
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Advanced-Grammar-Topics-81430739 Table of Contents]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Grammatical-Case-1-81426209 Grammatical Case 1]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Gender-81426571 Grammatical Gender]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Articles-81427064 Articles]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Grammatical-Case-2-81427386 Grammatical Case 2]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Agreement-81428004 Agreement]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Conjugation-81428829 Conjugation]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Grammatical-Case-3-81429197 Grammatical Case 3]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546 Word Order or Basic Syntax]

==About the [[IPA]]==
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Why-do-We-Need-the-IPA-92468015 Why Do We Need the IPA?]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/IPA-Intro-and-Consonants-92462590 IPA: Introduction and Consonants]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/IPA-Consonants-of-English-92462988 IPA: The Consonants of English]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/IPA-Vowels-in-English-92465132 IPA: The Vowels of English]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/IPA-Vowels-Not-in-English-92466075 IPA: The Vowels Not in English]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/IPA-Consonants-Not-in-English-92467100 IPA: The Consonants Not in English]
*[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/IPA-Effects-on-Sound-92467351 IPA: Effects on Sounds]

==Language Families==
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Language-Families-Romance-81016323 Romance Family] 
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Language-Families-Germanic-81016620 Germanic Family] 

==FrathWiki Contributions==
===Real Languages===
[[Modern English]] 
[[Anglo-Saxon]] 
[[High German]] 
[[Middle English]] 
[[English]] 
[[Norwegian]] 
[[Spanish]] 

===Sound Shifts===
[[High German Consonant Shift]] 
===[[IPA]]===
[[Voiceless Labial-Velar Approximate|Voiceless Labial-Velar Approximate ʍ]] 
[[Voiced dental fricative|Voiced dental fricative ð]] 
[[Voiceless dental fricative|Voiceless dental fricative θ]] 
[[Voiceless glottal fricative|Voiceless glottal fricative h]] 
[[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|Voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ]] 
[[Voiced postalveolar fricative|Voiced postalveolar fricative ʒ]] 

===Conscript===
[[Tawyr Oorthaagryfii]] or [[Tower Orthography]]

Nyenglisk

2010-03-08T12:32:39Z

Blackkdark: /* Nyenglisk */

=='''Nyenglisk'''==

Nyenglisk is a language purely based on that of [[English]] with some scandanavian extracts. There are some new sounds which will be shown below but nearly 99.9% of words are adapted from english. There are cases such as Dative and Genitive and the definite and indefinite article are suffixes. Has an icelandic/Faroese look. Word order is SVO. The language is complete, as it's vocabulary is mainly drawn from english, however there has been significant sound changes which makes it sound nothing like english. Easy to learn and to write in.

Example > The man is walking down the street > Manið valke dún strýtiðum.

==Examples==

# The woman is taking her baby to the pool = Vomanið take hona babý til púliðs
# I want to go to the cinema tomorrow = Jæ vile að gora til cinemaiðs
# I could sing but I am bad at it = Jæ kunað singa men jæ er bad at það.
# I love writing examples = Jæ luve að ræta egsamplea.
# You should learn New english = þú skalað lerna nyenglisk :).

==Grammar==

There are three cases - Nominative, Dative and Genitive.

'''''Dative'''''

The Dative case is only used after prepositions and some verbs. In the dative case nouns end in "að" for singular and "u" in the plural. The suffix for "a" in the dative case is "inað" and the suffix for "the" is iðum for singular and iðu in the plural. All prepositions except til (to) and vegna (because of) take dative.

'''''Genitive'''''

The Genitive case is used much less than the Dative. No verbs take the genitive after them and only two prepositions take the genitive. The Genitive endings for nouns are "s" for singular and "ur" for plural. The suffix for "a" becomes ins in the Genitive and the suffix for "the" becomes iðs for the singular and iður for the plural. Til (to) and Vegna (because of) also take the genitive. The Genitive can also be used the exact same way as in english - My mum's book > Mín mums búk - although there is no need for an apostrophe.

'''---Examples---'''

:Dative - I am against independence = Jæ er eje índependence'''''að'''''
:Genitive - I am going to America = Jæ gore til Amerika'''''s'''''

----

==Orthography==

æ = eye

á = aw

í = ee

ó = ow

ú = oo

ý = ee (NB: í and ý can be interchangeable, it is up to the person preference)

ð = eth (never at beginning of words)

þ = th (never at the end of words)

tj = ch

je / ji = y

ngje = like the "nge" in change

j = j (y when followed by e/i)

ej = ay

sj = sh

==Accusative Case==

It was decided that there would be no accusative case. Therefore one says "I have I" instead of "I have me" - Jæ haðe jæ.
No prepositions take accusative, and all accusative associated prepositions became governed by the Dative case.

==Verbs==

All verbs end in '''a''' > að vera/giva/skala

All verbs are preceeded by '''að''' (meaning to) however að is only used with verbs and not as a normal preposition.

Verbs only conjugate once. The '''"a"''' is turned '''"e"''' and the verb remains the same for all persons > '''Jæ er, teir er.'''

In the '''past tense''', '''haða''' is always used as the auxilluarly and '''ð''' is added to the stem of the verb > '''Jæ haðe komað = I have come.'''

The '''imperfect''' is formed by taking the past participle and using that as the verb > '''Jæ komað = I came
'''

The '''Future''' is formed by taking the verb '''"Skala"''' and using that as the auxilluarly and then adding the infinitive > '''Jæ skale koma = I will come.'''

The '''conditional''' is formed by taking the past participle of '''"skala"''' and then adding the infinitve > '''Jæ skalað koma = I would come.'''

The '''past Conditional''' is formed by taking the past participle of '''"skala"''' and then adding the past participle of the verb > '''Jæ skalað komað = I would have come.'''

==Definite and Indefinite Article with Adjectives==

When adjectives are used with the definite article, the definite articles stands on its own and is also added to the end of the noun.

Example:
#The nice woman = De næs vomanið.
#A nice woman = Et næs vomanin
#To the nice woman = Til de næs vomaniðs*
* As shown above, when a case is used the dependent form for "a" and "the" are not inflicted. Only the endings are.

[[Category:Conlangs]]

Our Father

2010-03-08T12:31:47Z

Blackkdark: /* Nyenglisk */

'''Our Father''', also known as the '''Lord's Prayer''', is a widely-known prayer of Christianity. It is used by linguists and conlangers for comparing the differences between languages. In many cases it is also called the '''Pater Noster''' because of the widespread use of Latin in the Church. There are even [[Runic]] inscriptions in Latin along the lines of "say a Pater Noster for so-and-so's soul."

=Natlangs=
==[[Romance Languages]]==
===Latin===
:Pater noster, qui es in caelis:
:sanctificetur Nomen Tuum;
:adveniat Regnum Tuum;
:fiat voluntas Tua,
:sicut in caelo, et in terra.
:Panem nostrum cotidianum da nobis hodie;
:et dimitte nobis debita nostra,
:Sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris;
:et ne nos inducas in tentationem;
:sed libera nos a Malo.

==[[Germanic languages]]==
===[[High German]]===
:Vater Unser im Himmel,
:Geheiligt werde Dein Name,
:Dein Reich komme.
:Dein Wille geschehe,
:Wie im Himmel, so auf Erden.
:Unser tägliches Brot gib uns heute,
:Und vergib uns unsere Schuld,
:Wie auch wir vergeben unseren Schuldigern.
:Und führe uns nicht in Versuchung,
:Sondern erlöse uns von dem Bösen.
:Denn Dein ist das Reich und die Kraft
:und die Herrlichkeit, in Ewigkeit.
:Amen.

===[[Dutch]]===
:Onze Vader,
:die in de hemelen zijt,
:geheiligd zij Uw naam.
:Uw rijk kome,
:Uw wil geschiede op aarde als in de hemel.
:Geef ons heden ons dagelijks brood,
:en vergeef ons onze schulden,
:gelijk ook wij vergeven aan onze schuldenaren.
:En leid ons niet in bekoring,
:maar verlos ons van het kwade.

===[[Modern English]] ELLC (1988)===
:Our Father in heaven,
:hallowed be your name,
:your kingdom come,
:your will be done,
:on earth as in heaven.
:Give us today our daily bread.
:Forgive us our sins
:as we forgive those who sin against us.
:Save us from the time of trial
:and deliver us from evil.
:[For the kingdom, the power, and the glory are yours
:now and for ever. Amen.]

===[[Early Modern English]] (1662 BCP)===
:Our Father, which art in Heaven,
:Hallowed be thy Name.
:Thy Kingdom come.
:Thy will be done,
:in earth as it is in Heaven.
:Give us this day our daily bread.
:And forgive us our trespasses,
:As we forgive them that trespass against us.
:And lead us not into temptation;
:But deliver us from evil.
:[For thine is the kingdom, The power, and the glory,
:For ever and ever.] Amen.

===[[Middle English]]===
:Fader ure ðatt art in hevene blisse,
:Ðin hege name itt wurðe bliscedd,
:Cumen itt mote ði kingdom,
:Ðin hali wil it be al don,
:In heven and in erðe all so,
:So itt sall ben ful wel ic to;
:Gif us alle one ðis dai,
:Ure bred of iche dai,
:And forgive us ure sinne,
:Als we don ure wiðerwinnes:
:Leet us noct in fondlinge fall,
:Ooc fro ivel ðu sild us alle. Amen.

===[[Anglo-Saxon]]===
:Fæder ūre, þū eart on heofonum:
:sī þīn nama ȝehāȝlod.
:Tōbecume þīn rīce.
:Ȝeƿeorþe þīn ƿilla
:on eorþan sƿāsƿā on heofonum.
:Ūre dæȝhƿāmlican hlāf sielle ūs tō dæȝe.
:And forȝief ūs ūre ȝyltas
:sƿāsƿā ƿē forȝiefaþ ūrum ȝyltendem.
:And ne ȝelǣd þū on costnunȝe,
:ac ālīes ūs of yfele.

===[[Norwegian]]===
:Fader vår, du som er i himmelen!
:Helliget vorde ditt navn;
:komme ditt rike;
:skje din vilje,
:som i himmelen, så og på jorden;
:gi oss idag vårt daglige brød;
:og forlat oss vår skyld,
:som vi og forlater våre skyldnere;
:og led oss ikke inn i fristelse;
:men fri oss fra det onde.
:For riket er ditt,
:og makten og æren i evighet.
:Amen.

=Conlangs=
Feel free to add Lord's prayer in your conlangs' version here.

==Esperanto==
:Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉielo,
:sanktigata estu Via nomo.
:Venu Via regno.
:Fariĝu Via volo,
:kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
:Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
:Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
:kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantojn.
:Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
:sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
:(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
:kaj la gloro eterne.)
:Amen.

==[[Háfrig]]==
:Kes Etâr, qwin il eskáleo ri,
:genomentuz i missild,
:offimmoz i tis agenir,
:geroz i tis élekk,
:léda l-eskálio, śo l-edzúroro si.
:Forventikál vekánandum dontiz káj píl,
:et offűliz i bêtgánandu,
:léda ke s’ offűlam i h-inóvand bêtdífendo.
:E gin véliz kum kojsitána,
:ak gemojgiriz i vultími.
:(Dé tis i h-agenir, i forrel e l-iskür forvenâk.)
:Roz ö-gen.

==Lojban==
:doi cevrirni.iu noi zvati le do cevzda do'u fu'e .aicai .e'ecai lo do cmene ru'i censa
:.i le do nobli turni be la ter. ku se cfari
:.i loi do se djica ba snada mulno vi'e le cevzda .e .a'o la ter.
:.i fu'e .e'o ko dunda ca le cabdei le ri nanba mi'a
:.i ko fraxu mi loi ri zu'o palci
:.ijo mi fraxu roda poi pacyzu'e xrani mi
:.i ko lidne mi fa'anai loi pacyxlu
:.i ko sepri'a mi loi palci
:.i .uicai ni'i loi se turni .e loi vlipa .e loi mi'orselsi'a cu me le do romei
:fa'o

==Classical Longrimol==
{{seealso|Longrimol}} by [[User:Longrim|Longrim]]

:Adhor mêna edh-i winedhúr
:raivam gêna ainal
:barandoram gêna therdäil
:molfanam gêna dhánäil
:mír dhanar noi edh-i winedúr.
:bantolgh mênam telja mêna gwelenil efath.
:tharvo mênam yaldhadil mêna
:noi mên thärvim daurilil, cësi jeldhig mór mên
:dulro mênil nol-i ainúl il glastat
:a dhulro mênil nol ghruid
:[find i Dharandor, i gambad a i asdago ghêna cwil a adríl. Aven]

==Classical Arithide==
{{seealso|Classical Arithide}} by [[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene]]
{{seealso|Arithide Sample Text Corpus}}

{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" width="66%"
|-
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Classical Arithide
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Late Classical Arithide
|-
| width=33% valign=top | Fābā rignā, zōon saluminnum, histamosit illos ays. Egēra lisgas ays. Reskerosit deiros ays, halagum saluminnumena. Rignor emereto haror omer krerērō, a kansārērō irige syndrē, rīgisae syndirēnēs kansārena. On rege avgērērō thiftiae, nege rege magārērō vokirōn. Amen.
| width=33% valign=top | Fābā rikin, saluminnum hero, histamesit illos ayn. Egura lisgas ayn. Reskeresit deiros ayn, halaginnum saluminnumena. Rikin emnatir haro omnat kreruras, nam kansaruras rīkae syndrē, rikisyndoris syndirēnēs kansariena. On riko avlataguras orgrei, nege riko magāruras vokyrōn. Amen.
|}

==Ellesklavan==
{{seealso|Ellesklavan}}

:vidrömü, ci eu en éfni,
:aolé eu tli nömü.
:tli řoyamü viyen.
:tli sřay eu fazi,
:en teřya é ža eu en éfni.
:dono no sé širu pasirana kotined.
:éti frocefi no trégepaseniran,
:kön no frocefi elehli ci trégepaseni kontri no.
:éti neu kleřtni pa no ostü betnosü;
:mé délifeř no dé džharag.
:(porceu lešé eu lé řoyamü, lé pufovřir, éti lé kloriyen,
:por tu éti tu) amné.

==Thorsutian==
{{seealso|Thorsutian}}

:Man baset, cus ёd nё parasje,
:ёsmardzsёn ёdur xjen zavke.
:Xjen mёbraţje rikas.
:Xjen zsёdu çozid,
:ёn toke siç ёd tho parasjud.
:Jat maţu ked ord man vorje bucje.
:E ţalis maţu man funёbartiv,
:siç maţ ţalёmi çadёk cus funёbart kurda maţu
:E pron maţu nok tho ёnarzsud,
:pas shonah maţu el necud,
:(ţa xjen ёl mёbraţi, uuzs, e strirren,
:ţa dadarma e dadarma.)
:Amen

==Tauro-Piscean==
{{seealso|Tauro-Piscean language}}

:Tet Fedä ëleêses, wa zï in Heofonem,
:¡Letan tet Namen janes clenê bean!
:Tet Kïnedom janes kum.
:¡Letan tet Willê janes dodê bean,
:Et Eëtenem tonnê in Heofonem!
:¡Jefan ëleêsen tode tet jedewamliken Bräden!
:¡And fëjefan ëleêsen te Jïêlten,
:Tonnê ëleês fëjef kvinem, dass makê Jïêlten!
:¡And ledan ëleêsen nat in Kostnungen,
:Ak beëjan ëleêsan fram Ïfeêlem!
:[Tï janes zï tet Kïnedom, tet Mït and tet Wöldë,
:To efä nes efä.] Sotlikê.

It is worth noting that the Tauro-Piscean language evolved into the (New) West Germanic language below.

==West Germanic==
{{seealso|West Germanic language}}

:Uɍę Ąldoɍ, tu tąt is in ħjovonųm,
:Si tin namę halaɉ.
:Kumę tin riŧę,
:Maŧiǫn tin wįleǫn up eɍdųm ék swa in ħjovonųm.
:Uɍę daɉliŧ lafǫn gįvǫn us todaɉ,
:ǫnd foɍgįvǫn us uɍę ſųldzǫn ék swa we foɍgįf uɍę ſųldaɉǫn.
:Ǫnd faɍǫn tu ųn in ħjan kǫstnųnðǫn, ak luzǫn ųn uvęlęnę.
:[Ųmbętąt tin is tąt riŧę, tąt miħt ǫnd tąt wųldoɍ,
:ąvɍweɍd eŧę.]
:Sodliŧę.

==Vityng by [[User:Schlaier|Schlaier]]==
{{seealso|Vityng}}
{{seealso|Vityng our Father}}

:fæðirr óssa, hvem ar i himinn
:nama þinn ver hǽlge
:kónungrikk þinn ver gaður
:øskja þinn ver skaftur
:an eorð og sva i himinn.
:ǿssi gefar dægglykur brǿð óssa, þessa dagg.
:og synni óssa grætar óss
:sva varr grætum þætt ƕað skap synni an ǿssi
:i nǿðen lǽðarna óss
:og fram yfil takar óss.
:sænnlykur.

==Nytal==
{{seealso|Nytal}}
{{seealso|Nytal biblical texts}}

:Babu ni la, ki ad’jo ju ojl 
:Ni la a’šijnt noym Ok 
:Nori sliknost Ok 
:Ni la a’nut ehoj Ok 
:Iknijt ju ojl, Iknijt sjep bajus vsi 
:Ole tyahri er ni la ejs ni la 
:A vlup er ni la le finans ni la 
:Iknijt gek ni la a’vlup er le mefinanser ni la 
:A ta nenijt ni la ka medoljem 
:U vrij ni la de olim 
::Amen

==Lánc==
{{seealso|Lánc}}

:Vojun nát, eráv bálot
:Townon úk svútutolas
:Townon krišpót atja
:Townon šalja toljas
:Džú bálot džu pánot
:Lakfadžo vojay vojunon banfadžáro bágwo kál
:Ši vojay vojunyojon plačoy gwalč
:Džu vój vojunyajon plajačanay mijo gwalčen
:Ši vojo onás gorávtjámás ét majv
:Ýbo vojo ód ono gráwno nálutol.
:Amen

==Lišěč==
{{seealso|Lišěč}}
{|
|
:<center>'''''Latin alphabet'''''</center>
:
:Fial Ipa, ktõr õłokotë tajväka
:sanktakammë leel nimien
:mënnajast leel küningrik
:tĕdaekemmë leel vylen
:śo tajväka, śo mälmake
:đnes antajatë fiam đnesmasen lĕjpäen
:õnt fergepejetë fial velkĕnesen
:śo fi fergepekemmë fial velketelnesem
:õnt ĕłi oğiatojotë ferśukedenë
:õnt svobõdojotë fian pakadaţë
:Amen
||
:<center>'''''Cyrillic alphabet'''''</center>
:
:Фиал Ипа, ктõр õљокотё тайвäка
:санктакаммё леел нимиен
:мённайаст леел кÿнингрик
:тĕдаекеммё леел вылен
:зо тайвäка, зо мäлмаке
:ћнес антайатё фиам ћнесмасен лĕйпäен
:õнт фергепейетё фиал велкĕнесен
:зо фи фергепекеммё фиал велкетелнесем
:õнт ĕљи ођиатойотё ферзукеденё
:õнт свобõдойотё фиан пакадаθё
:Амен
|}

==Keβag==
{{seealso|Keβag}}

:Fät man, lë beş ë pöt taɸ ë nheμet'
:lo seintsat ë seɸot'u ðo
:qeşa e dewönhoxul ðo
:ër sat'a ë pełäk do
:aże taɸ ë nheμet', aże taɸ ë nhujm'
:ovinë manheşë ekys ë nałecu ekyşoru μan
:cë danosë en μyg μan
:lo danos aże en μyɣocuv μan
:cë μë phonë manhëm taɸ ë rhejżaxaş
:aca püksatё manhëm renh e-ekwaň.
:Amen

==Nician==
{{seealso|Nician}}

:'''Il nost pat'''

:Il nost pat, chi ses nis ceis,
:Saintifcat sie’l tu nom.
:Venì’l tu regn.
:Se face la tue volontat,
:Nis ceis com sope la terre.
:Oz dànos il nost pan cottizan.
:E dimìttenos is nosts dèvits,
:Com ezze nos dimittius ais nosts devitoes.
:E n’indùcenos in teumtazion,
:Veò lìveanos da male.

==Brithenig==

:Nustr Padr, ke sia i llo chel,
:sia senghid tew nôn,
:gwein tew rheon,
:sia ffaeth tew wolont,
:syrs lla der sig i llo chel.
:Dun nustr pan diwrnal a nu h-eidd;
:e pharddun llo nustr phechad a nu,
:si nu pharddunan llo nustr phechad.
:E salw nu di'll temp di drial,
:mai llifr nu di'll mal.
:Per ill rheon, ill cofaeth e lla leir es ill tew, per segl e segl.

==Kerno==

:a Phazeoir Nusteor que bias 'n y ceues;
:foreth noef il tew nom;
:gouenyes il tew camouils;
:foreth fès la teva gouoluntáts
:en lâ derra cuomo 'ny ceues;
:danos-el osdia le nusteor panèn cuotidièn;
:dimeti y nusteor dheuz
:cuomo dimitemus ai nusteor dheutoeres;
:et ne nus attrayer rhen al tentación,
:mays eliveránus des val.

==Old High Jermench==

:fatzar nôstar cî es in câlîs
:seiaz cunsantzîts noum twou
:wienaz rin twou
:seiaz cundahtûts wuontzats twâ
:siht in câl ah in zerra
:fân nôstar côsitân ta nous houd
:ez ferdouna nous ôdsa nôstra
:siht ez nus ferdounams ôdintîs nôstrîs
:ez nei nus intûtzas in zinhôn
:mâhs liura nus tei mâl

==Talarian==

:elemtilenopâtar
:sánctyata tawas xonomar-ca-he
:wewóytâ hanirfanar-ca-he
:pepelewórkâ tawas walar-ca-he
:hostanuššexomani-han-he
:elemtileno-han-he
:tatâhyata-me tâlcoteyel támtar-ca-he
:ffaffalyata-me mesas taipallanar-ca-he
:ffalmá cam taipallanar-ca-he
:anhaharxanyata-me çalarswwalana-ca-he
:roromyata-me tusar-te-he. Omen.

:Heavenly Father
:and blessed-be thy name
:and realised-be spiritual-Rest
:and fullydone-be thy will
:and Middle-World-in-the
:and Heavens-in-the
:and give us each-day godly-gift-the
:and wash us our spiritual-separation
:and we wash their spiritual-separation
:and burden-not us heavenly-adjudication-by
:and guide us evil-out-from

==(Modern) Ialacian==

:Yamono Fadatheudeur inmiso hedeveudeun,
:leteyim no nekem bi aneurshta.
:Leteyim no kidingdeudeum kam,
:leteyim kiena waonteyim fu hapeun bi dushta
:onmiso eukeurtheu asoru biya dushta inmiso hedeveudeun.
:Giveyim pamo tisoneun yamono neunlimiso beurekedeu.
:Forgiveyim pamo aru yamono sikinsi
:jesteumiso asoru haveyamo alsorumiso forgiveushta taseto kien sin agensteumiso pamo.
:Kipeyim pamo feurommiso faollinggeu intumiso sikin kienu biyamo tempeushta.
:Seiveyim pamo feurommiso lo iveulmung in;
:foru lo kidingdeudeum, lo padauweudeur, toru lo geulodoridi bi yimno, forueveurmiso. Amen.

==(Modern) Avelian==

:Camo no Fadatheudeur inmiseot hedeveudeun,
:cim letnida no netem bimnida-aneurnidayo.
:Cim letnida no kidingdeudeum kamao,
:cim letnida kimnat weontnida hapeunao bimnida-dumnidayo
:onmiseot euteurtheu cometeo ca bimnida-dumnidayo inmiseot hedeveudeun.
:Cim givnida camo koretien camo no tienlimiseot beureted.
:Cim forgivnida camo ateo camo no sitin
:jestmiseot cometeo camo alsuteomiseot forgivnijiyo il kim sinnida agenstmiseot camo.
:Cim kipnida camo feurommiseot feolshao intumiseot sitin kimnut camo bimnida-tempnidayo.
:Cim seivnida camo feurommiseot iveulmang il;
:feteo kidingdeudeum, padauweudeur, kuteo geulodoridi biseo cim no, kuteoeveurmiseot. Emen.

==Bu'ochia==

:Njosto padrón, kia asta an chiellium
:Chea sjen nom asta sancituri
:Chea sjen raliam venvi
:Chea sjen volosón asta naochi
:Ser terrum sem ser chiellium
:Dunnavi-noasta azi njosto pani je chachi uro
:Pardanvi njostosi ovenchuvati
:Ser noasta pardunomós achi ere ellum kia noasta uvos ovensuvasa
:Lel nen noasta inducha teminotium
:Masi leberani noasta ochje malum.
:Aminan

==[[Nyenglisk]]==

:Ár faður ín hevinað,
:Halóað er þín nam,
:þín kingdom kome,
:þín vil er makað,
:on erðað as ín hevinað.
:Give víð tilda ár dali bred.
:Forgive víð, ár sina
:As ví forgive þata, som sin eje víð
:Save ví fro tímiðum af trialað
:o delive ví fro ývilað
:[For kingdomiðum, páeriðum, o glóríðum er þíns ná o for evur. Amen.]

=Alternative Writing System=
==[[Tower Orthography|Tawyr Oorthaagryfii]]==
*Erlii Maadyrn Ingglic (1662 BCP)
:Aur Fadhyr, witc art in Hevyn,
:Halood bii dhai Neem.
:Dhai Kingdym cym.
:Dhai wil bii dyn,
:in erth az it iz in Hevyn.
:Giv ys dhis dee aur deelii bred.
:And foorgiv ys aur trespasiz,
:Az wii foorgiv dhem dhat trespas ygenst ys.
:And liid ys naat intuu tempteetcyn;
:Byt dylivyr ys frym iivil.
:[Foor dhain iz dhy kingdym, dhy pawyr, and dhy gloorii,
:Foor ever and ever.] Amen.

[[Category:Texts]]

Anglo-Saxon

2010-03-07T19:03:54Z

Blackkdark: /* Vowels */

Anglo-Saxon or Old English (OE '''Englisc''') is the ancestor of [[Modern English]]. It is a West Germanic Language and like Dutch and Low Saxon (Low German) it did not go through the [[High German Consonant Shift]].

{{Language|
| English = Anglo-Saxon
| native = Englisc
| dialect english =
| country = Anglo-Land (England)
| nativecountry = Angelcynn
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      Anglo-Frisian        Anglic
| wordorder = Unimportant/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 400-1066 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}

=Stages=
English has had 4 primary stages:
* '''Anglo-Saxon''' also known as '''Old English'''
* '''[[Middle English]]'''
* '''[[Early Modern English]]'''
* '''[[Modern English]]'''

The separation of '''Anglo-Saxon''' from '''Middle English''' is marked by [[The Battle of Hastings]] in 1066. The separation of '''Middle English''' and the '''Modern English''' stages is the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

Modern English words have many different origins, but a majority come from [[Anglo-Saxon]], [[Old French|Old Norman French]], and a little [[Old Norse]]. However in the global world today, many words from many other languages have entered the English language.

=The People, Dialects, and Literature=
The story was that the British leader Vortigern invited the Saxons to Britain to help fight off the Picts and Scots. A large migration of Saxons, Frisians, Franks, Jutes and Angles later moved from modern Northern Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands to England. The next few centuries they expanded westward constantly and gained more land. The Anglo-Saxons then fought with the Romano-British people already living there until they owned most of Modern England.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Danish Vikings invaded the Northern parts of England. The [[Old Norse]] influence can still be seen today including things such as the pronoun '''they'''.

The Dialects were split into 4 major ones: Northumbrian, Midlands, Kentish, and West Saxon. The majority of the texts we have are from the West Saxon region.

The most well known text in Anglo-Saxon is that of the Heroic Epic, [[Beowulf]]. Old English literature is known for alliteration. There are many Anglo-Saxon riddles, religious documents, heroic tales, and poems. A chronicle known as the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] was a chronicle of the events of the Kingdom, and was likely started in the 10th century and was continually updated into the 12th, although there are differences in the key Chronicle documents.

There is no standard spelling in Anglo-Saxon, so many words had more than one spelling.

=Orthography and Phonology=
==Runic==
[[Image:Anglo-saxon runes.gif|thumb|right|Anglo-Saxon Runic alphabet]]
Early forms of Anglo-Saxon writing was in [[Runic]]. It was an expansion of the original 24 rune Fuþark, and had become Fuþorc. Because the language had shifted to include new sounds, the alphabet itself shifted and included several new letters that had not been in the Elder Fuþark. However they did not develop the one Staff system similar to the runic designs in Norway, Sweden and Denmark.

When the Latin Alphabet was introduced, Anglo-Saxon added two symbols to the Latin alphabet from Runic, those would be "þ" /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/ and "Ƿ" /[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]/ from runic, called Thorn and Wynn respectively.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Inter-dental||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || || || ŋ
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || p || b || || || || || t || d || || || || || k || g ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || f || v || θ || ð || s || z || ʃ || (ʒ) || || ç || x || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || (ʦ) || (ʣ) || ʧ || ʤ || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants & glides || ʍ || w || || || || || || || || || || j
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || ̥r || r || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || ̥l || l/ɫ
|}

</div>
[[Image:Wynn.png|right|thumb|100px|'''Ƿƿ''' ''wynn'', Old English '''[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]''', which is missing in many Unicode fonts.]]
* Placing '''h-''' before '''r''', '''l''', or '''w'''/'''ƿ''' yields the voiceless form of each sound /̥r ̥l ʍ/.
* When '''c''', '''g''' or '''sc''' are next to a front vowel (most often '''i''' but '''e''' and '''y''' can affect it sometimes too) they become /ʧ j ʃ/ respectively. This is how words like '''gear''' became '''year'''. '''-g''' is often not pronounced or becomes part of a diphtong, such as '''dæg''' /daj/. When it ends with '''-ig''' it has a pronunciation of /-i/, dropping the '''g''' altogether. From this, [[Modern English]] gets the '''-y''' ending (like '''halig''' > '''holy''', '''sceadwig''' > '''shady''', '''manig''' > '''many''')
* The diagraph '''cg''' is pronounced /ʤ/.
* '''þ''' and '''ð''' is pronounced /θ/ except in the case below.
* Fricatives, particularly '''f, þ/ð, s''' are voiceless most of the time /f θ s/, and are voiced intevocalically or adjacent to voiced consonants as /v ð z/. This is why '''v''' and '''f''' were not in Old English.
* '''h''' is pronounaced /ç/ after front vowels and /x/ after back vowels.
* The sound /w/ is often spelt with the letter '''Ƿ'''/'''ƿ''' (wynn). From the Runic Alphabet.

===Vowels===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - i || yː - y || || uː - u
|-
| Mid || eː - e || || ə || oː - o
|-
| Low || æ || || aː/a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax
|}

</div>

* With a macron the vowel becomes long.
*'''ī''', '''ȳ''', '''ē''', '''ǣ''', '''ā''', '''ō''', and '''ū''' are pronounced /iː yː eː æː aː oː uː/ respectively.
* Without a macron the vowels are short.
* '''i''', '''y''', '''e''', '''æ''', '''a''', '''o''', and '''u''' are pronounced /i y e æ a o u/ or /ɪ ʏ ɛ æ ɔ ʊ/ respectively, depending on the source.
* '''e''' at the end of a word, and unstressed often becomes /ə/.

=Grammar=
==Nouns==
 Main Article: [[Anglo-Saxon Nouns]] 
===Gender and Number===
There are there Genders in Old English: [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]]. These are the same genders in [[Latin]], as well as modern [[Russian]] and [[High German|German]]. Like most languages which have genders, Nouns which reflect living things are usually indicated in the [[Gender]] of the noun, but a majority is completely random.

The two numbers of Anglo-Saxon are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Pronouns have the Dual number as well.

===Cases===
Unlike [[Modern English]], Anglo-Saxon was filled with noun inflections denoting the case of the noun. The only one that survived through the [[Middle English]] era was the '''-'s''' ending denoting the original Genitive case. The cases were [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]].

===Strong and Weak===
Like with Verbs, Anglo-Saxon had many nouns which changed their stems, both in the plural and sometimes during some of the cases of the singular. These are the reasons for irregular nouns in [[Modern English]] with stem changes, such as Man-Men (AS Mann-Menn in Nom.). This is often how Anglo-Saxon nouns are categorized.

===Example charts===
'''Masculine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Dæg¹ 'Day'
! Dagas 'Days'
! Stān 'Stone'
! Stānas 'Stones'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|-
| '''Genitive''' || dæges || daga || stānes || stāna
|-
| '''Dative''' || dæge || dagum || stāne || stānum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|}
¹'''Dæg''' was pronounced much like the word '''Die''' in [[Modern English]], or the Australian/Cockney pronunciation of '''"Day."'''
* Note that both Nouns here are Strong 

'''Feminine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hond² 'Hand'
! Honda 'Hands'
! Ƿynn³ 'Joy'
! Ƿynna 'Joys'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hond || hondu || Ƿynn || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Genitive''' || honda || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Dative''' || honda || hondum || Ƿynne || Ƿynnum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hond || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|}
²'''Hond''' could also be spelt/pronounced '''Hand'''. 
³'''Ƿ''' could also be spelt '''W''', so '''Ƿynn''' could easily be '''Wynn'''. 
* Note the '''Hond''' is strong ja-stemmed and '''Wynn''' is regular strong.

'''Neuter:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Scip⁴ 'Ship'
! Scipu 'Ships'
! Dēor⁵ 'Animal'
! Dēor 'Animals'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|-
| '''Genitive''' || scipes || scipa || dēores || dēora
|-
| '''Dative''' || scipe || scipum || dēore || dēorum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|}

⁴'''Scip''' is pronounced the same way as the modern equivalent, '''Ship'''. 
⁵'''Dēor''', related to the German word '''Tier''' (animal), slowly became used for game animals, and later becomes '''Deer''' in Modern English. 
* Note that both nouns are strong here.

==Articles==
During the earlier ages of the Anglo-Saxon language, there were no articles. Later, especially after the Viking invasion and towards the end of the Anglo-Saxon era, articles were developed. They too declined by case and number, and included the [[Instrumental]] case, which was the same as Dative Nouns. This also includes the meaning of '''that''' in the demonstrative sense. Here are the articles:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || sē || sēo || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Genitive''' || ðæs || ðǣre || ðæs || ðāra, ðǣra
|-
| '''Dative''' || ðǣm || ðǣre || ðǣm || ðǣm, ðām
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ðone|| ðā || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || ðē, ðon || ðǣre || ðē, ðon || ðǣm, ðām
|}

==Personal Pronouns==
Personal pronouns in Anglo-Saxon are quite different than Modern English. They too are declined according to the four major cases, but also have an extra number illustration when there 2, [[Dual]]. With the dual, the verbs take the plural endings, and it only applies to the first and second person pronouns. Here are the Charts for the Pronouns: 
'''First person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ic, ih || Ƿit, wit || Ƿē, wē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || mīn || uncer || ūre
|-
| '''Dative''' || mē || unc || ūs
|-
| '''Accusative''' || mē|| unc || ūs
|}

'''Second person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || þū || git || gē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || þīn || incer || ēoǷer, ēower
|-
| '''Dative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|-
| '''Accusative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|}

'''Third person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Mascu. Sing.
! Fem. Sing.
! Neut. Sing.
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hē || hēo || hit || hīe
|-
| '''Genitive''' || his || hiere || his || hiera
|-
| '''Dative''' || him || hiere || him || him, heom
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hine || hīe || hit || hīe
|}

==Adjectives==
Adjectives also decline by gender, number, and case. Because one adjective has to cover all three genders, two numbers, and four (five with the Strong) cases, there are more adjective forms than there are any other part of speech, with the possible exception of the verb. They too have Strong and Weak forms and can have root vowel stems which are umlauted. The plurals of the Weak forms are uniform across genders, but not in the Strong forms. The same adjective could be Weak or Strong depending on context and the noun.

===Examples===
'''Gōd = Good''' 
'''Weak''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōda || gōde || gōde || gōdan
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdena
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōde || gōdan
|}

'''Strong''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Pl. Masc.
! Pl. Fem.
! Pl. Neut.
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōd || gōd || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdes || gōdre || gōdes || gōdra || gōdra || gōdra
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdum || gōdre || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdne || gōde || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || gōde || gōdre || gōde || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|}

==Prepositions and Conjunctions==
Here is a list of Prepositions and Conjuctions.
===Prepositions===
æt - (dat.) at, from, (acc.) until, to 
tō - (dat.) to, towards, at, 
wið, wiþ - against, 
æfter - (dat.) after, 
on - (dat.) in, on, (acc.) into, onto 
mid - (dat.) with, 
of - (dat.) of, from, 
be - (dat. and acc.) by, near, along, about, 
beforan - (dat. and acc.) before, ahead of 
fram - (dat.) from, by, 
ofer - (dat.) over, upon (acc.) over to, across, 
þurh - (acc.) through 
under - (dat.) under (acc.) under, 
ymbe - (acc.) near, by, about, 
in - (dat.) in, (acc.) into, 
būtan - (dat. or acc.) outside, except, without, 
betweox - (dat. or acc.) between, among, 
binnan - (dat.) within, (acc.) to within, 
oð - (acc.) up to, until, 
geond - (acc.) through, throughout, 
bufan (dat.) above, (acc.) upwards, 
innan - (dat.) within (acc.) into, 

===Conjunctions===
æfter - after, 
ǣr - before 
gif - if, 
hwæðer, hwæþer - whether 
þā, ðā - when, 
hwīle - while, 
swā - as, such, (this word has a phonetic/semantic cognate in [[Old Norse]], sva.) 
swelce - as if, 
þæt, ðæt - that, so that, 
þǣr, ðǣr - where, 
þēah, ðēah - though, 
siððan, siþþan - since, after, (this one is also in [[Old Norse]] and [[Middle English]] such as the first line in [[Sir Gawayn and the Grene Knyght]].) 

==Verbs==
 Main Page: [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] 
===Verbal Comparison, Patterns, and General Overview===
Like nouns and adjectives, Verbs have [[Strong]] and [[Weak]] forms. The Strong forms usually involve vowel shifts in the stem, even in the present tense. It is also inflected based on [[person]], [[number]], [[tense]], and [[mood]].

It is known for having -st in the second person, which was used for '''thou''' in the [[Middle English]] era. It is also used in [[High German|German]] for the '''du''' form, which is the cognate to '''þū''' and '''thou''' (which is also a cognate to [[Latin]] '''tu'''). [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] are known for the signature -ð/-þ ending in the 3rd person singular, which was also used into the [[Early Modern English]] era, which [[Shakespeare]] is apart of, examples from that era include the words: hath, goeth, doth, knoweth, etc.

The infinitive ending is commonly '''-an''' or '''-en''', which is similar to the modern [[High German|German]] '''-en''' infinitive ending. Also the orthographic cognate '''ge-''' is used in both German and Anglo-Saxon to represent the past tense, even if they are not pronounced the same way, and in Standard [[High German]], the prefix is required, whereas the Anglo-Saxon one is more optional. The [[Weak]] past tense marker inserts '''-ed-''', whereas the [[Strong]] past tense usually involves a vowel change.

Although Anglo-Saxon did have the Subjunctive and Imperative, the examples shall be focused on the Present and Past tenses.

==='''Weak Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lufian''' to love || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Fremman''' to do
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufie || lufiað || fremme || fremmað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufast || lufiað || fremest || fremmað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufað || lufiað || fremeð || fremmað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufodest || lufodon || fremedest || fremedon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|}

==='''Strong Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Singan''' to sing || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Niman''' to take
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || singe || singað || nime || nimað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || singest || singað || nimest || nimað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || singeð || singað || nimeð || nimað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || sang || sungon || nam || nāmon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || sunge || sungon || nāme || nāmon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || sang || sungon || nam|| nāmon
|}

==='''The Verb Bēon and Wesan '''===
There are two forms of the verb [[to be]] in Anglo-Saxon. They both share the same past tense, rooted in '''wesan'''. The verb form '''wesan''' was preserved in the past tense, in the form of '''was''' and '''were'''.

These verb forms were also preserved into the [[Middle English]] era, in an [[Epic]] called [[Brut]]: 
"Al swa muchel thu bist woruh, swa thu velden ært." 
(All as much thou art worth, as thou kind art) 
You are worth as much as you are kind. 

{|class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Bēon''' to be || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Wesan''' to be
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || bēo || bēoð || eom|| sind, sindon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || bist || bēoð || eart || sind, sindon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || bið || bēoð || is || sind, sindon
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense''' (for both)
|-
| || colspan="2"| sing. ||colspan="2"| pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || colspan="2"| wæs ||colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''2nd person''' || colspan="2"| wǣre || colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''3rd person''' || colspan="2"| wæs || colspan="2"|wǣron
|}

=Texts=
There are many primary texts in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous of which would be [[Beowulf]]. Other text's include, ''The Wife's Lament'', ''The Wanderer'', ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', ''Judith'', ''Cædmon's Hymn'', just to name a few.

=Sources and External Links=
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/runic.htm#futhorc

http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html

http://members.tripod.com/babaev/archive/grammar43.html

http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/index.htm

http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html

Finegan, Edward. "English." The World’s Major Languages. Ed. Bernard Comrie. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1990

Atherton, Mark. Teach Yourself Old English. Coventry, England, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.: 2006.

Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

=Translations=
Faind [[Anggloo-Saksyn|dhys peedx]] in [[Tawyr Oorthaagryfii]].

[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]

Voiceless velar fricative

2010-03-07T19:00:25Z

Blackkdark: Undo revision 47589 by Tropylium (Talk)

This sound is a voiceless velar fricative, represented by '''/x/''' in the IPA. The symbol comes from the Greek, although the symbol closer to the normally used Greek one is the [[Voiceless uvular fricative]] /χ/.

=Natlangs=
==[[Germanic Languages]]==
===[[English]]===
====[[Anglo-Saxon]]====
In Anglo-Saxon, this sound is represented by '''h''' when after a back vowel. Words like '''Meahte''' would be pronounced /mɛaxtə/, or '''breahtma'''' would be pronounced /brɛaxtma/.
====[[Middle English]]====
The sound from Anglo-Saxon, also came into Middle English. In early forms, it was written '''h''' just like in the older language (in poems like [[Brut]]). In later years, the spelling shifted to '''gh''' in most cases, such as in Chaucer. The word '''droghte''' in the second line of the General Prologue, would be pronounced /drɔxt/.
====[[Modern English]]====
In modern English, all standard forms of English have dropped this sound. However, in Scots, as well as some Scottish variations of English, the spellings '''ch''' or '''gh''' can still be pronounced /x/ after back vowels or any vowel depending on dialect..
===[[High German]]===
In High German today, the sound /x/ is represented by '''ch''' after a back vowel. In northern Germanic dialects, such as [[Low German]] areas, the sound is retained as /k/ from Proto-Germanic. There are countless examples of German words with the /x/. words like '''machen''' (to make) being pronounced /maxən/.
===[[Dutch]]===
The sound /x/ is represented by '''g''' and '''ch''' in Dutch Orthography. The '''g''' is sometimes really a /ɣ/, although in most cases it is /x/. Even basic expressions like '''Goededag''' (Good day) is /xudədax/.

==[[Spanish]]==
In Spanish, the sound /x/ is represented by '''j''', when around a back vowel. This means words like '''baja''' would be pronounced /baxa/. This sound can also be spelt '''x''' in some specific words, and in words brought in from Mayan and Aztec influence. This is why '''Mexico''' is pronounced /mexiko/ in that dialect.

==[[Greek]]==
In Greek, the letter '''Χ''', '''χ''' is representative of /x/ when it is around a back vowel.

==Slavic Languages==
===Cyrillic===
The Cyrillic alphabet has '''Х''', '''х''' which represent the sound /x/. This is in the cases that use this letter in [[Russian]], Belarusian, Bulgarian, Mongolian, Turkmen, Ukrainian, Serbian, and most other languages that use the Cyrillic alphabet.

===[[Polish]], [[Slovak]] and [[Czech]]===
In Polish, the letter '''H''', '''h''' is used for /x/. In all three, Polish, Slovak and Czech, the diagraph '''Ch''' is also used for /x/.

=Conlangs=
==(New) West Germanic==
The West Germanic orthography uses the special character '''ħ''' (Latin H with stroke) to represent the /x/ sound.

=Sources=
Back to [[IPA]]

[[Category:Phonetic segments]]

Middle English

2009-08-08T04:29:26Z

Blackkdark: /* Vowels */

'''Middle English''' is the language spoken in England, Scotland, and Ireland during the Middle Ages. The marker of the beginning of the '''Middle English''' era is [[The Battle of Hastings]] and the marker of the end of it is the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

{{Language|
| English = Middle English
| native = Englich/English/Inglish
| dialect english =
| country = Great Britian, Ireland, United States.
| nativecountry = England
| universe = Real world
| speakers = varied over time
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      Anglo-Frisian        Anglic
| wordorder = SVO,
| type = Isolating (mostly)
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = Battle Of Hastings (1066) - Great Vowel Shift
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}

=Stages=
English has had 4 primary stages:
* '''[[Anglo-Saxon]]''' also known as '''Old English'''
* '''Middle English'''
* '''[[Early Modern English]]'''
* '''[[Modern English]]'''

The separation of '''Anglo-Saxon''' from '''Middle English''' is marked by [[The Battle of Hastings]] in 1066. Although that is the official marker, the language took many years to become [[Creole|creolised]]. For more of whether English is a creole, see [[Middle English as a Creole]]. It was likely the 12th century or so before the two languages fully mixed and became Middle English. Before then, it was probably Anglo-Saxon spoken by the common folk and Norman French spoken by the Nobles and higher ups. Mostly likely there was a creole between the two in the stages before it was creolised, sometimes called Anglo-Norman. The separation of '''Middle English''' and the '''Modern English''' stages is the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

Modern English words have many different origins, but a majority come from [[Anglo-Saxon]], [[Old French|Old Norman French]], and a little [[Old Norse]]. However in the global world today, many words from many other languages have entered the English language.

Middle English also has different stages, with earlier texts such as [[Brut]], which has a heavy Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, to [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], who helped to standardise English (do to the early printers such as [[William Caxton]]).

=Dialects=
For more, try [[Middle English Dialects]].
[[Image:Middle English-dialects.GIF|thumb|right|Middle English Dialects]]
There are five major dialects of Middle English. Those are: 
[[West Midlands]] 
[[East Midlands]] 
[[Northern Middle English]] 
[[Southern Middle English]] 
[[Kentish Middle English]] 
Often the West Midlands and East Midlands dialects are put together and are called Midlands. The Northern dialect is often called [[Northumbrian]] dialect. 
The most famous Middle English writer, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] wrote in the London dialect, which was a part of the Midlands dialect.
The Northern Dialect has a heavy influence from [[Old Norse]]. The two primary texts in which dialect appears are '''The Reeve's Tale''' and '''The Second Shepard's Play'''. In the Reeve's Tale, by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], two Northern students have a run-in with a Midlands Miller. Chaucer uses the dialect for humourous effect. In the Second Shepard's Play which is written in the Northern dialect, a messenger tries to trick the shepards by using a Midlands or Southern accent, to no avail.

=Phonology=
It should be noted that the pronunciation does differ by dialect.
==Consonants==
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Inter-dental||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || || n̯ || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || (ŋ)
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}} ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || θ || ð || s || z || ʃ || ʒ || || ç || x || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || ʦ || ʣ || {{IPA|ʧ}} || ʤ || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants & glides || ʍ || w || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Flap || || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɾ}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || ɬ || l
|}

</div>
Notes:
* '''Đ,ð''' and '''Þ,þ''' were still commonly used for /ð/ or /θ/, although '''th''' was beginning to be used.
* '''Ʒ,ʒ''' were used to represent '''gh''' in Older texts, later it was replaced with '''gh'''. It also was used for the sound /j/ which '''g''' had sometimes been.
* Occasionally '''Æ, æ''' is seen for /æ/.
* The Middle English '''r''' was likely trilled or flapped.
* The sound /ʧ/ was represented by '''tch''', '''cch''', and in some cases '''ch'''.
* The diagraph '''gh''' represented /ç/ when next to front vowels (i, e), and /x/ when next to back vowels (a, o, u). In older texts such as [[Brut]] this might be represented by '''h''' such as is seen in [[Anglo-Saxon]] texts.
* The diagraphs '''hw''' (or '''wh''' or rarely '''qu'''), '''hl''', and '''hn''' (the latter two are rare, but exist) are pronounced /ʍ/, /ɬ/ and /n̯/ respectively.
* All letters are pronounced, and the combinations '''kn''' an '''gn''' were thusly pronounced /kn/ and /gn/ respectively.
* '''ci''' and '''ce''' are often pronounced was a /s/ sound.
* '''gi''' and '''ge''', as well as '''j''', were often pronounced /ʒ/ although sometimes it was /ʤ/.
* In most cases, the fricatives /s/, /f/, and /θ/ become voiced in the case of being between vowels or intervocalic (much like those in Anglo-Saxon). This means they become /z/, /v/, and /ð/ respectively. An example that was carried to [[Modern English]] might be irregular nouns such as '''wife''' vs. '''wives'''.

==Vowels==
 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - ɪ || yː - ʏ || || uː - ʊ
|-
| Mid || eː - ɛ || || ə/ʌ || oː - ɔ
|-
| Low || æ || || aː/a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax
|}

</div>

Because the vowels are Pre-[[Great Vowel Shift]], one should pronounce the vowels similar to Latin or German.
*'''i''' and '''y''' were pronounced /iː/ or /ɪ/.
*'''e''' or '''ee''' were pronounced /eː/ or /ɛ/.
*'''a''' in later periods was likely /æ/, but '''aa''' or '''a''' were also likely /aː/ or /a/.
*'''u''' in French loan words and a few words passed down from [[Anglo-Saxon]] could be pronounced /yː/ or /ʏ/.
*'''o''' or '''oo''' were likely pronounced /oː/ or /ɔ/.
*'''ou''' was pronounced /uː/ or /ʊ/ in many cases. In some cases it was pronounced /ow/.
*'''e''' at the end of a word was pronounced /ə/. Various other vowels could have been /ʌ/ if the conditions were right.
*'''au''' or '''aw''' could have been pronounced /aw/, /o/ or /ɔ/ depending on origin.
*'''ai''' or '''ay''' could have been pronounced /aj/ or /ej/ depending on origin and region.
*'''oi''' or '''oy''' were almost always /oj/.

===Vowel Reduction===
Middle English, like [[Middle High German]] went through a series of vowel reductions. This would involve the vowels of non-stressed syllables. Those vowels would often become schwas /ə/. This is how different forms of verbs slowly became one standard verb form, from various possible endings in [[Old English]]. This also contributed to the loss of the case system. First a case ending would become a schwa, and then it could be dropped altogether.

==Orthography==
Like most pre-standardised languages, Middle English did not have a consistent spelling system. In fact, the most famous of the Middle English writers, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] is known to have spelt words many different ways, sometimes within a few lines of each other. Other reasons for different orthographies might have to do with the training of the scribe. A scribe with more French and Latin training would write the English diagraph '''wh''' or '''hw''' as '''qu'''. Other reasons for different spellings might have to do with the scribe's copying from an original work. If the original work had smudges, or was hard to read, then the wrong letter might have been written. Other cases the scribe changed lines to fit the purpose it served to him (most scribes were male). A religious scribe might change one of the haughtier stories from '''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''' to say something more to his liking.

=Grammar=
==Nouns==
Middle English nouns had long lost the noun genders that had been dying in the [[Anglo-Saxon]] era. There were were a few endings which did imply feminine and masculine, such as the feminine ending '''-esse''', which is where we get the ending '''-ess''' in [[Modern English]].
===Number===
There are two numbers in Middle English, since the [[Dual]] number from Old English was dropped. This leads the two numbers, [[Singular]] and [[Plural]] which are still in Modern English. The common ending for the plural was written '''-es'''. Quite a few irregular nouns still existed and have various endings.
===Cases===
The case system was pretty much settled into the forms that exist in English today. There were two forms, the general form, and the genitive.
==Articles==
In Middle English there are two standard types of articles: [[Definite Article]]s and [[Indefinite Article]]s. By the Middle English era, the Modern standard articles were pretty stable as '''the''' and '''a'''/'''an'''. The indefinite article may have been used more often as '''an''', especially in the early centuries of Middle English, because it reflects the original spelling and the words shared roots with the number '''one'''. Other spellings of it could include '''on, ane, anne, en, enne,''' and '''ene'''. The definite article had other forms including '''de, þeo, te, þea, þie,''' and the contracted form '''th''''.

==Personal Pronouns==
The pronouns of Middle English were relatively similar to the ones in the following era of [[Early Modern English]]. They had shifted a little bit from Anglo-Saxon, but they still had some traits from the previous age. The noted use of the second person plural '''thu''', also spelt '''thou''', '''thow''', or '''þu''', was preserved from earlier forms of English, but likely shifted its usage to be [[Informal|informal]].

It should also be noted how possessive pronouns more commonly used the predicate form as the adjective form. In essence, the original form was likely similar to '''a''' vs. '''an''' for forms such as '''thy''' vs. '''thyn''' and '''my''' vs. '''myn'''. (Remember the '''y''' is pronounced /i/, not like modern English /aj/)

{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! colspan="1" align="center"|Case
! colspan="2" align="center"|First Person
! colspan="2" align="center"|Second Person
! colspan="4" align="center"|Third Person
|-
| || Sing. || Plur. || Sing. || Plur. || Sing. Masc. || Sing. Fem. || Sing. Neut. || Plur.
|-
| '''Subjective''' || I, ich, ik || we || thu || yow, you || he || she, sche || hit || thei, they, thai,
|-
| '''Objective''' || me || us || the, thi, thee || ye, yow || him, hym || here, hire, || hit || hem, em, them, theime
|-
| '''Possessive''' || myn/my || oure || thyn/thy || youre, your || his/hys || here/hire/hir || his, hys || theirs, their
|}

==Adjectives==

==Verbs==
Verbs in Middle English are more inflected than those of [[Modern English]] but slightly less than those of [[Old English]]. The infinitive in Middle English is usually a '''-en''' and/or '''-e'''. This ending is still used in Dutch and German today.
===Present===
The present tense was used slightly differently than it is in [[Modern English]]. It is used much more like Modern [[Spanish]] or [[High German]]. The present progressive was being using, but it was more common to see the present tense used for things going on at moment. The present participle has the ending '''-ynge''', which evolves into '''-ing''' in the Modern form. 
The endings in the present are more numerous than they are in the Modern form. They are as follows:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Loven''' to love || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Killen''' to kill
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || love || loven || kille || killen
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lovest || loven || killest || killen
|-
| '''3rd person''' || loveth || loven|| killeth || killen
|}

===Future===
The future tense is formed much the way the future tense is formed in [[Modern English]]. The only difference is that '''shall''' (used as forms schullen, shallen, etc) and '''will''' (forms as willen, wellen, etc) had a difference in meaning. This difference is that '''will''' indicated desire or wish (much like [[High German]] '''Wollen'''), so saying '''I will go there''' was similar to '''I want to go there''', and '''shall''' was involved indifference of the will, so saying '''I shall go''' is similar to '''I'm gonna go''' without desire to do so. The verb '''to go''' was not used to form the future tense, but the verb '''to be''' with an infinitive construction could have been.

===Past===
====Preterite Past====
The simple past was formed in Middle English by adding '''-ed-''' between the stem and the ending of the verb. In many irregular verbs, as in [[Modern English]], the vowel changes instead of an ending being attached.
{|class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lovede || loveden|| killede|| killeden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lovedest || loveden || killedest || killeden
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lovedeth || loveden || killede || killeden
|}
====Perfect Tense====
The perfect tense is formed in a way very similar to the modern form. The verb '''to have(n)''' is used with the past form of the verb, which in regular verbs has the suffix '''-ed''', or a vowel stem change (and/or another type of ending). Both irregular and regular verbs have the potential to have the prefix '''y-''' added to them in the Perfect tense, which came from the [[Anglo-Saxon]] prefix '''ge-'''. The regular verbs are as follows:
{|class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || have yloved || haven yloved|| have ykilled|| haven ykilled
|-
| '''2nd person''' || hast yloved || haven yloved || hast ykilled || haven ykilled
|-
| '''3rd person''' || hath yloved || have yloved || hath ykilled || haven ykilled
|}

===Modals and Auxiliaries===
Unlike Modern English, Middle English Modals actually had infinitive forms.
List of Modals: 
*willen - will, to want,
*schulen - should, shall, ought,
*moten - can, should, must
*magen - to be able,
*witen - to know
*cunnen - can, to able able,
*thurfen- need,
 
The key auxiliaries were '''haven''' (or '''hauen''') and '''ben''' (or '''bien''').
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| ben '''to be''' || colspan="2" align="center"| haven '''to have'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || am (em)₊ || are(n) || have || han (haven)
|-
| '''2nd person''' || art (ert) || are(n)|| hast (havest) || han (haven)
|-
| '''3rd person''' || is (es) || are(n) || hath (haveth) || han (haven)
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Simple Past'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || was (wes) || were(n) || hadde || hadden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || wast (wer) || were(n) || haddest || hadden
|-
| '''3rd person''' || was (wes) || were(n) || hadde || hadden
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Perfect Form'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || have (y)ben || han (y)ben || have (y)had(de) || han (y)had(de)
|-
| '''2nd person''' || hast (y)ben || han (y)ben || hast (y)had(de)|| han (y)had(de)
|-
| '''3rd person''' || hath (y)ben || han (y)ben || hath (y)had(de)|| han (y)had(de)
|}
₊The ( ) s represent one variation in spelling. There are often many other possible variations, but it is impractical to write them all here.

=Texts=
The most well known text in Middle English is '''The Canterbury Tales''' by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. In that, there are many famous stories, such as '''The Knight's Tale''', '''The Reeve's Tale''', '''The Wife of Bath's Tale''', '''The Nun's Priest's Tale,''' amongst many others.
Other major texts include '''[[Brut]]''', '''The Second Shepard's Play''', '''The Play of Noah''', '''Sir Gawain and the Green Knight''', '''La Mort d'Arthur''', '''Everyman''', '''Piers Plowman''', amongst others.

==Sources and Further Readings==

This Page is by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

Article:[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Is-Middle-English-a-Creole-109334831 Is Middle English a Creole?]

Ann S. Haskell, ed. A Middle English Anthology. Garden City, New York. Doubleday & Company, Inc. 1969.

Bryson, Bill. The Mother Tongue. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1990.

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. reprinted, edited by Howard, E.J. & Wilson, G.D., New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1937.

Finegan, Edward. "English." The World’s Major Languages.

Ryan, Brandy. "Middle English as Creole." Chass. 2005 [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/6361ryan.htm].

[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]

[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]

Middle English

2009-08-08T04:28:27Z

Blackkdark: /* Consonants */

'''Middle English''' is the language spoken in England, Scotland, and Ireland during the Middle Ages. The marker of the beginning of the '''Middle English''' era is [[The Battle of Hastings]] and the marker of the end of it is the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

{{Language|
| English = Middle English
| native = Englich/English/Inglish
| dialect english =
| country = Great Britian, Ireland, United States.
| nativecountry = England
| universe = Real world
| speakers = varied over time
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      Anglo-Frisian        Anglic
| wordorder = SVO,
| type = Isolating (mostly)
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = Battle Of Hastings (1066) - Great Vowel Shift
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}

=Stages=
English has had 4 primary stages:
* '''[[Anglo-Saxon]]''' also known as '''Old English'''
* '''Middle English'''
* '''[[Early Modern English]]'''
* '''[[Modern English]]'''

The separation of '''Anglo-Saxon''' from '''Middle English''' is marked by [[The Battle of Hastings]] in 1066. Although that is the official marker, the language took many years to become [[Creole|creolised]]. For more of whether English is a creole, see [[Middle English as a Creole]]. It was likely the 12th century or so before the two languages fully mixed and became Middle English. Before then, it was probably Anglo-Saxon spoken by the common folk and Norman French spoken by the Nobles and higher ups. Mostly likely there was a creole between the two in the stages before it was creolised, sometimes called Anglo-Norman. The separation of '''Middle English''' and the '''Modern English''' stages is the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

Modern English words have many different origins, but a majority come from [[Anglo-Saxon]], [[Old French|Old Norman French]], and a little [[Old Norse]]. However in the global world today, many words from many other languages have entered the English language.

Middle English also has different stages, with earlier texts such as [[Brut]], which has a heavy Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, to [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], who helped to standardise English (do to the early printers such as [[William Caxton]]).

=Dialects=
For more, try [[Middle English Dialects]].
[[Image:Middle English-dialects.GIF|thumb|right|Middle English Dialects]]
There are five major dialects of Middle English. Those are: 
[[West Midlands]] 
[[East Midlands]] 
[[Northern Middle English]] 
[[Southern Middle English]] 
[[Kentish Middle English]] 
Often the West Midlands and East Midlands dialects are put together and are called Midlands. The Northern dialect is often called [[Northumbrian]] dialect. 
The most famous Middle English writer, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] wrote in the London dialect, which was a part of the Midlands dialect.
The Northern Dialect has a heavy influence from [[Old Norse]]. The two primary texts in which dialect appears are '''The Reeve's Tale''' and '''The Second Shepard's Play'''. In the Reeve's Tale, by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], two Northern students have a run-in with a Midlands Miller. Chaucer uses the dialect for humourous effect. In the Second Shepard's Play which is written in the Northern dialect, a messenger tries to trick the shepards by using a Midlands or Southern accent, to no avail.

=Phonology=
It should be noted that the pronunciation does differ by dialect.
==Consonants==
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Inter-dental||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || || n̯ || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || (ŋ)
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}} ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || θ || ð || s || z || ʃ || ʒ || || ç || x || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || ʦ || ʣ || {{IPA|ʧ}} || ʤ || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants & glides || ʍ || w || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Flap || || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɾ}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || ɬ || l
|}

</div>
Notes:
* '''Đ,ð''' and '''Þ,þ''' were still commonly used for /ð/ or /θ/, although '''th''' was beginning to be used.
* '''Ʒ,ʒ''' were used to represent '''gh''' in Older texts, later it was replaced with '''gh'''. It also was used for the sound /j/ which '''g''' had sometimes been.
* Occasionally '''Æ, æ''' is seen for /æ/.
* The Middle English '''r''' was likely trilled or flapped.
* The sound /ʧ/ was represented by '''tch''', '''cch''', and in some cases '''ch'''.
* The diagraph '''gh''' represented /ç/ when next to front vowels (i, e), and /x/ when next to back vowels (a, o, u). In older texts such as [[Brut]] this might be represented by '''h''' such as is seen in [[Anglo-Saxon]] texts.
* The diagraphs '''hw''' (or '''wh''' or rarely '''qu'''), '''hl''', and '''hn''' (the latter two are rare, but exist) are pronounced /ʍ/, /ɬ/ and /n̯/ respectively.
* All letters are pronounced, and the combinations '''kn''' an '''gn''' were thusly pronounced /kn/ and /gn/ respectively.
* '''ci''' and '''ce''' are often pronounced was a /s/ sound.
* '''gi''' and '''ge''', as well as '''j''', were often pronounced /ʒ/ although sometimes it was /ʤ/.
* In most cases, the fricatives /s/, /f/, and /θ/ become voiced in the case of being between vowels or intervocalic (much like those in Anglo-Saxon). This means they become /z/, /v/, and /ð/ respectively. An example that was carried to [[Modern English]] might be irregular nouns such as '''wife''' vs. '''wives'''.

==Vowels==
 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - ɪ || yː - ʏ || || uː - ʊ
|-
| Mid || eː - ɛ || || ə/ʌ || oː - ɔ
|-
| Low || æ || || aː/a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax
|}

</div>

Because the vowels are Pre-[[Great Vowel Shift]], one should pronounce the vowels similar to Latin or German.
*'''i''' and '''y''' were pronounced /iː/ or /ɪ/.
*'''e''' or '''ee''' were pronounced /eː/ or /ɛ/.
*'''a''' in later periods was likely /æ/, but '''a''' or '''a''' were also likely /aː/ or /a/.
*'''u''' in French loan words and a few words passed down from [[Anglo-Saxon]] could be pronounced /yː/ or /ʏ/.
*'''o''' or '''oo''' were likely pronounced /oː/ or /ɔ/.
*'''ou''' was pronounced /uː/ or /ʊ/ in many cases. In some cases it was pronounced /ow/.
*'''e''' at the end of a word was pronounced /ə/. Various other vowels could have been /ʌ/ if the conditions were right.
*'''au''' or '''aw''' could have been pronounced /aw/, /o/ or /ɔ/ depending on origin.
*'''ai''' or '''ay''' could have been pronounced /aj/ or /ej/ depending on origin and region.
*'''oi''' or '''oy''' were almost always /oj/.

===Vowel Reduction===
Middle English, like [[Middle High German]] went through a series of vowel reductions. This would involve the vowels of non-stressed syllables. Those vowels would often become schwas /ə/. This is how different forms of verbs slowly became one standard verb form, from various possible endings in [[Old English]]. This also contributed to the loss of the case system. First a case ending would become a schwa, and then it could be dropped altogether.

==Orthography==
Like most pre-standardised languages, Middle English did not have a consistent spelling system. In fact, the most famous of the Middle English writers, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] is known to have spelt words many different ways, sometimes within a few lines of each other. Other reasons for different orthographies might have to do with the training of the scribe. A scribe with more French and Latin training would write the English diagraph '''wh''' or '''hw''' as '''qu'''. Other reasons for different spellings might have to do with the scribe's copying from an original work. If the original work had smudges, or was hard to read, then the wrong letter might have been written. Other cases the scribe changed lines to fit the purpose it served to him (most scribes were male). A religious scribe might change one of the haughtier stories from '''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''' to say something more to his liking.

=Grammar=
==Nouns==
Middle English nouns had long lost the noun genders that had been dying in the [[Anglo-Saxon]] era. There were were a few endings which did imply feminine and masculine, such as the feminine ending '''-esse''', which is where we get the ending '''-ess''' in [[Modern English]].
===Number===
There are two numbers in Middle English, since the [[Dual]] number from Old English was dropped. This leads the two numbers, [[Singular]] and [[Plural]] which are still in Modern English. The common ending for the plural was written '''-es'''. Quite a few irregular nouns still existed and have various endings.
===Cases===
The case system was pretty much settled into the forms that exist in English today. There were two forms, the general form, and the genitive.
==Articles==
In Middle English there are two standard types of articles: [[Definite Article]]s and [[Indefinite Article]]s. By the Middle English era, the Modern standard articles were pretty stable as '''the''' and '''a'''/'''an'''. The indefinite article may have been used more often as '''an''', especially in the early centuries of Middle English, because it reflects the original spelling and the words shared roots with the number '''one'''. Other spellings of it could include '''on, ane, anne, en, enne,''' and '''ene'''. The definite article had other forms including '''de, þeo, te, þea, þie,''' and the contracted form '''th''''.

==Personal Pronouns==
The pronouns of Middle English were relatively similar to the ones in the following era of [[Early Modern English]]. They had shifted a little bit from Anglo-Saxon, but they still had some traits from the previous age. The noted use of the second person plural '''thu''', also spelt '''thou''', '''thow''', or '''þu''', was preserved from earlier forms of English, but likely shifted its usage to be [[Informal|informal]].

It should also be noted how possessive pronouns more commonly used the predicate form as the adjective form. In essence, the original form was likely similar to '''a''' vs. '''an''' for forms such as '''thy''' vs. '''thyn''' and '''my''' vs. '''myn'''. (Remember the '''y''' is pronounced /i/, not like modern English /aj/)

{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! colspan="1" align="center"|Case
! colspan="2" align="center"|First Person
! colspan="2" align="center"|Second Person
! colspan="4" align="center"|Third Person
|-
| || Sing. || Plur. || Sing. || Plur. || Sing. Masc. || Sing. Fem. || Sing. Neut. || Plur.
|-
| '''Subjective''' || I, ich, ik || we || thu || yow, you || he || she, sche || hit || thei, they, thai,
|-
| '''Objective''' || me || us || the, thi, thee || ye, yow || him, hym || here, hire, || hit || hem, em, them, theime
|-
| '''Possessive''' || myn/my || oure || thyn/thy || youre, your || his/hys || here/hire/hir || his, hys || theirs, their
|}

==Adjectives==

==Verbs==
Verbs in Middle English are more inflected than those of [[Modern English]] but slightly less than those of [[Old English]]. The infinitive in Middle English is usually a '''-en''' and/or '''-e'''. This ending is still used in Dutch and German today.
===Present===
The present tense was used slightly differently than it is in [[Modern English]]. It is used much more like Modern [[Spanish]] or [[High German]]. The present progressive was being using, but it was more common to see the present tense used for things going on at moment. The present participle has the ending '''-ynge''', which evolves into '''-ing''' in the Modern form. 
The endings in the present are more numerous than they are in the Modern form. They are as follows:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Loven''' to love || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Killen''' to kill
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || love || loven || kille || killen
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lovest || loven || killest || killen
|-
| '''3rd person''' || loveth || loven|| killeth || killen
|}

===Future===
The future tense is formed much the way the future tense is formed in [[Modern English]]. The only difference is that '''shall''' (used as forms schullen, shallen, etc) and '''will''' (forms as willen, wellen, etc) had a difference in meaning. This difference is that '''will''' indicated desire or wish (much like [[High German]] '''Wollen'''), so saying '''I will go there''' was similar to '''I want to go there''', and '''shall''' was involved indifference of the will, so saying '''I shall go''' is similar to '''I'm gonna go''' without desire to do so. The verb '''to go''' was not used to form the future tense, but the verb '''to be''' with an infinitive construction could have been.

===Past===
====Preterite Past====
The simple past was formed in Middle English by adding '''-ed-''' between the stem and the ending of the verb. In many irregular verbs, as in [[Modern English]], the vowel changes instead of an ending being attached.
{|class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lovede || loveden|| killede|| killeden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lovedest || loveden || killedest || killeden
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lovedeth || loveden || killede || killeden
|}
====Perfect Tense====
The perfect tense is formed in a way very similar to the modern form. The verb '''to have(n)''' is used with the past form of the verb, which in regular verbs has the suffix '''-ed''', or a vowel stem change (and/or another type of ending). Both irregular and regular verbs have the potential to have the prefix '''y-''' added to them in the Perfect tense, which came from the [[Anglo-Saxon]] prefix '''ge-'''. The regular verbs are as follows:
{|class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || have yloved || haven yloved|| have ykilled|| haven ykilled
|-
| '''2nd person''' || hast yloved || haven yloved || hast ykilled || haven ykilled
|-
| '''3rd person''' || hath yloved || have yloved || hath ykilled || haven ykilled
|}

===Modals and Auxiliaries===
Unlike Modern English, Middle English Modals actually had infinitive forms.
List of Modals: 
*willen - will, to want,
*schulen - should, shall, ought,
*moten - can, should, must
*magen - to be able,
*witen - to know
*cunnen - can, to able able,
*thurfen- need,
 
The key auxiliaries were '''haven''' (or '''hauen''') and '''ben''' (or '''bien''').
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| ben '''to be''' || colspan="2" align="center"| haven '''to have'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || am (em)₊ || are(n) || have || han (haven)
|-
| '''2nd person''' || art (ert) || are(n)|| hast (havest) || han (haven)
|-
| '''3rd person''' || is (es) || are(n) || hath (haveth) || han (haven)
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Simple Past'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || was (wes) || were(n) || hadde || hadden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || wast (wer) || were(n) || haddest || hadden
|-
| '''3rd person''' || was (wes) || were(n) || hadde || hadden
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Perfect Form'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || have (y)ben || han (y)ben || have (y)had(de) || han (y)had(de)
|-
| '''2nd person''' || hast (y)ben || han (y)ben || hast (y)had(de)|| han (y)had(de)
|-
| '''3rd person''' || hath (y)ben || han (y)ben || hath (y)had(de)|| han (y)had(de)
|}
₊The ( ) s represent one variation in spelling. There are often many other possible variations, but it is impractical to write them all here.

=Texts=
The most well known text in Middle English is '''The Canterbury Tales''' by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. In that, there are many famous stories, such as '''The Knight's Tale''', '''The Reeve's Tale''', '''The Wife of Bath's Tale''', '''The Nun's Priest's Tale,''' amongst many others.
Other major texts include '''[[Brut]]''', '''The Second Shepard's Play''', '''The Play of Noah''', '''Sir Gawain and the Green Knight''', '''La Mort d'Arthur''', '''Everyman''', '''Piers Plowman''', amongst others.

==Sources and Further Readings==

This Page is by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

Article:[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/Is-Middle-English-a-Creole-109334831 Is Middle English a Creole?]

Ann S. Haskell, ed. A Middle English Anthology. Garden City, New York. Doubleday & Company, Inc. 1969.

Bryson, Bill. The Mother Tongue. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1990.

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. reprinted, edited by Howard, E.J. & Wilson, G.D., New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1937.

Finegan, Edward. "English." The World’s Major Languages.

Ryan, Brandy. "Middle English as Creole." Chass. 2005 [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/6361ryan.htm].

[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]

[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]

Atlantean

2009-06-14T01:17:56Z

Blackkdark: /* Atlantean alphabet: sources */

=The Atlantean Language=
==Language==
=== Concept ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2008}}
The Atlantean language (''Dig Adlantisag'') is a historically constructed, artistic language put together by [[Marc Okrand]] for Disney’s 2001 film [[Atlantis: The Lost Empire]] and associated media,<ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
< http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/Atlantis-The%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>. The Atlantean language is therefore based both on historic reconstructions or realities as well as on the elaborate [[fantasy]]/[[science fiction]] of the [[Atlantis: The Lost Empire]] mythos. Here are the fictional bases upon which the Atlantean language was created: Atlantean is the “Tower of Babel language”, the “root dialect” from which all languages descended. It has existed without change since sometime before 100,000 B.C., within the First or Second Age of Atlantis until the present. This is when the Mother Crystal (''Matag Yob'') descended to Earth and brought enlightenment to the Atlantean people. It is preserved by the presence of the Mother Crystal in the same way that The Shepherd’s Journal, the City of Atlantis (''Wil Adlantisag''), the Atlantean people (''luden''), and especially its royalty (''yaseken'') are preserved, healed, and given extended blissful life <ref> Kurtti, Jeff. The Mythical World of Atlantis: Theories of the Lost Empire from Plato to Disney. New York: Disney Editions, 2001, 48-56, 88, 89.</ref>.

To create this, Dr. Okrand took common characteristics of all world languages and applied them to the [[Proto-Indo-European]] language. His mains source of words (roots and stems) for the language is Proto-Indo-European<ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>, but Okrand also uses ancient [[Chinese]], Biblical [[Hebrew]], [[Latin]] and [[Greek]] languages, along with a variety of other ancient languages or ancient language reconstructions<ref> Kalin-Casey, Mary. “Charting Atlantis the crew behind Disney’s latest animated adventure takes you behind the scenes.” Features Interviews. 17 Jan. 2007
< http://www.reel.com/reel.asp?node=features/interviews/atlantis>.</ref>
<ref> Murphy, Tab, Platon, David Reyolds, Gary Trousdale, Joss Whedon, Kirk Wise, Bryce Zabel, and Jackie Zabel. Atlantis the Lost Empire: The Illustrated Script [Abridged Version with Notes from the Filmmakers], 55</ref>.

=== Writing systems ===
There are three identified writing systems for Atlantean:

1) Writers Script<ref> Wloszczyna, Susan. “New movie trek for wordsmith.” USA Today Online. 24 May 2001. 12 Jan. 2007.<http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/2001-05-24-atlantis-lingo.htm></ref> Adlantis 
2) The Atlantean Alphabet<ref> Anderson, Matt. “Parlez-vous Atlantean?” Movie Habit. 12 Jan. 2006 <http://www.moviehabit.com/essays/AtlantisInDepth8.shtml>.</ref> ADLANTIS 
3) Reader’s Script<ref> Henning, Jeffery. “Atlantean: Language of the Lost Empire” Langmaker.com. Jeffrey Henning. 1996-2005. 12 Jan. 2006 < http://www.langmaker.com/atlantean.htm>.
"Interview of Don Hahn on Atlantis!" Animagic.Com. 3/26/01.
</ref>
AHD-luhn-tihs 

They are listed in order of creation. Orkand originally put together the language in Writer’s Script. For those many parts in the movie for which it was written, the filmmakers wrote it using the Atlantean Alphabet, created by John Emerson with the help of Marc Okrand. For those fewer parts of the movie for which it is spoken, Okrand devised a Belitz-style notation which he hoped would make the Atlantean easier to read for the actors.<ref> Anderson, Matt. “Parlez-vous Atlantean?” Movie Habit. 12 Jan. 2006 <http://www.moviehabit.com/essays/AtlantisInDepth8.shtml>.</ref>

Example:

1) Spirits of Atlantis, forgive me for defiling your chamber and bringing intruders into the land.

2) Nish.en.top Adlantis.ag, Kelob.tem Gabr.in karok.li.mik bet gim demot.tem net getunos.en.tem bernot.li.mik bet kag.ib lewid.yoh. (Okrand's original wouldn't have had periods. I add these for the translation below.)

3) NEE-shen-toap AHD-luhn-tih-suhg, KEH-loab-tem GAHB-rihn KAH-roak-lih-mihk bet gihm DEH-moat-tem net GEH-tuh-noh-sen-tem behr-NOAT-lih-mihk bet KAH-gihb LEH-wihd-yoakh.

(Spirit.Plural.Vocative Atlantis.Genitive, Chamber.Oblique you-plural-familiar.Genitive defile.Past-Perfect.1st-Person-Singular for and land.Oblique into intruder.Plural.Oblique bring.Past-Perfect.1st-Person-Singular for I-Dative forgive.Imperative-Plural.)

(Written bustrophedon, as if in Atlantean alphabet: )

NISHENTOP ADLANTISAG KELOBTEM 
MIG TEB KIMILKORAK NIRBAG 
DEMOTTEM NET GETANOSENTEM 
BIGAK TEB KIMILTONREB 
LEWIDYOH<ref> Murphy, Tab, Platon, David Reyolds, Gary Trousdale, Joss Whedon, Kirk Wise, Bryce Zabel, and Jackie Zabel. Atlantis the Lost Empire: The Illustrated Script [Abridged Version with Notes from the Filmmakers], 85</ref>

====Atlantean alphabet: use and sources====

=====Writing Systems Correspondence and Number of Letters Used=====
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2008}}
Here’s how they all correspond to one another.<ref> Kurtti, Jeff. Atlantis Subterranean Tours: A Traveler’s Guide to the Lost City (Atlantis the Lost Empire). New York: Disney Editions: 2001, Inside Front Cover.</ref><ref> Wloszczyna, Susan. “New movie trek for wordsmith.” USA Today Online. 24 May 2001. 12 Jan. 2007.<http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/2001-05-24-atlantis-lingo.htm></ref><ref> Hahn, Don; Wise, Kirk; Trousdale, Gary et al. 2-Disc Collector’s Edition: Atlantis: The Lost Empire, especially Featurres "How to Speak Atlantean", "The Shepherd's Journal".</ref> For sake of standardization, they are arranged according to a fan-composed alphabet. It is based on the oldest example of the Northern Semitic Abecedary as found in the [[Ugaritic language]]. (See [[Ugaritic alphabet]] and [[Middle Bronze age Alphabets]] : Egyptian Proto-types for discussion of these early abecendaries. It also draws in a minor way from the [[Hebrew Alphabet]](because of its s/sh distinction and notoriety) and other early alphabet orders. The earliest Ugaritic Abecedary is commonly accepted as being the one from which most world writing systems developed.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''The Atlantean Alphabet as Used in the Movie'''
|-
| Readers Script || a || b || g || d || e || w || h || i || y || k || l || m || u || n || o || p || r || s || sh || t
|-
| Writers Script || uh ah || b || g || d || eh e || w || kh || ee ih || y || k || l || m || oo u || n || oa,oh || p || r || s || sh || t

|}

20 letters of the Atlantean alphabet are used to write Atlantean in the media of "Atlantis: The Lost Empire". The letters c, f, j, q, v, x, z, ch, or th have likewise been acknowledged by the filmmakers as not being used. They were created so that Atlantean might be used as a simple cipher code. They are all also based on diverse ancient characters, just like the rest of the alphabet<ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>.

=====Atlantean alphabet: use=====

There is no punctuation or capitalization in the Atlantean Writing System. These characteristics are based by Okrand on ancient writing systems. The Atlantean Alphabet is written in normal [[boustrophedon]] writing order. It is written left to right for the first line, right to left the second, and left to right again the third, to continue the pattern. This order was also suggested by Okrand, based on ancient writing systems, and it was accepted because, as he explained, "It's a back-and-forth movement, like water, so that worked."<ref> Wloszczyna, Susan. “New movie trek for wordsmith.” USA Today Online. 24 May 2001. 12 Jan. 2007.<http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/2001-05-24-atlantis-lingo.htm></ref><ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>

=====Atlantean alphabet: sources=====

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter and sources
|-
| A
|-
| The most complicated:
|-
| Egyptian O4 "pr" diagram of a house: [http://pagesperso-orange.fr/hieroglyphes/Hieroglyphica%20=%20O.htm]
|-
| Wadi El-Hol Script and Proto-Canaanite BAYT "house" [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets]]
|-
| Various spirals in world writing systems and iconography [[Spiral]]: As a symbol
|-
| Its official explanation is that "it is a miniature map of the city of Atlantis" and a "treasure map" to the Heart of Atlantis, which the scientist-mercenaries seek in the movie. If placed on its left side, its outer box is "the cave" and the inner lump is the "silhouette of the city", namely its central palace-ziggurat-pyramid-ceremonial center <ref> Murphy, Tab, Platon, David Reyolds, Gary Trousdale, Joss Whedon, Kirk Wise, Bryce Zabel, and Jackie Zabel. Atlantis the Lost Empire: The Illustrated Script [Abridged Version with Notes from the Filmmakers], 82.</ref>.
|-
| The somewhat unofficial exlanation, especially as one reads the various books associated with the movie, is that the A spiral is meant as a symbol of the [[New Age]] religions as well as the historic, late 19th - early 20th century archaeological and pyschological intellectual paradigms which are incorporated into [[Wicca]]. This implies a great deal of mythology which is played out in the movie. Hence, it is also a symbol for the [[Mother Goddess]] as characterized in the movie, the Mother Crystal, Heart of Atlantis (''Kerod Adlantisag''), the Power Source, or simply ''Ad'' <ref> Kurtti, Jeff. The Mythical World of Atlantis: Theories of the Lost Empire from Plato to Disney. New York: Disney Editions, 2001, entire chapter "Spiritual Atlantis".</ref><ref>Donnelly, Ignatius. Atlantis: The Antediluvian World. New York: Harpers and Brothers, 1882, as referenced in previous reference.</ref>
|-
| It's also important to note that the Hebrew 'ALEPH was the most crucial letter in the word 'MT for Biblical Hebrew emet, 'truth' which when written on a [[golem]]'s head gave them life and when erased spelled MT for 'dead' and took it away. This must in some way play into the Alphabet as both Leviathan, the Giants, and the Stone Fish exhibit characteristics of the literary golem.
|-
| B
|-
| Most resembles a Carthagian M, "water". Also resembles the Chinese Bronzeware Script BULL simplified logogram (as in Proto-Germanic *buhloon, bull [[Chinese bronze inscriptions]]. With this, note the original meaning of the first letter of the Latin Alphabet [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets]], 'ALP, ox and BET, house. Note how in A and B and M and U the letter meanings from the Semitic abjad have been switched. Possibly alternately based on a 500 BC Aramaic BET, unless Dr. Okrand, who is truely not to be underestimated, had his hand in it. I just don't suspect alphabet creator John Emerson of these sort of subtlties.
|-
| G
|-
| [[Elder Futhark]] GEEBO, gift and probably also from early versions of [[Phoenician alphabet]] TSAD, plant.
|-
| D
|-
| [[Proto-Canaanite]] DIGG, fish and [[Greek Alphabet]] DELTA.
|-
| E
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] HILLUL, jubilation. An image of a man with his hands in the air as an exclamation of joy.
|-
| W
|-
| [[Early Cyrillic Alphabet]] JATI. Probably a [[Glagolitic alphabet]] cross-shaped AZ' ligatured with the [[Early Cyrillic Alphabet]] JERI: J + A. It also reminds me of how Archaic Sumerian, Egyptian Hieroglyphic, Archaic Chinese, Luwian Hieroglyphic, and most likely Indus Valley Script have characters for "mountain, hill" and related semantic meanings which resemble a mountain range of 3 triangles, usually side-by-side. See this image from an essay by the famous Indus dicipherist Dr. Parapola: http://www.harappa.com/script/parpola4.html Again, this may be sublty or coincidence.
|-
| H
|-
| This is a mix of [[Elder Futhark]] HAGALAZ, hail and Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] HASIR, court of a house.
|-
| I
|-
| Most resembles a Carthagian (a form of [[Phoenician alphabet]]) YODH, hand but also strikingly an [[Eye of Horus]].
|-
| Y
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] YAD, arm and a variant of certain hand-written forms of the I character (see Mural texts and Leviathan Slide text).
|-
| K
|-
| Mostly from a rare variant of [[Early Cyrillic Alphabet]] KAKO, from the Cursive Greek mixed with Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] KAPP, palm of hand and variations thereupon.
|-
| L
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] LAMD, whip for an ox, possibly stylized so as to match S and K in the same way that W and E match.
|-
| M
|-
| Probably entire from the Late Hebrew Letter MEM, water. For additional relevant meanings and symbolism. It may have been chosen as the only clearly Hebrew letter because of the Hebrew-Old Irish based word "Makit" in the Atlantean language, which means King and is where our word Mc as in McDonald's comes from. See [[Mem]] and [[History of the Hebrew Alphabet]] and [[Sefer Yetzirah]] 'Structure' and 'Phonetic System'. As a scholar I am embarrassed to also point you toward this website for a reliable chart (but everything else is ignorance) : [http://ancient-hebrew.org/14_ahrcfonts.html] . I think it also resembles the Egyptian uniliteral glyph for M, owl, but that's a strech I admit.
|-
| U
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] MU, water, mixed with [[Elder Futhark]] URUZ, aurochs, an extinct type of wild bull.
|-
| N
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] NAHASH, snake.
|-
| N
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] NAHASH, snake.
|-
| O
|-
| [[Elder Futhark]] OZTHILA, hereditary land, possession. Actually, it is far more close to a certain European local variant on O. There's this hand-out from a conference last year on historical linguistics that I have that lines them all up next to each other and made picking out the one closest to Atlantean possible. But it's not with me right now. Anyway, you look, you'll find it. It's something on the order of 'Alpine Runes'.
|-
| P
|-
| This is a mix of [[Elder Futhark]] PERZTH, pear tree and Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] PU, mouth, especially Proto-Canaanite variants incorporated into the character's back curving.
|-
| R
|-
| This is a mix of [[Elder Futhark]] RAIDO, ride and Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] RA'ISH, head and possibly something else.
|-
| S
|-
| This very closely resembles the Chinese Oracle Bone (Jia3 Gu3 Wen2) *WUHN, cloud which became the modern character yun2. See the chart at this site [http://www.ancientscripts.com/chinese.html]
|-
| SH
|-
| It most resembles be3 in the portion of the Chinese-derived Naxi Geba Syllabary presented here: [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/naxi.htm#geba]. It also resembles the Chinese AN1, woman under roof, peace or JIA1, pig under roof, house, household. [http://www.internationalscientific.org/CharacterASP/CharacterEtymology.aspx?characterInput=%E5%AE%89&submitButton1=Etymology]
[http://www.internationalscientific.org/CharacterASP/CharacterEtymology.aspx?characterInput=+%E5%AE%B6&submitButton1=Etymology]. Its top also incorporates the old Hebrew or [[Aramaic alphabet letter] [[SHIN]].
|-
| T
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] TAW, mark of ownership.
|-
| C
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] GAML, boomerang.
|-
| F
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] WAW, hook.
|-
| J
|-
| [[South Arabian Alphabet]] D, from Wadi El-Hol, door.
|-
| Q
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] QAW, monkey or [water poured from a jag. Note the similarity with shi3, pig. http://www.internationalscientific.org/CharacterASP/CharacterEtymology.aspx?characterInput=+%E5%AE%B6&submitButton1=Etymology]
|-
| V
|-
| Closesly resembles modern and seal characters for 'son', ZI3. [http://www.internationalscientific.org/CharacterASP/CharacterEtymology.aspx?characterInput=%E5%AD%90&submitButton1=Etymology]
|-
| X
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] SAMEK, spine.
|-
| Z
|-
| Wadi El-Hol [[Middle Age Bronze Scripts]] / [[Proto-Canaanite]] ZIQQ, manacle.
|-
| TH
|-
| Perhaps a ligature of [[South Arabian alphabet]] D and Atlantean S. It may represent the voiced th sound and so have something to do with the Old South Arabian [d], door. Maybe the other part of the ligature represents an alverolar consonant. Maybe it's the [[Anglo-Saxon]] rune Thorn, also a development of DALETH. Together they closely resemble in shape and sound the [[Phoenician alphabet]] letter T'ETH, wheel, which came from T'AB, good, and became the Greek THETA.
|-
| CH
|-
| It's not really certain. It somewhat resembles an OMEGA, a development of 'AYIN, eye.
|}

====Atlantean numerals and numbers: uses and sources====

======Atlantean numeral system======

Joe Emerson, Marc Okrand, and the filmmakers also created numerals for 0-9. They are stacked horizontally, however, and hold place values of 1, 20, and 400. Their components are based on [[Mayan numerals]] and internally composed for the font (example above) like [[Roman numerals]]. If used according to the now-offline Official Website's directions, they are used, alternatively, like [[Arabic numerals]]. <ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref> <ref> Anderson, Matt. “Parlez-vous Atlantean?” Movie Habit. 12 Jan. 2006 <http://www.moviehabit.com/essays/AtlantisInDepth8.shtml>.</ref><ref> John, David. Atlantis: The Lost Empire: The Essential Guide. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc., 2001, 33.</ref>

======Atlantean numbers and suffixes======

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Numbers and suffixes'''
|-
! Hindi Numeral || [[Cardinal]]<ref> Kurtti, Jeff. Atlantis Subterranean Tours: A Traveler’s Guide to the Lost City (Atlantis the Lost Empire). New York: Disney Editions: 2001, 60. </ref> || [[Ordinal]] <ref> Ehrbar, Greg. Atlantis: The Lost Empire. Milwaukee: Dark Horse Comics: June 2001.</ref> || Fractional<ref> Hahn, Don; Wise, Kirk; Trousdale, Gary et al. 2-Disc Collector’s Edition: Atlantis: The Lost Empire, 01 10 0:50:31.</ref> || Distributive<ref> Ehrbar, Greg. Atlantis: The Lost Empire. Milwaukee: Dark Horse Comics: June 2001.</ref>
|-
| 1 || din one || din.lag first || din din.lop one whole || din.noh one-at-a-time one-a-piece
|-
| 2 || dut two || dut.lag second || din dut.lop one half || dut.noh two-at-a-time two-a-piece
|-
| 3 || sey three || sey.dlag third || din sey.dlop one third || sey.noh three-at-a-time three-a-piece
|-
| 4 || kut four || kut.lag fourth || din kut.lop one quarter || kut.noh four-at-a-time four-a-piece
|-
| 5 || sha five || sha.dlag fifth || din sha.dlop one fifth || sha.noh five-at-a-time five-a-piece
|-
| 6 || luk six || luk.lag sixth || din luk.lop one sixth || luk.noh six-at-a-time six-a-piece
|-
| 7 || tos seven || tos.lag first || din tos.lop one seventh || tos.noh seven-at-a-time seven-a-piece
|-
| 8 || ya eight || ya.dlag eigth || din ya.dlop one eigth || ya.noh eight-at-a-time eight-a-piece
|-
| 9 || nit nine || nit.lag ninth || din nit.lop one ninth || nit.noh nine-at-a-time nine-a-piece
|-
| 10 || ehep ten || ehep.lag tenth || din ehep.lop one tenth || ehep.noh ten-at-a-time ten-a-piece
|-
| 30 || sey dehep<ref> Kurtti, Jeff. Atlantis Subterranean Tours: A Traveler’s Guide to the Lost City (Atlantis the Lost Empire). New York: Disney Editions: 2001, 31. </ref> thirty || sey dehep.lag thirtieth || din sey dehep.lop one thirtieth || sey dehep.noh thirty-at-a-time thirty-a-piece
|}

===Grammar===

====Classification====
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2008}}
Atlantean is a mixed-type language (between an [[isolating language]] and a [[fusional language]]. Its nouns are highly inflected and its verbs are highly agglutinated. However, it also has a lot of free-morpheme adverbs, adjectives, postpositions and other grammatical particles.<ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>

====Sounds====
=====Vowels and diphthongs=====
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Chart of Atlantean vowels'''
|-
! [[help:pronunciation|IPA Symbol]] || Readers Script || Writers Script || Example || Meaning || Example || Meaning
|-
| {{IPA|/i,ɪ/}} || ee, ih, i || i || tikʌdɜ || to be located || alɪʃ || child
|-
| {{IPA|/e,ɜ/}} || eh, e || e || wesɜr || marketplace || ||
|-
| {{IPA|/ej/}} || ay || ey || badɜg.bej || best || ||
|-
| {{IPA|/ɑ,ɘ/}} || ah, uh || a || makɪt.ɘg || of the king || ||
|-
| {{IPA|/ɑi/}} || i || ay || kaitɘn || 7 cm || ||
|-
| {{IPA|/o/}} || oh, o, oa || o || obɜs|| lava || ||
|-
| {{IPA|/oj/}} || oy || oy || risojba || squid || ||
|-
| {{IPA|/u, ʌ/}} || oo, u || u || kunɜt || surface || kʌt || four || ||

|}

Atlantean's phonetic inventory includes a vowel system with the above five [[phoneme]]s, a system common to many languages, such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. Most vowels have two prominent [[allophone|allophonic]] realizations, depending on whether it occurs in a stressed or unstressed syllable. Vowels in stressed syllables tend to be [[tenseness|tense]], and likewise unstressed ones tend to be more lax. Thus, for example, {{IPA|/i/}} is realized as [[close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]] or [[near-close near-front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[ɪ]}}]] in stressed and unstressed syllables, respectively. Likewise, {{IPA|/e/}} is realized as [[close-mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[e]}}]] or [[open-mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[ɛ]}}]], and so on. ({{IPA|/ɑ/}} fits into this pattern as [[open back unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[ɑ]}}]] or [[open-mid back unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[ʌ]}}]].)

There are three diphthongs. {{IPA|[oj]}} only occurs in one word in a dubious part of a source so it may not be Atlantean. The other two are rather rare in the language on the whole.

=====Consonants=====
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''[[help:pronunciation|IPA]] chart of Atlantean consonants'''
|-

|
|[[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
|[[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo- palatal]]
|[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|[[Labial-velar consonant|Labiovelar]]
|- 
| [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| align="center"|{{IPA|p   b}}
| align="center"|{{IPA|t   d}}
|
|
| align="center"|{{IPA|k   g}}
|
|- 
| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| align="center"|{{IPA|m}}
| align="center"|{{IPA|n}}
|
|
|
|
|- 
| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
| align="center"|{{IPA|s}}
| align="center"|{{IPA|ʃ}} {{footnote|1}}
|
| align="center"|{{IPA|x}} {{footnote|2}}
|
|- 
| [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|
|
| align="center" | {{IPA|j}} {{footnote|3}}
|
| align="center" | {{IPA|w}}
|- 
| [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| align="center"|{{IPA|r}}
|
|
|
|
|- 
| [[Lateral approximant consonant|Lateral]]
|
| align="center"|{{IPA|l}}
|
|
|
|
|}
Where symbols occur in pairs, the left represents the [[voiceless consonant]] and the right represents the [[voiced consonant]].

Notes:
#Transliterated as ''sh'' in Writers Script and Readers Script.
#Transliterated as ''h'' in Writers Script (bibɪx, inner cover of Subterranean Tours) and "kh" in Readers Script.
#Transliterated as ''y'' in Writers Script and Readers Script.

====Phonology====

Aside from the stressed-syllable-based vowel system, the only other example of phonology found in the entire language may be expressed as:

0 -> [m,n] in the context of [i,o/e]_-Person/Aspect Suffix

/bernot-o-ik/ 
/bernot-o-mik/ 
[bernot-o-mik]

n -> [k,t] in the context of _ [i,o]

/bernot-e-ik/ 
/bernot-e-nik/ 
/bernot-e-kik/ 
[bernot-e-kik]

====Word Order====
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2008}}
Atlantean has a very strict Subject-Object-Verb word order. There is never any deviation from the pattern. Adjectives and Genitive Nouns go after the nouns which they modify, post-positions go after the nouns or clauses which they modify, and modals go after the verbs which they modify and subsequently take all agglutinative suffixes. However, adverbs go before their verbs. Last of all are the interogative particles.<ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>

The given order of all parts of speech and particles is as follows in both an [[interrogative]] and [[declarative]] statement (a little redundent in order to use the whole sentence):

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Sentence Order'''
|-
! Word || Example || English Gloss
|-
| Adverbs of Time, Manner, Location || Log || What
|-
| Time, Manner, Location Adverbial Nouns || darim || time
|-
| Instrumental Cased Nouns || shayod.esh || using.hands
|-
| Adverbs || ser || just
|-
| Adjectives || gwis.in || our
|-
| Nominative Cased Nouns || weydagosen || Visitors
|-
| Post-positional Objects/ Oblique Cased Nouns || keylob.tem || (in) the chamber
|-
| Adjectives || ta.mil || royal
|-
| Possessive Pronouns || tug.in || his
|-
| Post-position || net || in
|-
| Dative/Oblique Cased Nouns || makit.tem || The King
|-
| Genitive Cased Nouns of Relation || Adlantis.ag || of Atlantis
|-

| Post-Positions || gom || to
|-
| Accusative Cased Nouns || neshing.mok.en.tem || great contrivances
|-
| Adverb || gawid.in || joyfully
|-
| Verb with Modal Verb || bernot || to bring
|-
| Modal Verb [stem.mood.tense/aspect.person/number] || bog.o.mkem || we will be able
|-
| Interrogative Particle|| du || [[eh]]? ([[North Central American English]] / [[Canadian English]])
|-
! Final Explanation
|-
| At what time will we visitors be able to use our very hands to joyfully give our great contrivances to the King of Atlantis in his Royal Chamber? <ref> Murphy, Tab, Platon, David Reyolds, Gary Trousdale, Joss Whedon, Kirk Wise, Bryce Zabel, and Jackie Zabel. Atlantis the Lost Empire: The Illustrated Script [Abridged Version with Notes from the Filmmakers], 58.</ref><ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>
|}

There are two given variations on the simple sentence order involving [[sentence connectors]], also called [[connective particles]]. These are [[grammatical particles]] whose particular roles seen here occurs in Native American languages, among other languages. These Atlantean sentence connectors relate two clauses in a logical yet idiomatic manner which produces a complete thought in the same way that the equally complicated English sentence does.<ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>
English doesn't use sentence connectors in the following ways, however:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Clause order 1, Example 1'''
|-
! Clause or Particle || Example || English Gloss
|-
| Initial Clause || "Wil.tem neb gamos.e.tot..." || "He sees this city..."
|-
| [[Sentence connector]] 1 || deg || (roughly) "for"
|-
| Modifying Clause || duwer.en tirid. || all foriegners.
|-
! Final Explanation
|-
| No outsiders may see the city and live. More literally, " 'He Who Doth the City See...' is meant for ALL foriegners.' <ref> Murphy, Tab, Platon, David Reyolds, Gary Trousdale, Joss Whedon, Kirk Wise, Bryce Zabel, and Jackie Zabel. Atlantis the Lost Empire: The Illustrated Script [Abridged Version with Notes from the Filmmakers], 58.</ref><ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Clause order 1, Example 2'''
|-
! Clause or Particle || Example || English Gloss
|-
| Initial Clause || Tab.top, lud.en neb.et kwam gesu bog.e.kem || Father, we cannot help these people
|-
| [[Sentence connector]] 1 || deg || (roughly) "and yet"
|-
| Modifying Clause || yasek.en gesu.go.ntoh. || they will help the Royalty.
|-
! Final Explanation
|-
| Father, these people may be able to help us. More literally, "Father, we can't help these people and yet they will help us, the King and Princess." <ref> Murphy, Tab, Platon, David Reyolds, Gary Trousdale, Joss Whedon, Kirk Wise, Bryce Zabel, and Jackie Zabel. Atlantis the Lost Empire: The Illustrated Script [Abridged Version with Notes from the Filmmakers], 58.</ref><ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Clause order 2'''
|-
! Clause or Particle || Example || English Gloss
|-
| Descriptive Clause || Ketak.en.tem obes.ag sapoh.e.kik || I view the lava whales
|-
| [[Sentence connector]] 2 || yos || (roughly) "then"
|-
| Action Clause || lat nar badeg.bey tikud.e.tot dap? || where is the best place?
|-
! Final Explanation
|-
| Where is the best place from which to view the lava whales? <ref> Kurtti, Jeff. Atlantis Subterranean Tours: A Traveler’s Guide to the Lost City (Atlantis the Lost Empire). New York: Disney Editions: 2001, page 61.</ref><ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>
|}

====Nouns====

There are seven six [[Grammatical case|cases]] for nouns.

=====Grammatical Cases=====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Grammatical Cases'''
|-
! Number || Name || Suffix || Example || English Gloss
|-
| 1 || [[Nominative]] || no suffix || yob || crystal
|-
| 2 || [[Oblique]] || -tem || yobtem || the crystal give, in the crystal, to the crystal, etc.
|-
| 3 || [[Genitive]] || -ag || yobag || of the crystal
|-
| 4 || [[Vocative]] || -top {{footnote|1}} || Yobtop || O Crystal!
|-
| 5 || [[Instrumental]] || -esh || yobesh || using father
|-
| 6 || Unknown 1 || -kup {{footnote|2}} || yobkup || (something) crystal
|-
| 7 || Unknown 2 || -nuh {{footnote|3}} || yobnuh || (something) crystal
|}

Notes:
#With the exception of "mat", "mother", which takes the special Maternal Filial Suffix -tim. Note that the the only other kinship term, "father", "tab", takes the usual -top.
#No translation given. As discussed in "The Shepherd's Journal" on the "Collector's DVD": ketub-kup (page 4) and setub-mok-en-tem (page 10), setub-mok-en-ag (page 5), and setub-kup (pages 1-4).
# No translation given. As discussed in "The Shepherd's Journal" on the "Collector's DVD": derup-tem and derup-nuh (page 5).

=====Other Suffixes=====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Other Noun Suffixes'''
|-
! Grammatical Function|| Suffix || Example || English Gloss
|-
| Plural || -en || yoben || crystals
|-
| Augmentative || -mok || Yobmok || The Great Crystal
|}

Nouns are marked as plural with the suffix ''-en''. Case suffixes never precede the ''-en'' plural suffix. "-Mok" occurs after it.

====Pronouns====

There are five [[Grammatical case|cases]] for pronouns.

=====Grammatical Cases=====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Grammatical Cases'''
|-
! Number || Name || Suffix || Example || English Gloss
|-
| 1 || [[Nominative]] || no suffix || kag || I
|-
| 2 || [[Accusative]] || -it || kagit || me, whom was (sent), etc.
|-
| 3 || [[Dative]] || -ib || tuhib || (to) me
|-
| 4 || [[Genitive]] || -in || tuhin || my ( my heart, karod tuhin)
|-
| 5 || [[Unknown]] || -is || kagis || not translated{{footnote|1}}
|}

Notes:

#No translation given. Appears in "First Mural Text" on the "Collector's DVD": tug-is.

====Verbs====

Verbs are inflected with two suffixes, one for tense/aspect and the next for person/number.<ref>“Production Notes.” Atlantis-The Lost Empire. Ed. Tim Montgomery, 1996-2007. The Unofficial Disney Animation Archive. 13 Jan. 2007
<http://animationarchive.net/Feature%20Films/AtlantisThe%20Lost%20Empire/Production%20Notes/></ref>

=====Tense/Aspect suffixes=====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Tense/Aspect suffixes'''
|-
! Number || Name || Suffix || Example || English Gloss
|-
| 1 || Simple Present Tense || -e || bernot.e.kik || I bring
|-
| 2 || Present Perfect Tense || -le|| bernot.le.kik || you have brought
|-
| 3 || Present Obligatory Tense || -se || bernot.se.kik || I am obliged to bring
|-
| 4 || Simple Past Tense || -i || bernot.i.mik || I brought
|-
| 5 || Immediate Past Tense || -ib || bernot.ib.mik || I just brought
|-
| 6 || Past Perfect Tense || -li || bernot.li.mik || I had brought
|-
| 7 || Simple Future Tense || -o || bernot.o.mik || I will bring
|-
| 8 || Future Possible Tense || -go || bernot.go.mik || I may bring
|-
| 9 || Future Perfect Tense || -lo || bernot.lo.mik || I will have brought
|-
| 10 || Future Obligatory Tense || -so || bernot.so.mik || I will be obliged to bring
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Further Examples of Tense/Aspect suffix morphology'''
|-
| -e || sapoh.i.mik (SJ:10) || I viewed || sapoh.e.kik (ST) || I view || || ||
|-
| -le ||yube.in/yugeb.le.tot (IS) || strangly/he is being strange || panneb.le.nen (IS) || you are knowing || peren.le.mot (DVD:MURAL) || Untranslated. || pasil.le.tot (IS) || it is being sufficient
|-
| -se || kaber (SJ:789) || warn! || kaber.se.kem || we are obliged to warn || || || ||
|-
| -i || es.e.tot (ST) || it is || es.i.mot (SJ:10) || it will be || || || ||
|-
| -ib || bernot.li.mik (IS) || I had brought || bernot.ib.mik (IS) || I just brought || || || ||
|-
| -li || bernot.ib.mik (IS) || I just brought || bernot.li.mik (IS) || I had brought || || || ||
|-
| -o || komtib.lo.nen (SJ:5) || you will have found || komtib.o.nen (SJ:5) || you will find || || || ||
|-
| -go || satib.yoh (IS) || move along! || satib.go.ntoh (SJ:89) || they may move along || gesu.go.ntoh (IS) || they may help || ||
|-
| -lo || komtib.o.nen (SJ:5) || you will find || komtib.lo.nen (SJ:5) || you will have found || || || ||
|-
| -so || komtib.lo.nen (IS) || you will have found || komtib.so.nen (SJ:5) || you will will be obliged to find || || || ||
|}

=====Mood suffixes=====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Mood suffixes'''
|-
! Number || Name || Suffix || Example || English Gloss
|-
| 1 || Imperative Mood Singular || no suffix || (Tok.it) Bernot! || Bring (it, you)!
|-
| 2 || Imperative Mood Plural || -yoh || (Tok.it) Bernot.yoh! || Bring (it, y'all)!
|-
| 3 || Passive Mood || -esh|| (Im.tem shib.an) bernot.esh.ib.mik. || I just was brought (something).
|-
| 4 || Infinitive || -e || bernot.e || to bring
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Further Examples of Mood suffixes'''
|-
! Number || Name || Suffix || Example || English Gloss || Example || English Gloss || Example || English Gloss || Example || English Gloss
|-
| no suffix || nageb.o.ntoh (SJ:789) || they will enter || Nageb.yoh (ST) || || Enter, y'all! || Nageb! || Enter!
|-
| -yoh || gamos.i.mik (DVD:TRAVEL) || I saw || Gamos.yoh! (DVD:MURAL) || May ye behold! || gamos.e (DVD:MURAL) || to see || Beket! (ST) || You're begged! || Beket.yoh! (ST) || Y'all are begged!
|-
| -esh || pag.en (ST) || you (are) thanked (short form) || pag.esh.e.nen (ST)
|| you are thanked || dodl.esh.mik (DVD:MURAL)|| Untranslated. || kobden.en/hobd.esh.e.tot (IS)
|| command / he has doomed
|-
| -e || wegen.os/wegen.e (IS) || traveler/to travel || wegen.os/wegen.e (IS) || traveler/to travel || gamos.yoh (DVD:MURAL) || May ye behold! || gamos.e (DVD:MURAL) || to see || gobeg.en/gobeg.e || arms/to be an arm
|}

=====Person/number suffixes=====

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Person/number suffixes'''
|-
! Person || Number || Familiarity || Independent Pronoun || Suffix || English Gloss
|-
| 1st || Singular || - || kag || -ik || I
|-
| 2nd || Singular || - || moh || -en || you
|-
| 3rd || Singular || - || tug tuh tok || -ot || he she it
|-
| 1st || Plural || - || gwis || -kem || we
|-
| 2nd || Plural || Unfamiliar || gebr || -eh || you-all (unfamiliar)
|-
| 2nd || Plural || Familiar || gabr || -eh || you-all (familiar)
|-
| 3rd || Plural || - || sob || -toh || they
|}

====Vocabulary====

Most of the vocabulary was made for the movie, so it relates to concepts that occur in the movie.

"Animal Life"

There are words for the bizaare animal life around Atlantis, creatures that resemble: ostriches (wemoten), purple lobsters (tuyeben), parrot lizards (yeragosen), lava whales(ketaken obesag), and multiple-eyed purple tigers (bahodmoken). There are about as many names for normal animal life as well, mostly sea creatures on account of their vehicles being fashioned in their shapes.

"Politics and Religion"

There are words for a few elements of the Atlantean political system: city (wil), king (makit), Your Highness (taneb), royalty/judges (yaseken), marker (keran), law (tamar), orderly (laridin), command (kobden), and foreigner (duwer).

There are words for religious and mythological concepts, given in : to defile (karoke), to forgive (lewide), to worship (yadluge), (the old religion: ) Mother Crystal or The Heart of Atlantis (Kerod Adlantisag; tok, it), Yob (Crystal), Peace (Weshekmol), Giants (gonosen), (the decadent religion: ) Lightning/ Odin/ Leviathan the Last of the Mighty War God(desses) (Lot.an, literally "light.ning"; tuh, she), (Pre-1914 religon: ) The Great Flood (Mebelmok) and Nishen (Spirits).

"Adventure Words"

There are words for travel and discovery, such as to be located (tikude), to see (gamose), to discover (komtibe), path (ben), cave (tinemoshep), enclosed (digenmil), lair (pred), to continue (tenite), and to get somewhere (kwetipe)

Given the epic scale of the movie, there's a few words related to serious matters: to kill (gwenoge), to doom (hobde), to be finished (yodene), and to destroy (megide).

"Everyday Life"

There are also quite a few "normal" words, like to be (ese), in (net), on (meg/med), through (pak), and an assortment of modal verbs like to be able (boge). There is no word for "to have".

There is a very full set of measurements and numbers 1-10 with hints at formations for 20 and 30.

However, the majority of the verbs and words seem to be of an everyday nature: to travel along (satib), to come (mase), to walk (galeme), to rush (nuroshe), contrivance (neshingos), marketplace (weser), to cost (mohede), to listen (epkele), to think (kapere), to speak (bashebe), to understand (doyine), tree (denet), person (lud), time (nal/darim/konos), to worship (yadluge), entrance (mannal), chamber (keylob), shelter (tegul), and joyfully (gawidin).

"Family and Anatomy"

There are also a few basic kinship terms, namely father (tab), mother (mat), to be well (mat), and child (alish). "Mother" takes a special kinship vocative suffix: -tim, though "father" takes the usual -top. There are actually no words for man or woman.

Here's the short list of mostly human body parts: eye (okwep), heart (kerod), hand (shayod), arm (gobeg), tail (wibak).

"Mystery Words"

Half of the words have not been diciphered and probably relate to either the history or location of Atlantis as they occur in "The Shepherd's Journal". "The Shepherd's Journal", in reality, amounts to about 2 or 3 pages of actual text and 7 pages of dummy text which repeats fragments of the actual parts.

The vocabulary exhibits a limited yet well-balanced character.

==History of decipherment efforts==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2008}}

===Overview===

From Internet documentation, about 150 amateur linguists working since 2001 have contributed thus far to the on-going dicipherment and codification of the Atlantean Language.

===Initial Events===

Earliest records show the efforts of Paul Sherrill in reaching out to the international linguistic community for help in about March 2001.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} He later founded a site with his dicipherments on it, "Luden Shadlag", meant to mean "The Fifth City"; along with a Yahoo Tech Group, The Atlantean Language Group. All of this was in June of the same year. About then The Atlantean Linguists Guild was founded as a message board of unknown location. In September of 2001, Jefferey Henning posted a series of webpages devoted to the Atlantean language on his then-young LangMaker.Com.

===Middle Events===

Luden Shadlag was later deleted by its hosting site, as was The Atlantean Linguists Guild. However, The Atlantean Language Group remains online. Sometime in 2004, an "Aaron" began a second website devoted to the language, The Mother Tongue. This website is still up, though hard-to-find, perhaps due to a lack of internet search keywords.

===Recent Events===

In late 2006, Cindy Morris chose the Atlantean Language as the subject of a school project and made significant, published contributions. A little later in the year, Lawrence Rogers joined the dicipherment effort. He eventually produced a 100-page book in rough draft, "[[Atlantean Grammar]]", available for free in The Atlantean Language Group Library. The following spring he began free lessons on the language at The Group and the message board Kidagakash Fans Unite. To date, he has personally taught the language to about 12 people internationally. On March 9, 2007 he started "[[The Atlantean Language Institute]]" as a Facebook group.

Paul Sherrill returned briefly to the Atlantean language on June 21, 2007, to work briefly on this article and correspond with Lawrence Rogers. Paul Sherrill made him moderator of [[The Atlantean Language Group]] on June 22nd. On July 22, 2007 Rogers started the website for [[The Atlantean Language Institute]], http://www.atlanteanlanguageinstitute.info/ . He has contacted Disney three times for permission to use their property with no response.

Around March 2008 he discontinued the expensive sit to focus efforts on the free Atlantean Language Group. It has seen a steady increase in membership from all over the world and the addition of one other fluent Atlantean writer.

He is currently in the process of:

1) Sufficiently documenting all Atlantean and putting it into a single document in Readers Script

2) Diciphering words without a given English translation from "The Shepherd's Journal" and the movie's "Mural Texts" while confirming the definitions of and creating etymologies for words in sources such as "The Illustrated Script" which have given English translations and therefore diciphered definitions.

Currently there is a rough estimate of 2, 000 or more people vaguely interested in the language, about 200 people in the Atlantean language group, and 2 fluent speakers.

==Continued Use==

===The Atlantean Language Group===

During its history, The Atlantean Language Group has recorded a number of breakthroughs in dicipherment, including the grammatical case system, its suffixes, the verb tense suffixes, the verb subject suffixes, phonetics, and miscellaneous word translations. It has also been a source of contribution to the naming of sources containing either the real Okrand language or imitations of it. It is considered the hub and nexis of the Atlantean dicipherment effort. Membership is free to the public.

Major contributors include Paul Sherrill, Shahnahkehm, Rebmakash, Atlantima, Gaerielleenay, Dennis Falk, and Lawrence Rogers.

===Written works on Atlantean===
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2008}}

Marc Okrand's word list of uncertain length (possibly 700-1000 words) is unavailable to the public, as is the final script of ''Atlantis: The Lost Empire''. Paul Sherrill's website is lost, as are his notes. It included a grammar, dictionary, and corpus. Atlantima wrote a dictionary which survives at The Group. Delayra wrote a short grammar and dictionary, which she still owns and has distributed. Cindy Morris likewise wrote a grammar and dictionary, as did Lawrence Rogers. His work encompases the non-fictional history of the language and its dicipherment, among other things. It includeds as appendices the works of Delayra, Cindy Morris, and Atlantima, with scraps that remain from Luden Shadlag. "Atlantean Grammar" also contains an unabridged Atlantean-English dictionary with dicipherment notes, a simplified Atlantean-English dictionary, a likewise short English-Atlantean dictionary, and an oriental English-Atlantean dictionary, being arranged topologically.

===Developments of Atlantean===

Given that Atlantean contains about 337 known words, 180 of which have been assigned a tentative diciphered meaning, it is limited in what can be said with it.

Attempts at expanding the language for wider use are as old as the public release of the movie. One of the major documentations of these is Atlantima's dictionary.

Since January 2007, Rogers has been creating a development of the language called "New Atlantean". It forms neologisms completely through the re-use of existing words, adding new meanings to canonical words and forming compounds. New grammatical structures are formed with reference to the historic material used by Okrand. An example is "shom", canonically "wave", for "water" and "shomag tegul", "water shelter" for "umbrella", based on the Genitive Compound Function present once in canon in "kudobirag demug", "inscription pad".

Since Fall 2007, Rogers also began a "Historical Atlantean", which uses increasing reverse-engineered knowledge of Okrand's creative process to create neologisms, idioms, and grammatical structures for Atlantean. An example is "akwad" for "water", from the [[PIE]] root "wed-", "water", the Latin "aqua", "water", and the Hittite "watar". Another example is "sipakenos" for "spider", based on the Greek "arakhne" and the Old English "*spinthron".

However, allegedly because of the effort it takes to make up a new word using this system, he states plans of focusing his efforts on New Atlantean.

==Further Reading and Sources Cited==

===Sources of Okrand's Atlantean Language===

Because Atlantean was created by one person over a period of 5 years or less, all that exists of it can be dated to those five years. This is like all ancient written languages, which were written during a specific time and then either became a [[daughter language]] or died out. Hence, modern scientists must use [[corpus linguistics]] to study ancient languages. The earliest and most famous case of this in the West was 17th century cataloging of [[Latin]] inscriptions. In this process, all known sources are documented and reproduced so that other scholars may view them. This is especially important in the dicipherment of languages. In the modern day, corpus linguistics also refers to the method of language documentation whereby the collector elicits and audio-/video-records speach by a native speaker in the studied language. The linguist then has the recordings transcribed and analyzes them.

Atlantean also has a list of media in which it is found. Without knowing where the language is documented, this article loses its most key citations. There are two primary divisions of these key sources:

1) Atlantean found in the movie. 
2) Atlantean found in other sources.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Published Sources of Primary Importance'''
|-
! Souce Medium || [[MLA]] Citation
|-
| Book. || Cynthia, Benjamin. "Atlantis: The Lost Empire : Welome to my World." New York: Random House: 2001.
|-
| Comic book. || Ehrbar, Greg. "Atlantis: The Lost Empire." Milwaukee: Dark Horse Comics: June 2001.
|-
| DVD set. ||Hahn, Don; Wise, Kirk; Trousdale, Gary et al. "2-Disc Collector’s Edition: Atlantis: The Lost Empire."
|-
| Magazine. || Harper, Suzanne. Editor-in-chief. "Disney Adventures Summer Issue 2001."
|-
| CD. || Howard, James N. "Atlantis: The Lost Empire An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack" : Limited Tiwanese Edition. Taiwan and Hong Kong: Walt Disney Records: Represented by Avex: 2001.
|-
| Book. || Kurtti, Jeff. "Atlantis Subterranean Tours: A Traveler’s Guide to the Lost City (Atlantis the Lost Empire." New York: Disney Editions: 2001.
|-
| Book. || Kurtti, Jeff. "The Journal of Milo Thatch." New York: Disney Editions: 2001.
|-
| Book. || Murphy, Tab et al. "Atlantis, the Lost Empire : The Illustrated Script." New York : Disney Editions: 2001.
|}

Following are the sources and places within the above sources which explain how the language works:

=== Notes ===
<references/>

=== External links ===
{{external-links}}
*[http://www.langmaker.com/atlanteanmetahistory.htm Henning's Old Introduction to the Language]
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/atlantean.htm Info on Atlantean at OmniGlot.com]
* [http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/atlantean_language/ A Yahoo Tech Group dedicated to the dicipherment and use of Atlantean Language. Contains dictionaries, grammars, lessons, conversation groups, and other documents.]
* [http://noble-scarlet.net/kfu/viewtopic.php?t=75 An Student-Teacher Interactive Message Thread for Okrand's Atlantean, hosted by Lisa Noble-Scarlet's Kidagakash Fans Unite ATLE Fan Message Board ("Fandom">"Atlantean">"Lessons in Okrand's Atlantean")]
* [http://www.freewebs.com/mother-tongue/ Website dedicated to Atlantean.]
* [http://atlantean.110mb.com/ Contains full corpus without language explaination.]

[[Category:Fictional languages]]
[[Category:Atlantis in fiction]]
[[Category:Disney]]

[[eo:Atlanteano]]
[[it:Atlantiano]]
[[sv:Atlantiska]]

==History of decipherment efforts==

===Overview===

From Internet documentation, about 150 amateur linguists working since 2001 have contributed thus far to the on-going dicipherment and codification of the Atlantean Language.

===Initial Events===

Earliest records show the efforts of Paul Sherrill in reaching out to the international linguistic community for help in about March 2001.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} He later founded a site with his dicipherments on it, "Luden Shadlag", meant to mean "The Fifth City"; along with a Yahoo Tech Group, The Atlantean Language Group. All of this was in June of the same year. About then The Atlantean Linguists Guild was founded as a message board of unknown location. In September of 2001, Jefferey Henning posted a series of webpages devoted to the Atlantean language on his then-young LangMaker.Com.

===Middle Events===

Luden Shadlag was later deleted by its hosting site, as was The Atlantean Linguists Guild. However, The Atlantean Language Group remains online. Sometime in 2004, an "Aaron" began a second website devoted to the language, The Mother Tongue. This website is still up, though hard-to-find, perhaps due to a lack of internet search keywords.

===Recent Events===

In late 2006, Cindy Morris chose the Atlantean Language as the subject of a school project and made significant, published contributions. A little later in the year, Lawrence Rogers joined the dicipherment effort. He eventually produced a 100-page book in rough draft, "[[Atlantean Grammar]]", available for free in The Atlantean Language Group Library. The following spring he began free lessons on the language at The Group and the message board Kidagakash Fans Unite. To date, he has personally taught the language to about 12 people internationally. On March 9, 2007 he started "[[The Atlantean Language Institute]]" as a Facebook group.

Paul Sherrill returned briefly to the Atlantean language on June 21, 2007, to work briefly on this article and correspond with Lawrence Rogers. Paul Sherrill made him moderator of [[The Atlantean Language Group]] on June 22nd. On July 22, 2007 Rogers started the website for [[The Atlantean Language Institute]], http://www.atlanteanlanguageinstitute.info/ . He has contacted Disney three times for permission to use their property with no response.

Around March 2008 he discontinued the expensive sit to focus efforts on the free Atlantean Language Group. It has seen a steady increase in membership from all over the world and the addition of one other fluent Atlantean writer.

He is currently in the process of:

1) Sufficiently documenting all Atlantean and putting it into a single document in Readers Script

2) Diciphering words without a given English translation from "The Shepherd's Journal" and the movie's "Mural Texts" while confirming the definitions of and creating etymologies for words in sources such as "The Illustrated Script" which have given English translations and therefore diciphered definitions.

Currently there is a rough estimate of 2, 000 or more people vaguely interested in the language, about 200 people in the Atlantean language group, and 2 fluent speakers.

West Germanic language

2009-06-14T01:17:32Z

Blackkdark: /* History */

{{Infobox|name=Westgermanish
|pronounce=/wɛst.'geəːɹ.mɑ:n.iʃ/
|tu=Present, on a parallel Earth
|species=Human
|in=West Germania (Federation of Schleswig-Holstein, Denmark, East Germany and Crimea)
|no=Unknown
|script=Latin alphabet (West Germanic variant)
|tree=Indo-European 
 [[Germanic]] 
  [[West Germanic]] 
   Anglo-Frisian 
    Anglic 
     [[Old English]] 
      (New) West Germanic 
|morph=Inflecting
|ms=Nominative-accusative
|wo=V2
|creator=S.C. Anderson
|date=July 2008}}

(New) West Germanic (Westgermanish) is a recent [[West Germanic]] language, which is closely related to others such as Dutch, English, Frisian and German as well as sharing some traits with North Germanic languages. West Germanic is a descendant of Old English, with an amount of vocabulary derived from Modern Dutch.

West Germanic grammar is similar to that of Dutch and [[High German|German]], particularly its syntax, but has undergone a degree of deflexion, much more so than Dutch but mostly not to the extent of English. West Germanic has retained the usage of three genders, yet these have become simplified because they now relate purely to biological gender.

As [[Dutch]] and [[Modern English|English]], the consonant system of West Germanic did not undergo the High German consonant shift. Complex consonant clusters are, typically of [[Germanic languages]], allowed by the syllable structure.

West Germanic vocabulary could be said to be more [[Germanic]] in origin than its predecessors due to drawing neologisms from compounds of old words whereas others have shunned native words in favour of Latin or Greek equivalents; German followed a similar process, which has however been taken a step further in West Germanic.

==History==
[[Image:Europe germanic languages.PNG|240px|thumb|left|The Germanic languages in Europe are divided into North (blue) and West Germanic (green and orange) languages]]
West Germanic is artificially descended from the language - now known as [[Anglo-Saxon]] - of England's Germanic invaders, which displaced the indigenous Brythonic languages. As a result of this, New West Germanic maintains a link with the North Germanic family due to Old Norse's influence on English. Old English was deemed an appropriate root because, under the rule of Anglo-Saxon kings, it thrived, thought to have coined new words from native roots rather than borrow foreign words. This is a trend that continues in the West Germanic language. The Norman Conquest occurred in 1066, marking the beginning of the Middle English era; thereafter, there is no influence on West Germanic. Words borrowed into the lexicon come from modern Dutch, a widely-spoken, present-day relative of Old English, which has linguistically evolved little since the late 16th century. Mostly, neologisms are formed based on translations from other languages, notably German and Anglish, an anti-Romance constrained-writing project for English.

===History on Jorde===
West Germanic, on the parallel Earth Jorde on which it is most prominent, was created in 1887 by another S.C. Anderson, very similar in character to that on Earth, but whose family had moved to Denmark seeking a new life. His father, a historian, was particularly engaged in the history of the Germanic peoples and this had a great effect on young Anderson. During his school and college years, he devoted some of his free time to studying the Xenian language, finding it especially interesting as a West Germanic language isolated from others in Xenia (Earth's Crimea). However, considering the Greek influence to be distasteful in such a great language, he constructed his own version using only Germanic roots and derived inflections from Old English that were like to those of German: he believed that other tongues had become over-simplified, yet German preserved a delightful complexity.

The first world congress of West Germanic, then Piscean, speakers was held in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France, in 1905. Since then well-attended world congresses had been held every year (West Germanic was Jorde's equivalent of Esperanto).

The West Germanic language first became widespread in 1921 when it replaced German in official functions in Schleswig-Holstein. This was one year after [[S.C. Anderson]] headed a successful campaign to persuade civilians there to vote for independence as opposed to joining Germany or Denmark, praising the 'distinctive' history of the region, and sixteen years after the first West Germanic World Congress. A continued political campaign after the declaration of independence highlighted the presence of the Anglic Frisian people, using this to romanticise an image of the Varangian Guard, whose descendants had settled in [[Xenia]] since defending the Byzantine Empire.

Anderson at first presented the artificial language as a dialect of [[Xenian language|Xenian]], on which it was modelled minus the Greek influence and with added elements of German morphology. Later, his propaganda established the 'discovery' of philologists of a great language (named West Germanic after the family whence it came) comprising two dialects: Xenian West Germanic and German West Germanic. He had already planned to make Xenia a protectorate and now only needed an excuse to do so. This excuse arrived the the breakout of civil war.

The number of speakers reached its height in 1950, a year after the post-war East Germany was absorbed into West Germania, and the year in which West Germanic became adopted there as the official language. At this point, West Germania numbered four provinces: Denmark, Schleswig-Holstein, East Germany and Xenia.

Latin

2009-06-14T01:12:51Z

Blackkdark: /* History */

'''Latin''' is an [[classical language|ancient]] [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] originally spoken in the region around [[Rome]] called [[Latium]]. It gained wide usage as the formal language of the [[Roman Republic]] and [[Roman Empire]]. An [[inflection]]al and [[synthetic language]], Latin relies little on [[word order in Latin|word order]], conveying meaning through a system of [[affix]]es attached to [[word stem]]s. The [[Latin alphabet]], derived from the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], remains the most widely used [[alphabet]] in the world.

Although now widely considered an [[extinct language]] with very few fluent speakers, Latin has had a major influence on many languages that are still thriving, and continues to see wide use in areas such as [[academia]]. All [[Romance language]]s are descended from [[Vulgar Latin]], and many words adapted from Latin are found in other [[modern language]]s, such as [[English language|English]]. Moreover, in the [[Western world]], Latin was the ''[[lingua franca]]'', the learned language for scientific and political affairs, for more than a thousand years, eventually being replaced by French in the [[18th century]] and English in the late [[19th century|19th]]. [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] remains the formal language of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] to this day, and thus the official language of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]]. The Church used Latin as its primary [[liturgical language]] until the [[Second Vatican Council]] in the [[1960s]]. Latin is also still used—drawing heavily on [[Greek language|Greek]] roots—to furnish the names used in the [[scientific classification]] of living things. The modern study of Latin, along with [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], is known as [[Classics]].

==History==
{{main|History of the Latin Language}}
[[Image:Duenos inscription.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Duenos inscription]], from the [[6th century BC]], is the second-earliest known [[Old Latin|Latin]] text.]]

Latin is a member of the family of [[Italic languages]], and its alphabet, the [[Latin alphabet]], is based on the [[Old Italic alphabet]], which is in turn derived from the [[Greek alphabet]]. Latin was first brought to the [[Italy|Italian]] peninsula in the [[9th century BC|9th]] or [[8th century BC]] by migrants from the north, who settled in the [[Latium]] region, specifically around the River [[Tiber]], where the [[ancient Rome|Roman civilization]] first developed. Latin was influenced by the [[Italo-Celtic|Celtic dialects]] and the non-[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[Etruscan language]] in northern Italy, and by [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] in southern Italy.

Although surviving [[Latin literature]] consists almost entirely of [[Classical Latin]], an artificial and highly stylized and polished [[literary language]] from the [[1st century BC]], the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was [[Vulgar Latin]], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Also, although Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, [[Greek language|Greek]] came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which became the [[Byzantine Empire]], Greek eventually supplanted Latin as both the written and spoken language.

===Legacy===
[[Image:Calligraphy.malmesbury.bible.arp.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The language of [[ancient Rome|Rome]] has had a profound impact on later cultures, as demonstrated by this [[Ecclesiastical Latin|Latin]] [[Bible]] from AD 1407.]]

The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and [[dialect]]ized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct [[Romance language]]s beginning around the [[9th century]]. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of [[Portugal]] until [[1296]], when it was replaced by [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. Many of these languages, including Portuguese, [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[Romanian language|Romanian]], flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time.

Classical Latin and the Romance languages differ in a number of ways, and some of these differences have been used in attempts to reconstruct Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance languages have distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and [[Sardo logudorese]], there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive. Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words, except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and a vocative.

There has also been a major [[Latin influence in English]]. Although [[English language|English]] is [[Germanic language|Germanic]] rather than Romanic in origin—[[Britannia]] was a [[Roman province]], but the Roman presence in Britain had effectively disappeared by the time of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasions—English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words, drawing from ecclesiastical usage and from Romance languages like French. In fact, after the [[Battle of Hastings]], the new King of England, [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]], spoke [[French language|French]], and French became the accepted language of the court and nobility, drastically changing the pre-invasion English language ([[old english language|Old English]]). However, [[English grammar]] is independent of [[Latin grammar]], though [[prescription and description|prescriptive grammarians]] in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules—such as the prohibition against the [[split infinitive]]—have not worked successfully in regular usage.

From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "[[inkhorn]]" or "inkpot" words, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. ''Imbibe'', ''extrapolate'', ''dormant'' and ''inebriation'' are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word ''etymology'' is derived from the Greek word ''etymologia'', meaning "true sense of the word". It is said that 80% of all scholarly English words are derived from Latin, in a large number of cases by way of French.

===Grammar===
{{main|Latin grammar}}

Latin is a [[Synthetic language|synthetic]] [[inflection]]al language: [[affix]]es (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed [[stem (linguistics)|stem]]s to express [[grammatical gender|gender]], number, and [[grammatical case|case]] in [[adjective]]s, [[noun]]s, and [[pronoun]]s, which is called [[declension]]; and [[grammatical person|person]], number, [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], and [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] in [[verb]]s, which is called [[Latin conjugation|conjugation]]. There are five declensions (''declinationes'') of nouns and four conjugations of verbs.

There are seven noun cases:

# [[Nominative case | Nominative]] (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative),
# [[Genitive case | Genitive]] (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English ''of'' or the addition of '''s'' to a noun),
# [[Dative case | Dative]] (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English ''to'' or ''for''. Common verbs used with this case include giving, showing, helping, trusting, and telling.)
# [[Accusative case | Accusative]] (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases),
# [[Ablative]] (separation, source, cause, or [[instrumental case|instrument]], often represented by the English ''by'', ''with'', ''from''),
# [[Vocative]] (used of the person or thing being addressed),
# [[Locative case ]] (used for certain words such as "house", "ground", and "countryside". The locative case also applies to city names such as "Rome", "Venice" or "Naples".)

Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin.

There are six general [[grammatical tense|tenses]] in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them. The subjunctive [[Grammatical mood|mood]], however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses. These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative. The following examples are of the first conjugation verb ''laudare'' ("to praise") in the indicative mood and the active [[grammatical voice|voice]]:

;Present system tenses
# [[Present tense | Present]] (''laudo'', "I praise," "I am praising")
# [[Imperfect tense | Imperfect]] (''laudabam'', "I was praising"; ''laudabat'', "he was praising")
# [[Future tense | Future]] (''laudabo'', "I shall praise," "I will praise")

;Perfect system tenses
# [[Perfect aspect | Perfect]] (''laudavi'', "I praised," "I have praised")
# [[Pluperfect tense | Pluperfect]] (''laudaveram'', "I had praised")
# [[Perfect aspect | Future perfect]] (''laudavero'', "I shall have praised," "I will have praised")

The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in "When I will have run...").

== Education ==
[[Image:Latin_dictionary.jpg|thumb|250px|A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the [[University Library of Graz]].]]

Although Latin was once the universal academic language in Europe, in recent years it has been supplanted by the study of many other languages; it is a requirement in relatively few places, and in some schools is not even offered. However, in Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools such as the ''[[Liceo Classico]]'' and ''[[Liceo Scientifico]]'', which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In ''Liceo Classico'', [[ancient Greek]] is also a compulsory subject. In France, Latin is found in the Lycée Classique, and in Germany, Austria and the Netherlands at the highest level of high schools called [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]. Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings—perhaps 25% of the total.[http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/] However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university. After the introduction of the Modern Language [[General Certificate of Secondary Education|GCSE]] in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.

The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the [[Living Latin]] movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] and the [[University of Kentucky]]. In [[Great_Britain|Britain]], the [[Classical Association]] encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called [[Minimus]]. In the [[United States]], there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the [[National Junior Classical League]] (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students.

Many would-be [[international auxiliary language]]s have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful [[Interlingua]] considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (''le latino moderne international e simplificate'').

Latin translations of modern literature such as [[Paddington Bear]], [[Winnie the Pooh]], [[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]], [[The Little Prince|Le Petit Prince]], [[Max and Moritz|Max und Moritz]], and [[The Cat in the Hat]] have also helped boost interest in the language.

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Latin grammar]]
** [[Ablative absolute]]
** [[Latin declension]]
** [[Latin conjugation]]
** [[Word order in Latin]]
* [[Latin spelling and pronunciation]]
* [[Latin alphabet]]
** [[ISO/IEC 8859-1|Latin-1]]
* [[Latin literature]]
* [[List of Latin phrases]]
* [[Greek and Latin roots]]
* [[List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names]]
* [[List of Latin words with English derivatives]]
** [[Latin verbs]] with English derivatives
** [[Latin nouns]] with English derivatives
* [[List of Latin place names in Europe]]
{{col-2}}
* [[Ancient Rome]]
* [[Brocard]]
* [[Carmen Possum]]
* [[Internationalism]]
* [[Loeb Classical Library]]
* [[Romance languages]]
* [[Simlish]]

* [[:Category:User la|List of Wikipedia users who speak Latin]]
{{col-end}}

{{latinperiods}}

== References ==
* Bennett, Charles E. ''Latin Grammar'' (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
* N. Vincent: "Latin", in ''The Romance Languages'', M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
* Waquet, Françoise, ''Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries'' (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
* Wheelock, Frederic. ''Latin: An Introduction'' (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=la}}
{{Wikibookspar||Latin}}
* [http://www.poetaexmachina.net/ Latin Poetry Text-to-Speech] Listen to a synthetic voice chant any poem in Latin. Non-emotive but accurate.
* [http://latinforum.org/ Latin forum] Board for Latin learners.
* [http://www.special-dictionary.com/latin/ Latin Phrases and Abbreviations] Large Collection of Latin phrases with search function. Special Dictionary.
* [http://latinquotes.net/ Latin quotes] Various topics.
* [http://latin-phrases.co.uk/dictionary/ Latin phrases dictionary] Alphabetical collection.
* [http://www.wheelockslatin.com/chapters/introduction/introduction.html Introduction to Latin Pronunciation] A page with spoken examples of pronunciation
* [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
* [http://ephemeris.alcuinus.net Ephemeris] International news in latin and much more.
* [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
* [http://www.alcuinus.net/GLL/index.htm Grex Latine Loquentium] mailing list IN Latin
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
* [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
* [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
* [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
* [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
* [http://avitus.alcuinus.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
* [http://www.mentalcode.com/latin Mentalcode Latin] - Interactive grammar and vocabulary exercises (free)
* [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/latin LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin (learnlatin.tk appears to be unavailable, the link directs to a mirror site)
* [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
* [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
* [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin–English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
* [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
* [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
* [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
* [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
* [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by [[Yleisradio|YLE]], the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
* [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&type=text&text=Replace%20Me&from=eng&to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
* [http://avitus.alcuinus.net/schola_latina/ Schola Latina Universalis] is a school where you can learn to speak Latin.
* [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old & New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English.

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Latin]]

[[Category:Italic natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]

High German

2009-06-12T16:02:04Z

Blackkdark: /* Word Order */

High German, or Hochdeutsch, (the stage is called '''New High German''') is the name of the standard form of Modern German. It is a [[West Germanic]] and is related to [[Low German]], [[Dutch]], and [[Anglo-Saxon]]/[[Modern English]]. Today it is the official language of Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Liechtenstein.

{{Language|
| English = High German
| native = HochDeutsch
| dialect english =
| country = Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein
| nativecountry = Deutschland, Schweiz, Österreich, Liechtenstein
| universe = Real world
| speakers = 105 million
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      [[German ]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1800-Present C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}

=Outline of the History of High German=
High German has 4 primary written stages, similar to [[English]]. The four stages are as follows:
* '''[[Old High German]]'''
* '''[[Middle High German]]'''
* '''[[Early New High German]]'''
* '''New High German'''

The last stage is the Modern German of today.

=Difference between High and [[Low German]]=
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where;
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

All of these stages occur in the Highest of High German dialects, but Standard High German does not have all of them. The shift of /k/>/kx/ in stage 2 did not occur in the standard, although it did in [[Upper German]] dialects, such as [[Bavarian|Southern Bavarian]]. Also the only part of stage 3 which actually became part of standard '''High German''' was /d/>/t/. The other two happened only in the '''Highest of High German''' or '''Upper German''' dialects

=Orthography=
High German is written with the Latin alphabet. It has extra letters which represent some of the sounds of the German language, which are not otherwise found in the [[Roman alphabet|Latin alphabet]]. These include '''Ö ö, Ü ü, Ä ä, ß'''.

=Phonology=
==Consonants==
 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || (ʒ) || || ç || {{IPA|x}} || || {{IPA|h}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || pf || || {{IPA|ʦ}} || || {{IPA|ʧ}} || (ʤ) || || || (kx)
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}

</div>

* The diagraph '''ch''' is /x/ after a back vowel, and /ç/ elsewhere.
* '''v''' and '''f''' are (usually) both pronounced /f/, and '''w''' is pronounced /v/.
* /ŋ/ occurs as '''ng''' and /ŋk/ is '''nk'''.
* '''sch''' is pronounced /ʃ/. '''tsch''' is pronounced /ʧ/.
* Initially '''s''' is pronounced /z/ before vowels, and /ʃ/ before a consonant (such as '''st''' and '''sp''').
* '''j''' is pronounced /j/.
* The spellings '''tz''' and '''z''' are pronounced /ʦ/.
* '''ß''' and '''ss''' are pronounced /s/.
* German has [[Final Devoicing|final devoicing]]. This means that all voiced consonants with voiceless forms become those voiceless forms, at the end of the word.

==Vowels==

 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - ɪ || yː - ʏ || || uː - ʊ
|-
| Mid || eː - ɛ || øː - œ || ə || oː - ɔ
|-
| Low || || || aː/a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax
|}

</div>

* In order to form the long version of a vowel, add '''-h''' after the vowel or in rare cases double the vowel, although that is more common in [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].
* Final '''e''' is pronounced /ə/.
* '''ü''' is pronounced /yː/, /ʏ/.
* '''ö''' is pronounced /øː/, /œ/.
* '''ä''' is pronounced /eː/, /ɛ/.

===Diphthongs===
*'''eu''' and '''äu''' are pronounced /ɔʏ/, /ɔɪ/.
*'''ei''' and '''ai''' are pronounced /aɪ/.
*'''au''' is pronounced /aʊ/.

=Grammar=
==The General Stuff==
===Gender and Number===
[[Noun]]s, [[Adjective]]s, [[Article]]s, and to some extent [[Pronoun]]s are all affected by [[Gender]] and [[Number]].
There are three genders and two numbers in High German. The three genders are [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]], and the numbers are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Usually all forms of the Plural are the same, when it comes to adjectives and articles.

===Case===
In German, there are four cases, [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]]. These affect articles, pronouns, adjectives, and nouns. The prepositions of German also affect whether an phrase is genitive, dative, or accusative.

==Articles==
There are [[definite articles]] and [[indefinite articles]] in German as well as in [[Modern English|English]]. Articles are affected by [[Case|case]], [[Gender|gender]], and [[Number|number]]. The plural is the same across the genders.

===Definite===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || der || die || das || die
|-
| '''Genitive''' || des || der || des || der
|-
| '''Dative''' || dem || der || dem || den
|-
| '''Accusative''' || den || die || das || die
|}

===Indefinite===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ein || eine || ein || meine†
|-
| '''Genitive''' || eines || einer || eines || meiner
|-
| '''Dative''' || einem || einer || einem || meinen
|-
| '''Accusative''' || einen || eine || ein || meine
|}
† There is no plural form of '''ein''', but there are other indefinite article-style words that do, such as '''mein''' which means '''my'''.

==Nouns==
Gender is arbitrary in German, but Nouns referring to living being usually are the gender of that being. The ending of a noun is usually helpful in figuring out which gender a noun is, although it is not always the case.

Also, the first letter all German nouns is always capitalized.

===Genders of Nouns===
* Masculine
** Nouns ending with '''-en''' are usually masculine (that are not derived from verbs). Ex. Der Garten, der Norden.
** Nouns ending '''-er''' are usually masculine. Ex. Der Lehrer, die Amerikaner
** Nouns ending with '''-ismus''' are masculine. Ex. Der Feminismus, Der Kommunismus,
* Feminine
** To convert masculine nouns ending to feminine, add '''-in''' to it. Ex. Die Lehrer'''in''', Die Freund'''in'''.
** Most nouns ending with '''-e'''. Ex. Die Frage, Die Straße,
** Nouns ending with '''-ion, -ik, -ie, -unft, -tät, -ei, -heit, -keit, -schaft,''' and '''-ung''' are almost always feminine. Ex. Die Logik, Die Magie, Die Universität, Die Vorlesung, Die Gesundheit, etc.
* Neuter
** Young living beings are Neuter. Ex. Das Kind, Das Lamm, Das Baby,
** The ending '''-chen''' and '''-lein''' are diminutives and are always neuter. Ex. Das Mädchen, Das Märchen. 
'''-lein''' is used more in the south than in the north, so it's less common in the standard form of German. 
** Metals and infinitive-nouns are always neuter. Ex. Das Gold, Das Metall, Das Singen, Das Essen,

===Forming the Plural===
The formation of the plural is different for many different nouns. The idea of the Umlaut is important in forming the plural as well.
*For monosyllabic words, the plural is usually for by adding '''-e''' in the masculine and feminine and '''-er''' in some neuter nouns.
*For Polysyllabic masculine and neuter nouns, many take no ending, but most others take '''-e''' as an ending.
*For most Polysyllabic feminine nouns that end with '''-e''', '''-er''' or '''-el''', the ending is '''-n''' or '''-en'''. If the ending is '''-in''' then the total ending is '''-innen'''.
*Foreign words (except those from Latin) and new words usually take the ending '''-s'''.

===Noun Declensions===
There are many different kinds of German Nouns. Here are a few fully declined ones: 
'''Masculine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Tag 'Day'
! Tage 'Days'
! Apfel 'Apple'
! Äpfel'Apples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Der Tag || Die Tage || Der Apfel || Die Äpfel
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Des Tag(e)s || Der Tage || Des Apfels || Der Äpfel
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dem Tag(e) || Den Tagen || Dem Apfel || Den Äpfeln
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den Tag || Die Tage || Den Apfel || Die Äpfel
|}
'''Feminine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hand 'Hand'
! Hände 'Hands'
! Freude 'Joy'
! Freuden 'Joys'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Der Hand || Der Hände || Der Freude || Der Freuden
|-
| '''Dative''' || Der Hand || Den Händen || Der Freude || Den Freuden
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden
|}
'''Neuter:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Schiff 'Ship'
! Schiffe 'Ships'
! Volk 'Folk, People'
! Völker 'Folks, Peoples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Volk || Die Völker
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Des Schiff(e)s || Der Schiffe || Des Volk(e)s || Der Völker
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dem Schiff(e) || Den Schiffen || Dem Volk(e) || Den Völkern
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Folk || Die Völker
|}

==Personal Pronouns==
'''First person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ich || wir
|-
| '''Genitive''' || meiner || uns(e)rer
|-
| '''Dative''' || mir || uns
|-
| '''Accusative''' || mich || uns
|}

'''Second person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular Informal
! Plural Informal
! Plural/Singular Formal
|-
| '''Nominative''' || du || ihr || Sie‡
|-
| '''Genitive''' || deiner || eu(e)rer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Dative''' || dir || euch || Ihnen
|-
| '''Accusative''' || dich || euch || Sie
|}
‡The formal plural pronoun '''Sie''' is the same form as the 3rd person plural pronoun '''sie''' but is also always capitalized.

'''Third person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Mascu. Sing.
! Fem. Sing.
! Neut. Sing.
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || er || sie || es || sie
|-
| '''Genitive''' || seiner || ihrer || seiner || ihrer
|-
| '''Dative''' || ihm || ihr || ihm || ihnen
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ihn || sie || es || sie
|}

==Possessive Pronouns==

'''Attributively-used''' they agree with the noun they refer to in case, number and gender. They stand always in front of the noun.

{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! 1st Sg.
! 2nd Sg.
! 3rd Sg. masc.
! 3rd Sg. fem.
! 3rd Sg. neut.
! 1st Pl.
! 2nd Pl.
! 3rd Pl.
! 2nd Formal
|-
| '''Nominative Sg. m./n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr
|-
| '''Nominative Sg. f''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|-
| '''Nominative Pl.''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|-
| '''Genitive Sg. m./n.''' || meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres
|-
| '''Genitive Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Genitive Pl. '''|| meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Dative Sg. m./n.''' || meinem || deinem || seinem || ihrem || seinem || unserem || eurem || ihrem || Ihrem
|-
| '''Dative Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Dative Pl. '''|| meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren
|-
| '''Accusative Sg. m.''' || meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren
|-
| '''Accusative Sg. f.''' || meine || deinen || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|-
| '''Accusative Sg. n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr
|-
| '''Accusative Pl. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|}

'''mein Haus''' - ''my house '' 
'''deiner Frau''' - ''of your wife, to your wife'' 
'''ihrem Buch''' - ''to her book ''

'''Predicatively-used''' they function as follows:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! 1st Sg.
! 2nd Sg.
! 3rd Sg. masc.
! 3rd Sg. fem.
! 3rd Sg. neut.
! 1st Pl.
! 2nd Pl.
! 3rd Pl.
! 2nd Formal
|-
| '''Masculine Sg.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer
|-
| '''Feminine Sg. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihrer || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|-
| '''Neuter Sg. '''|| meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres
|-
| '''Plural''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre
|}

'''Dieser Baum ist meiner.''' - ''This tree is mine.'' 
'''Seines ist es nicht.''' - ''This isn't his.''

==Adjectives and Adverbs==
===Adjectives===
German adjectives have different behaviours and patterns depending on whether there are articles or not, and whether those articles are definite or indefinite. Predicate adjectives take no endings.

'''Gut = Good'''
With Definite articles and demonstratives, so-called '''der'''-Words:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Der '''gute''' Hund|| Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot|| Die '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Des '''guten''' Hundes || Der '''guten''' Katze || Des '''guten''' Bootes || Der '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dem '''guten''' Hunde || Der '''guten''' Katze || Dem '''guten''' Boot || Den '''guten''' Völkern
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den '''guten''' Hund || Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot || Die '''guten''' Völker
|}
With the Indefinite articles and possessives, so-called '''ein'''-words:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ein '''guter''' Hund|| eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Genitive''' || eines '''guten''' Hundes || einer '''guten''' Katze || eines '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Dative''' || einem '''guten''' Hunde || einer '''guten''' Katze || einem '''guten''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern
|-
| '''Accusative''' || einen '''guten''' Hund || eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker
|}

Articles without articles of any form:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || '''guter''' Hund|| '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Genitive''' || '''guten''' Hundes || '''guter''' Katze || '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker
|-
| '''Dative''' || '''gutem''' Hunde || '''guter''' Katze || '''gutem''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern
|-
| '''Accusative''' || '''guten''' Hund || '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker
|}
===Adverbs===
In High German, the change from an adjective to an adverb does not require an ending, as it would in [[Modern English]] or [[French]]. The adverb form is usually the same as the nominative masculine form of the adjective.

The Word Order for Adverbs usually follows a pattern of the ordering of 1. Time, 2. Manner, and 3. Place. This means '''Gut''' in German can mean both '''well''' and '''good'''. There are other words which are strictly adverbs, such as '''sehr''', which means '''very'''.

==Prepositions==
Prepositions are classified by the cases that follow them. Some have the accusative case follow, some the dative, and some the genitive. However some take either accusative or dative, based on whether or not it is a there is motion involved.
===Accusative===
bis - until, as far as 
durch - through, by means of 
entlang - along, down 
für - for 
gegen - against, around 
ohne - without 
um - around 
===Dative===
aus - out of, from, made of, 
außer - at, 
bei - at, near, with, 
gegenüber von - opposite, across from, 
mit - with 
nach - to, after, according to, 
seit - since, for a period of time, 
von - from, of, by 
zu - to 

===Accusative and Dative===
an - on, to go to, 
auf - on, to, in, at 
hinter - behind, 
in - in, into, to, 
neben - next to, beside, 
über - over, above, across, 
unter - under, 
vor - in front of, before 
zwischen - between, 
===Genitive===
anstatt - instead of, 
statt - instead of, 
trotz - in spite of 
während - during 
wegen - because of, 
==Conjunctions==
There are different conjunctions which affect a sentence in different ways. [[Coordinating Conjunction]]s usually do not affect the word or of a German sentence, whereas [[Subordinating Conjunction]]s usually involve the transposed word order mentioned below.
===Coordinating Conjunctions===
aber - but 
denn - because, for 
oder - or 
sondern - but, rather, 
und - and 
===Subordinating Conjunctions===
als, wann, wenn - when 
bevor - before 
bis - until 
da - since, 
damit - so that, 
dass - that 
ob - whether, if 
obwohl - although 
seit - since 
während - while 
weil - because 
wenn - if 

==Verbs==
 Main Page: [[High German Verbs]] 
German Verbs have two major subdivisions, [[Strong]] and [[Weak]]. German verbs are conjugated according to 3 [[Person|persons]], 2 [[Number|numbers]], 2 inflecting [[Tense|tenses]], and 3 [[Mood|moods]], although German is rather intermediate when it comes to verbal inflection. The [[German Strong Verbs]] often have some patterns and classifications which are used for identifying them.

The [[infinitive]] of a verb is formed by adding '''-en''' to the end.

The [[imperative]] is formed, in the 2nd person singular informal by only the verb stem, the 2nd person plural informal is formed by adding '''-t''' to the stem. The 2nd personal formal is formed by adding '''-en''' to the stem and adding '''Sie''' afterwards. The "let's" or first person plural imperative is formed by adding '''-en''' and '''wir''' after words or, as in English, with the imperative of '''lassen''' and '''uns'''. Examples: Verb: Gehen - to go 
'''Geh nach Hause!''' 
'''Geht nach Hause!''' 
'''Gehen Sie nach Hause!''' 
Go home! 
'''Gehen wir nach Hause. / Lass uns nach Hause gehen. '''(speaking to one person)''' / Lasst uns nach Hause gehen.''' (speaking to several persons) - let's go home. 

===Modals===
There are a few verbs which are essential for German. These are called Modals or [[Modal Auxiliaries]]. There are 6 primary modals, and one which has a subjunctive form in common use. The latter would be '''Möchten''' which is the subjunctive of '''Mögen'''. The modal in the present tense is as follows:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="15" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''dürfen''' may, to be allowed|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''können''' can, to be able, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''müssen''' must, to have to, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''sollen''' should, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''mögen''' to like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''möchten''' would like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''wollen''' to want,
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen
|-
| '''2nd person''' || darfst || dürft || kannst || könnt || musst || müsst || sollst || sollt || magst || mögt || möchtest || möchtet || willst ||wollt
|-
| '''3rd person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen
|}

===Auxiliaries===
The most important auxiliaries are '''sein''' (to be), '''werden''' (to become, shall, will), and '''haben''' (to have). '''Sein''' and '''Haben''' are both used to form the [[Present Perfect]] tense, and '''Werden''' is used to form the [[Future]] tense.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Sein''' to be|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Haben''' to have ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Werden''' to become
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || bin || sind || habe || haben || werde || werden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || bist || seid || hast || habt || wirst || werdet
|-
| '''3rd person''' || ist || sind || hat || haben || wird || werden
|-
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Imperfect Tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || war|| waren || hatte || hatten || wurde || wurden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || warst|| wart || hattest|| hattet || wurdest || wurdet
|-
| '''3rd person''' || war || waren || hatte|| hatten || wurde || wurden
|-
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Perfect Form'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || bin gewesen || sind gewesen || habe gehabt || haben gehabt || bin geworden || sind geworden
|-
| '''2nd person''' || bist gewesen || seid gewesen || hast gehabt || habt gehabt || bist geworden || seid geworden
|-
| '''3rd person''' || ist gewesen || sind gewesen || hat gehabt || haben gehabt || ist geworden || sind geworden
|}

===Present Tense===
In the present tense, German verbs follow a common pattern. Quite a few verbs have change or umlaut the vowel in the second person informal singular and the third person singular. Verbs that end with an alveolar fricative or affricate have identical '''du'''-forms and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Verbs ending '''-d''' or '''-t''' insert an '''-e-''' in the '''du''', '''ihr''', and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Here are examples:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lerne || lernen || antworte || antworten || heiße || heißen || fahre || fahren
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lernst || lernt || antwortest || antwortet || heißt || heißt || fährst || fahrt
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lernt || lernen || antwortet || antworten || heißt || heißen || fährt || fahren
|}

===Perfect Tense===
The present perfect is used in High German in the same senses that English uses the [[Simple Past]] and the [[Perfect]] tenses. For weak verbs, in order to form the Present tense, first a form of '''haben''' (or '''sein''') must be used, and at the end of the clause comes the verb. For the verb, '''ge-''' must be attached to beginning of the stem and '''-t''' must be attached to the end. In many strong verbs, '''ge-''' is still often attached, but sometimes '''-en''' is the ending. Also many strong verbs involve a vowel stem change as well.

Most Verbs take '''haben''' as the auxiliary verb, but verbs of motion and select others take the verb '''sein''' as the auxiliary.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present Perfect Tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || habe gelernt || haben gelernt || habe geantwortet || haben geantwortet|| habe geheißen || haben geheißen || habe gefahren || haben gefahren
|-
| '''2nd person''' || hast gelernt || habt gelernt || hast geantwortet|| habt geantwortet|| hast geheißen || habt geheißen || hast gefahren || habt fahren
|-
| '''3rd person''' || hat gelernt || haben gelernt || hat geantwortet|| haben geantwortet|| hat geheißen|| haben geheißen || hat gefahren || haben gefahren
|}

===Imperfect===
The Imperfect tense in High German is used more as a written tense than as a spoken one, although a few key words are used more often in speech as well, such as the Modals and Auxiliaries. The Imperfect tense is used to describe something that happened a while in the past. It differs greatly from the Romance and Slavic Language idea of Imperfect. It is used in telling stories of things that happened a long time ago.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Imperfect tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || hieß || hießen || fuhr || fuhren
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lerntest || lerntet || antwortetest || antwortetet || hießest || hießt || fuhrst || fuhrt
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || hieß || hießen || fuhr || fuhren
|}

==Word Order==
German word order is fairly unique and has particular features with which a learner must become acquainted. The normal order is SVO, and occasional OVS, because German has a structure know as V2 or 2nd Position Verb rule, as described here:
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|"...I find German to be the strangest in the area of syntax. German has several interesting word order issues. Now a simple German sentence can be SVO. But German, as well as most other Germanic language such as Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, and Dutch, follow what I call the 2nd Position Verb rule. This states that no matter where the objects and subjects move, the conjugated verb or Finite verb stays in the second position. So this means that SVO or OVS are very common. Here is an example, You can say in German: 
'''Ich sehe den Himmel.''' (I see the sky.) or 
'''Den Himmel sehe ich.''' (The sky see I.) 
We can see how the verb stays when the other elements move. Now for questions it is acceptable to have a verb in the first position, using a standard inverted word order. However for many statements the verb second ideal needs to stay in place." [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546]
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''
|}

However, German and [[Dutch]] both have a unique trait in having something called Transposed or Dependent Clause word order. This type of word order only occurs inside dependent clauses, and what happens is that the inflected or [[finite]] verb is sent to the end. It is described as this:
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|"Now the pattern that Dutch and German have, but is not really shared with the other Germanic languages, is the movement of the conjugated verb to the end of a dependent clause. This might seem strange at first, but one must learn to notice it. An example would be: 
'''Der Mann, den ich gestern sah, ist gegangen.''' 
('''The man, whom I yesterday saw, left.''') 
Instead of; '''The man, whom I saw yesterday, left.'''" [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] 
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''
|}
Another interesting feature is the movement of the [[Infinitive]]s and [[Past Participle]]s to the end of the sentence. This is a trait that written German got from Latin, and then it became common in spoken German as well. It also leads to idioms such as '''Ich kann Deutsch.''' (Lit. '''I can German''', but means, '''I can speak German''') which comes from the expression '''Ich kann Deutsch sprechen.''' In the cases of Transposed word order, the inverted verb goes after the infinitives and participles.

=Sources and External Links=
<references />

[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546 An Introduction to Basic Word Order] by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]

Stern, Guy, and Everett Bleiler. Essential German Grammar. Mineola, New York. Dover Publications inc, 1961.

Dippmann, Gerda, and Johanna Watzinger-Tharp. A Practical review of German Grammar. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall inc. 2000.

Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

=Translations=

[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]

User talk:Blackkdark

2009-06-12T16:01:08Z

Blackkdark: -

Thank you for creating the page about Anglo-Saxon and linking it to my conlang's page. Your involvement is appreciated.

--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 08:59, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

Again, thanks for the links on my (New) West Germanic page. Feel free to keep adding them where you've created relevant articles. I take it for granted that people are familiar with Germanic languages and it's nice for someone reading my grammar to be able to click on something for further explanation.

Hey, I just wanted to say that in the [[New High German]] article you wrote: 
'''Der Mann, den ich gestern sah, ist gelassen. 
'''(The man, whom I yesterday saw, left.) 
'''Instead of; The man, whom I saw yesterday, left. 

<Gelassen sein> means something like "to be cool, unhurried, calm". I think you mean <ist gegangen> instead of that. I don't want to change it as it seems to be a quote from your site, but notice that it is kind of wrong. =)

* I think I was going for past tense Lassen "to leave" and using sein since that's used with verbs of motion. I do see your point and will correct it. The source material isn't that important, but was written years ago. Thanks.--[[User:Blackkdark|Blackkdark]] 16:01, 12 June 2009 (UTC)

Anglo-Saxon

2009-06-03T17:49:49Z

Blackkdark: /* Articles */

Anglo-Saxon or Old English (OE '''Englisc''') is the ancestor of [[Modern English]]. It is a West Germanic Language and like Dutch and Low Saxon (Low German) it did not go through the [[High German Consonant Shift]].

{{Language|
| English = Anglo-Saxon
| native = Englisc
| dialect english =
| country = Anglo-Land (England)
| nativecountry = Angelcynn
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      Anglo-Frisian        Anglic
| wordorder = Unimportant/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 400-1066 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}

=Stages=
English has had 4 primary stages:
* '''Anglo-Saxon''' also known as '''Old English'''
* '''[[Middle English]]'''
* '''[[Early Modern English]]'''
* '''[[Modern English]]'''

The separation of '''Anglo-Saxon''' from '''Middle English''' is marked by [[The Battle of Hastings]] in 1066. The separation of '''Middle English''' and the '''Modern English''' stages is the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

Modern English words have many different origins, but a majority come from [[Anglo-Saxon]], [[Old French|Old Norman French]], and a little [[Old Norse]]. However in the global world today, many words from many other languages have entered the English language.

=The People, Dialects, and Literature=
The story was that the British leader Vortigern invited the Saxons to Britain to help fight off the Picts and Scots. A large migration of Saxons, Frisians, Franks, Jutes and Angles later moved from modern Northern Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands to England. The next few centuries they expanded westward constantly and gained more land. The Anglo-Saxons then fought with the Romano-British people already living there until they owned most of Modern England.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Danish Vikings invaded the Northern parts of England. The [[Old Norse]] influence can still be seen today including things such as the pronoun '''they'''.

The Dialects were split into 4 major ones: Northumbrian, Midlands, Kentish, and West Saxon. The majority of the texts we have are from the West Saxon region.

The most well known text in Anglo-Saxon is that of the Heroic Epic, [[Beowulf]]. Old English literature is known for alliteration. There are many Anglo-Saxon riddles, religious documents, heroic tales, and poems. A chronicle known as the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] was a chronicle of the events of the Kingdom, and was likely started in the 10th century and was continually updated into the 12th, although there are differences in the key Chronicle documents.

There is no standard spelling in Anglo-Saxon, so many words had more than one spelling.

=Orthography and Phonology=
==Runic==
[[Image:Anglo-saxon runes.gif|thumb|right|Anglo-Saxon Runic alphabet]]
Early forms of Anglo-Saxon writing was in [[Runic]]. It was an expansion of the original 24 rune Fuþark, and had become Fuþorc. Because the language had shifted to include new sounds, the alphabet itself shifted and included several new letters that had not been in the Elder Fuþark. However they did not develop the one Staff system similar to the runic designs in Norway, Sweden and Denmark.

When the Latin Alphabet was introduced, Anglo-Saxon added two symbols to the Latin alphabet from Runic, those would be "þ" /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/ and "Ƿ" /[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]/ from runic, called Thorn and Wynn respectively.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Inter-dental||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || || || ŋ
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || p || b || || || || || t || d || || || || || k || g ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || f || v || θ || ð || s || z || ʃ || (ʒ) || || ç || x || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || (ʦ) || (ʣ) || ʧ || ʤ || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants & glides || ʍ || w || || || || || || || || || || j
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || ̥r || r || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || ̥l || l/ɫ
|}

</div>
[[Image:Wynn.png|right|thumb|100px|'''Ƿƿ''' ''wynn'', Old English '''[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]''', which is missing in many Unicode fonts.]]
* Placing '''h-''' before '''r''', '''l''', or '''w'''/'''ƿ''' yields the voiceless form of each sound /̥r ̥l ʍ/.
* When '''c''', '''g''' or '''sc''' are next to a front vowel (most often '''i''' but '''e''' and '''y''' can affect it sometimes too) they become /ʧ j ʃ/ respectively. This is how words like '''gear''' became '''year'''. '''-g''' is often not pronounced or becomes part of a diphtong, such as '''dæg''' /daj/. When it ends with '''-ig''' it has a pronunciation of /-i/, dropping the '''g''' altogether. From this, [[Modern English]] gets the '''-y''' ending (like '''halig''' > '''holy''', '''sceadwig''' > '''shady''', '''manig''' > '''many''')
* The diagraph '''cg''' is pronounced /ʤ/.
* '''þ''' and '''ð''' is pronounced /θ/ except in the case below.
* Fricatives, particularly '''f, þ/ð, s''' are voiceless most of the time /f θ s/, and are voiced intevocalically or adjacent to voiced consonants as /v ð z/. This is why '''v''' and '''f''' were not in Old English.
* '''h''' is pronounaced /ç/ after front vowels and /x/ after back vowels.
* The sound /w/ is often spelt with the letter '''Ƿ'''/'''ƿ''' (wynn). From the Runic Alphabet.

===Vowels===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - i || yː - y || || uː - u
|-
| Mid || eː - e || || ə || oː - o
|-
| Low || æ || || aː/a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax
|}

</div>

* With a macron the vowel becomes long.
*'''ī''', '''ȳ''', '''ē''', '''ǣ''', '''ā''', '''ō''', and '''ū''' are pronounced /iː yː eː æː aː oː uː/ respectively.
* Without a macron the vowels are short.
* '''i''', '''y''', '''e''', '''æ''', '''a''', '''o''', and '''u''' are pronounced /i y e æ a o u/ respectively.
* '''e''' at the end of a word, and unstressed often becomes /ə/.

=Grammar=
==Nouns==
 Main Article: [[Anglo-Saxon Nouns]] 
===Gender and Number===
There are there Genders in Old English: [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]]. These are the same genders in [[Latin]], as well as modern [[Russian]] and [[High German|German]]. Like most languages which have genders, Nouns which reflect living things are usually indicated in the [[Gender]] of the noun, but a majority is completely random.

The two numbers of Anglo-Saxon are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Pronouns have the Dual number as well.

===Cases===
Unlike [[Modern English]], Anglo-Saxon was filled with noun inflections denoting the case of the noun. The only one that survived through the [[Middle English]] era was the '''-'s''' ending denoting the original Genitive case. The cases were [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]].

===Strong and Weak===
Like with Verbs, Anglo-Saxon had many nouns which changed their stems, both in the plural and sometimes during some of the cases of the singular. These are the reasons for irregular nouns in [[Modern English]] with stem changes, such as Man-Men (AS Mann-Menn in Nom.). This is often how Anglo-Saxon nouns are categorized.

===Example charts===
'''Masculine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Dæg¹ 'Day'
! Dagas 'Days'
! Stān 'Stone'
! Stānas 'Stones'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|-
| '''Genitive''' || dæges || daga || stānes || stāna
|-
| '''Dative''' || dæge || dagum || stāne || stānum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|}
¹'''Dæg''' was pronounced much like the word '''Die''' in [[Modern English]], or the Australian/Cockney pronunciation of '''"Day."'''
* Note that both Nouns here are Strong 

'''Feminine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hond² 'Hand'
! Honda 'Hands'
! Ƿynn³ 'Joy'
! Ƿynna 'Joys'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hond || hondu || Ƿynn || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Genitive''' || honda || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Dative''' || honda || hondum || Ƿynne || Ƿynnum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hond || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|}
²'''Hond''' could also be spelt/pronounced '''Hand'''. 
³'''Ƿ''' could also be spelt '''W''', so '''Ƿynn''' could easily be '''Wynn'''. 
* Note the '''Hond''' is strong ja-stemmed and '''Wynn''' is regular strong.

'''Neuter:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Scip⁴ 'Ship'
! Scipu 'Ships'
! Dēor⁵ 'Animal'
! Dēor 'Animals'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|-
| '''Genitive''' || scipes || scipa || dēores || dēora
|-
| '''Dative''' || scipe || scipum || dēore || dēorum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|}

⁴'''Scip''' is pronounced the same way as the modern equivalent, '''Ship'''. 
⁵'''Dēor''', related to the German word '''Tier''' (animal), slowly became used for game animals, and later becomes '''Deer''' in Modern English. 
* Note that both nouns are strong here.

==Articles==
During the earlier ages of the Anglo-Saxon language, there were no articles. Later, especially after the Viking invasion and towards the end of the Anglo-Saxon era, articles were developed. They too declined by case and number, and included the [[Instrumental]] case, which was the same as Dative Nouns. This also includes the meaning of '''that''' in the demonstrative sense. Here are the articles:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || sē || sēo || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Genitive''' || ðæs || ðǣre || ðæs || ðāra, ðǣra
|-
| '''Dative''' || ðǣm || ðǣre || ðǣm || ðǣm, ðām
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ðone|| ðā || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || ðē, ðon || ðǣre || ðē, ðon || ðǣm, ðām
|}

==Personal Pronouns==
Personal pronouns in Anglo-Saxon are quite different than Modern English. They too are declined according to the four major cases, but also have an extra number illustration when there 2, [[Dual]]. With the dual, the verbs take the plural endings, and it only applies to the first and second person pronouns. Here are the Charts for the Pronouns: 
'''First person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ic, ih || Ƿit, wit || Ƿē, wē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || mīn || uncer || ūre
|-
| '''Dative''' || mē || unc || ūs
|-
| '''Accusative''' || mē|| unc || ūs
|}

'''Second person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || þū || git || gē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || þīn || incer || ēoǷer, ēower
|-
| '''Dative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|-
| '''Accusative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|}

'''Third person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Mascu. Sing.
! Fem. Sing.
! Neut. Sing.
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hē || hēo || hit || hīe
|-
| '''Genitive''' || his || hiere || his || hiera
|-
| '''Dative''' || him || hiere || him || him, heom
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hine || hīe || hit || hīe
|}

==Adjectives==
Adjectives also decline by gender, number, and case. Because one adjective has to cover all three genders, two numbers, and four (five with the Strong) cases, there are more adjective forms than there are any other part of speech, with the possible exception of the verb. They too have Strong and Weak forms and can have root vowel stems which are umlauted. The plurals of the Weak forms are uniform across genders, but not in the Strong forms. The same adjective could be Weak or Strong depending on context and the noun.

===Examples===
'''Gōd = Good''' 
'''Weak''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōda || gōde || gōde || gōdan
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdena
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōde || gōdan
|}

'''Strong''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Pl. Masc.
! Pl. Fem.
! Pl. Neut.
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōd || gōd || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdes || gōdre || gōdes || gōdra || gōdra || gōdra
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdum || gōdre || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdne || gōde || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || gōde || gōdre || gōde || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|}

==Prepositions and Conjunctions==
Here is a list of Prepositions and Conjuctions.
===Prepositions===
æt - (dat.) at, from, (acc.) until, to 
tō - (dat.) to, towards, at, 
wið, wiþ - against, 
æfter - (dat.) after, 
on - (dat.) in, on, (acc.) into, onto 
mid - (dat.) with, 
of - (dat.) of, from, 
be - (dat. and acc.) by, near, along, about, 
beforan - (dat. and acc.) before, ahead of 
fram - (dat.) from, by, 
ofer - (dat.) over, upon (acc.) over to, across, 
þurh - (acc.) through 
under - (dat.) under (acc.) under, 
ymbe - (acc.) near, by, about, 
in - (dat.) in, (acc.) into, 
būtan - (dat. or acc.) outside, except, without, 
betweox - (dat. or acc.) between, among, 
binnan - (dat.) within, (acc.) to within, 
oð - (acc.) up to, until, 
geond - (acc.) through, throughout, 
bufan (dat.) above, (acc.) upwards, 
innan - (dat.) within (acc.) into, 

===Conjunctions===
æfter - after, 
ǣr - before 
gif - if, 
hwæðer, hwæþer - whether 
þā, ðā - when, 
hwīle - while, 
swā - as, such, (this word has a phonetic/semantic cognate in [[Old Norse]], sva.) 
swelce - as if, 
þæt, ðæt - that, so that, 
þǣr, ðǣr - where, 
þēah, ðēah - though, 
siððan, siþþan - since, after, (this one is also in [[Old Norse]] and [[Middle English]] such as the first line in [[Sir Gawayn and the Grene Knyght]].) 

==Verbs==
 Main Page: [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] 
===Verbal Comparison, Patterns, and General Overview===
Like nouns and adjectives, Verbs have [[Strong]] and [[Weak]] forms. The Strong forms usually involve vowel shifts in the stem, even in the present tense. It is also inflected based on [[person]], [[number]], [[tense]], and [[mood]].

It is known for having -st in the second person, which was used for '''thou''' in the [[Middle English]] era. It is also used in [[High German|German]] for the '''du''' form, which is the cognate to '''þū''' and '''thou''' (which is also a cognate to [[Latin]] '''tu'''). [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] are known for the signature -ð/-þ ending in the 3rd person singular, which was also used into the [[Early Modern English]] era, which [[Shakespeare]] is apart of, examples from that era include the words: hath, goeth, doth, knoweth, etc.

The infinitive ending is commonly '''-an''' or '''-en''', which is similar to the modern [[High German|German]] '''-en''' infinitive ending. Also the orthographic cognate '''ge-''' is used in both German and Anglo-Saxon to represent the past tense, even if they are not pronounced the same way, and in Standard [[High German]], the prefix is required, whereas the Anglo-Saxon one is more optional. The [[Weak]] past tense marker inserts '''-ed-''', whereas the [[Strong]] past tense usually involves a vowel change.

Although Anglo-Saxon did have the Subjunctive and Imperative, the examples shall be focused on the Present and Past tenses.

==='''Weak Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lufian''' to love || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Fremman''' to do
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufie || lufiað || fremme || fremmað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufast || lufiað || fremest || fremmað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufað || lufiað || fremeð || fremmað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufodest || lufodon || fremedest || fremedon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|}

==='''Strong Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Singan''' to sing || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Niman''' to take
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || singe || singað || nime || nimað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || singest || singað || nimest || nimað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || singeð || singað || nimeð || nimað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || sang || sungon || nam || nāmon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || sunge || sungon || nāme || nāmon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || sang || sungon || nam|| nāmon
|}

==='''The Verb Bēon and Wesan '''===
There are two forms of the verb [[to be]] in Anglo-Saxon. They both share the same past tense, rooted in '''wesan'''. The verb form '''wesan''' was preserved in the past tense, in the form of '''was''' and '''were'''.

These verb forms were also preserved into the [[Middle English]] era, in an [[Epic]] called [[Brut]]: 
"Al swa muchel thu bist woruh, swa thu velden ært." 
(All as much thou art worth, as thou kind art) 
You are worth as much as you are kind. 

{|class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Bēon''' to be || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Wesan''' to be
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || bēo || bēoð || eom|| sind, sindon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || bist || bēoð || eart || sind, sindon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || bið || bēoð || is || sind, sindon
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense''' (for both)
|-
| || colspan="2"| sing. ||colspan="2"| pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || colspan="2"| wæs ||colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''2nd person''' || colspan="2"| wǣre || colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''3rd person''' || colspan="2"| wæs || colspan="2"|wǣron
|}

=Texts=
There are many primary texts in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous of which would be [[Beowulf]]. Other text's include, ''The Wife's Lament'', ''The Wanderer'', ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', ''Judith'', ''Cædmon's Hymn'', just to name a few.

=Sources and External Links=
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/runic.htm#futhorc

http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html

http://members.tripod.com/babaev/archive/grammar43.html

http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/index.htm

http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html

Finegan, Edward. "English." The World’s Major Languages. Ed. Bernard Comrie. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1990

Atherton, Mark. Teach Yourself Old English. Coventry, England, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.: 2006.

Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

=Translations=
Faind [[Anggloo-Saksyn|dhys peedx]] in [[Tawyr Oorthaagryfii]].

[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]

Anglo-Saxon

2009-06-03T17:48:47Z

Blackkdark: /* Example charts */

Anglo-Saxon or Old English (OE '''Englisc''') is the ancestor of [[Modern English]]. It is a West Germanic Language and like Dutch and Low Saxon (Low German) it did not go through the [[High German Consonant Shift]].

{{Language|
| English = Anglo-Saxon
| native = Englisc
| dialect english =
| country = Anglo-Land (England)
| nativecountry = Angelcynn
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      Anglo-Frisian        Anglic
| wordorder = Unimportant/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 400-1066 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}

=Stages=
English has had 4 primary stages:
* '''Anglo-Saxon''' also known as '''Old English'''
* '''[[Middle English]]'''
* '''[[Early Modern English]]'''
* '''[[Modern English]]'''

The separation of '''Anglo-Saxon''' from '''Middle English''' is marked by [[The Battle of Hastings]] in 1066. The separation of '''Middle English''' and the '''Modern English''' stages is the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

Modern English words have many different origins, but a majority come from [[Anglo-Saxon]], [[Old French|Old Norman French]], and a little [[Old Norse]]. However in the global world today, many words from many other languages have entered the English language.

=The People, Dialects, and Literature=
The story was that the British leader Vortigern invited the Saxons to Britain to help fight off the Picts and Scots. A large migration of Saxons, Frisians, Franks, Jutes and Angles later moved from modern Northern Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands to England. The next few centuries they expanded westward constantly and gained more land. The Anglo-Saxons then fought with the Romano-British people already living there until they owned most of Modern England.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Danish Vikings invaded the Northern parts of England. The [[Old Norse]] influence can still be seen today including things such as the pronoun '''they'''.

The Dialects were split into 4 major ones: Northumbrian, Midlands, Kentish, and West Saxon. The majority of the texts we have are from the West Saxon region.

The most well known text in Anglo-Saxon is that of the Heroic Epic, [[Beowulf]]. Old English literature is known for alliteration. There are many Anglo-Saxon riddles, religious documents, heroic tales, and poems. A chronicle known as the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] was a chronicle of the events of the Kingdom, and was likely started in the 10th century and was continually updated into the 12th, although there are differences in the key Chronicle documents.

There is no standard spelling in Anglo-Saxon, so many words had more than one spelling.

=Orthography and Phonology=
==Runic==
[[Image:Anglo-saxon runes.gif|thumb|right|Anglo-Saxon Runic alphabet]]
Early forms of Anglo-Saxon writing was in [[Runic]]. It was an expansion of the original 24 rune Fuþark, and had become Fuþorc. Because the language had shifted to include new sounds, the alphabet itself shifted and included several new letters that had not been in the Elder Fuþark. However they did not develop the one Staff system similar to the runic designs in Norway, Sweden and Denmark.

When the Latin Alphabet was introduced, Anglo-Saxon added two symbols to the Latin alphabet from Runic, those would be "þ" /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/ and "Ƿ" /[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]/ from runic, called Thorn and Wynn respectively.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Inter-dental||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || || || ŋ
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || p || b || || || || || t || d || || || || || k || g ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || f || v || θ || ð || s || z || ʃ || (ʒ) || || ç || x || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || (ʦ) || (ʣ) || ʧ || ʤ || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants & glides || ʍ || w || || || || || || || || || || j
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || ̥r || r || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || ̥l || l/ɫ
|}

</div>
[[Image:Wynn.png|right|thumb|100px|'''Ƿƿ''' ''wynn'', Old English '''[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]''', which is missing in many Unicode fonts.]]
* Placing '''h-''' before '''r''', '''l''', or '''w'''/'''ƿ''' yields the voiceless form of each sound /̥r ̥l ʍ/.
* When '''c''', '''g''' or '''sc''' are next to a front vowel (most often '''i''' but '''e''' and '''y''' can affect it sometimes too) they become /ʧ j ʃ/ respectively. This is how words like '''gear''' became '''year'''. '''-g''' is often not pronounced or becomes part of a diphtong, such as '''dæg''' /daj/. When it ends with '''-ig''' it has a pronunciation of /-i/, dropping the '''g''' altogether. From this, [[Modern English]] gets the '''-y''' ending (like '''halig''' > '''holy''', '''sceadwig''' > '''shady''', '''manig''' > '''many''')
* The diagraph '''cg''' is pronounced /ʤ/.
* '''þ''' and '''ð''' is pronounced /θ/ except in the case below.
* Fricatives, particularly '''f, þ/ð, s''' are voiceless most of the time /f θ s/, and are voiced intevocalically or adjacent to voiced consonants as /v ð z/. This is why '''v''' and '''f''' were not in Old English.
* '''h''' is pronounaced /ç/ after front vowels and /x/ after back vowels.
* The sound /w/ is often spelt with the letter '''Ƿ'''/'''ƿ''' (wynn). From the Runic Alphabet.

===Vowels===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - i || yː - y || || uː - u
|-
| Mid || eː - e || || ə || oː - o
|-
| Low || æ || || aː/a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax
|}

</div>

* With a macron the vowel becomes long.
*'''ī''', '''ȳ''', '''ē''', '''ǣ''', '''ā''', '''ō''', and '''ū''' are pronounced /iː yː eː æː aː oː uː/ respectively.
* Without a macron the vowels are short.
* '''i''', '''y''', '''e''', '''æ''', '''a''', '''o''', and '''u''' are pronounced /i y e æ a o u/ respectively.
* '''e''' at the end of a word, and unstressed often becomes /ə/.

=Grammar=
==Nouns==
 Main Article: [[Anglo-Saxon Nouns]] 
===Gender and Number===
There are there Genders in Old English: [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]]. These are the same genders in [[Latin]], as well as modern [[Russian]] and [[High German|German]]. Like most languages which have genders, Nouns which reflect living things are usually indicated in the [[Gender]] of the noun, but a majority is completely random.

The two numbers of Anglo-Saxon are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Pronouns have the Dual number as well.

===Cases===
Unlike [[Modern English]], Anglo-Saxon was filled with noun inflections denoting the case of the noun. The only one that survived through the [[Middle English]] era was the '''-'s''' ending denoting the original Genitive case. The cases were [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]].

===Strong and Weak===
Like with Verbs, Anglo-Saxon had many nouns which changed their stems, both in the plural and sometimes during some of the cases of the singular. These are the reasons for irregular nouns in [[Modern English]] with stem changes, such as Man-Men (AS Mann-Menn in Nom.). This is often how Anglo-Saxon nouns are categorized.

===Example charts===
'''Masculine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Dæg¹ 'Day'
! Dagas 'Days'
! Stān 'Stone'
! Stānas 'Stones'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|-
| '''Genitive''' || dæges || daga || stānes || stāna
|-
| '''Dative''' || dæge || dagum || stāne || stānum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|}
¹'''Dæg''' was pronounced much like the word '''Die''' in [[Modern English]], or the Australian/Cockney pronunciation of '''"Day."'''
* Note that both Nouns here are Strong 

'''Feminine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hond² 'Hand'
! Honda 'Hands'
! Ƿynn³ 'Joy'
! Ƿynna 'Joys'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hond || hondu || Ƿynn || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Genitive''' || honda || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Dative''' || honda || hondum || Ƿynne || Ƿynnum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hond || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|}
²'''Hond''' could also be spelt/pronounced '''Hand'''. 
³'''Ƿ''' could also be spelt '''W''', so '''Ƿynn''' could easily be '''Wynn'''. 
* Note the '''Hond''' is strong ja-stemmed and '''Wynn''' is regular strong.

'''Neuter:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Scip⁴ 'Ship'
! Scipu 'Ships'
! Dēor⁵ 'Animal'
! Dēor 'Animals'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|-
| '''Genitive''' || scipes || scipa || dēores || dēora
|-
| '''Dative''' || scipe || scipum || dēore || dēorum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|}

⁴'''Scip''' is pronounced the same way as the modern equivalent, '''Ship'''. 
⁵'''Dēor''', related to the German word '''Tier''' (animal), slowly became used for game animals, and later becomes '''Deer''' in Modern English. 
* Note that both nouns are strong here.

==Articles==
During the earlier ages of the Anglo-Saxon language, there were no articles. Later, especially after the Viking invasion and towards the end of the Anglo-Saxon era, articles were developed. They too declined by case and number, and included the [[Instrumental]] case, which was the same as Dative Nouns. This also includes the meaning of '''that''' in the demonstrative sense. Here are the articles:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || se || sēo || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Genitive''' || ðæs || ðǣre || ðæs || ðāra, ðǣra
|-
| '''Dative''' || ðǣm || ðǣre || ðǣm || ðǣm, ðām
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ðone|| ðā || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || ðē, ðon || ðǣre || ðē, ðon || ðǣm, ðām
|}

==Personal Pronouns==
Personal pronouns in Anglo-Saxon are quite different than Modern English. They too are declined according to the four major cases, but also have an extra number illustration when there 2, [[Dual]]. With the dual, the verbs take the plural endings, and it only applies to the first and second person pronouns. Here are the Charts for the Pronouns: 
'''First person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ic, ih || Ƿit, wit || Ƿē, wē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || mīn || uncer || ūre
|-
| '''Dative''' || mē || unc || ūs
|-
| '''Accusative''' || mē|| unc || ūs
|}

'''Second person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || þū || git || gē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || þīn || incer || ēoǷer, ēower
|-
| '''Dative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|-
| '''Accusative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|}

'''Third person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Mascu. Sing.
! Fem. Sing.
! Neut. Sing.
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hē || hēo || hit || hīe
|-
| '''Genitive''' || his || hiere || his || hiera
|-
| '''Dative''' || him || hiere || him || him, heom
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hine || hīe || hit || hīe
|}

==Adjectives==
Adjectives also decline by gender, number, and case. Because one adjective has to cover all three genders, two numbers, and four (five with the Strong) cases, there are more adjective forms than there are any other part of speech, with the possible exception of the verb. They too have Strong and Weak forms and can have root vowel stems which are umlauted. The plurals of the Weak forms are uniform across genders, but not in the Strong forms. The same adjective could be Weak or Strong depending on context and the noun.

===Examples===
'''Gōd = Good''' 
'''Weak''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōda || gōde || gōde || gōdan
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdena
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōde || gōdan
|}

'''Strong''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Pl. Masc.
! Pl. Fem.
! Pl. Neut.
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōd || gōd || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdes || gōdre || gōdes || gōdra || gōdra || gōdra
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdum || gōdre || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdne || gōde || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || gōde || gōdre || gōde || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|}

==Prepositions and Conjunctions==
Here is a list of Prepositions and Conjuctions.
===Prepositions===
æt - (dat.) at, from, (acc.) until, to 
tō - (dat.) to, towards, at, 
wið, wiþ - against, 
æfter - (dat.) after, 
on - (dat.) in, on, (acc.) into, onto 
mid - (dat.) with, 
of - (dat.) of, from, 
be - (dat. and acc.) by, near, along, about, 
beforan - (dat. and acc.) before, ahead of 
fram - (dat.) from, by, 
ofer - (dat.) over, upon (acc.) over to, across, 
þurh - (acc.) through 
under - (dat.) under (acc.) under, 
ymbe - (acc.) near, by, about, 
in - (dat.) in, (acc.) into, 
būtan - (dat. or acc.) outside, except, without, 
betweox - (dat. or acc.) between, among, 
binnan - (dat.) within, (acc.) to within, 
oð - (acc.) up to, until, 
geond - (acc.) through, throughout, 
bufan (dat.) above, (acc.) upwards, 
innan - (dat.) within (acc.) into, 

===Conjunctions===
æfter - after, 
ǣr - before 
gif - if, 
hwæðer, hwæþer - whether 
þā, ðā - when, 
hwīle - while, 
swā - as, such, (this word has a phonetic/semantic cognate in [[Old Norse]], sva.) 
swelce - as if, 
þæt, ðæt - that, so that, 
þǣr, ðǣr - where, 
þēah, ðēah - though, 
siððan, siþþan - since, after, (this one is also in [[Old Norse]] and [[Middle English]] such as the first line in [[Sir Gawayn and the Grene Knyght]].) 

==Verbs==
 Main Page: [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] 
===Verbal Comparison, Patterns, and General Overview===
Like nouns and adjectives, Verbs have [[Strong]] and [[Weak]] forms. The Strong forms usually involve vowel shifts in the stem, even in the present tense. It is also inflected based on [[person]], [[number]], [[tense]], and [[mood]].

It is known for having -st in the second person, which was used for '''thou''' in the [[Middle English]] era. It is also used in [[High German|German]] for the '''du''' form, which is the cognate to '''þū''' and '''thou''' (which is also a cognate to [[Latin]] '''tu'''). [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] are known for the signature -ð/-þ ending in the 3rd person singular, which was also used into the [[Early Modern English]] era, which [[Shakespeare]] is apart of, examples from that era include the words: hath, goeth, doth, knoweth, etc.

The infinitive ending is commonly '''-an''' or '''-en''', which is similar to the modern [[High German|German]] '''-en''' infinitive ending. Also the orthographic cognate '''ge-''' is used in both German and Anglo-Saxon to represent the past tense, even if they are not pronounced the same way, and in Standard [[High German]], the prefix is required, whereas the Anglo-Saxon one is more optional. The [[Weak]] past tense marker inserts '''-ed-''', whereas the [[Strong]] past tense usually involves a vowel change.

Although Anglo-Saxon did have the Subjunctive and Imperative, the examples shall be focused on the Present and Past tenses.

==='''Weak Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lufian''' to love || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Fremman''' to do
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufie || lufiað || fremme || fremmað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufast || lufiað || fremest || fremmað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufað || lufiað || fremeð || fremmað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufodest || lufodon || fremedest || fremedon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|}

==='''Strong Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Singan''' to sing || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Niman''' to take
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || singe || singað || nime || nimað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || singest || singað || nimest || nimað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || singeð || singað || nimeð || nimað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || sang || sungon || nam || nāmon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || sunge || sungon || nāme || nāmon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || sang || sungon || nam|| nāmon
|}

==='''The Verb Bēon and Wesan '''===
There are two forms of the verb [[to be]] in Anglo-Saxon. They both share the same past tense, rooted in '''wesan'''. The verb form '''wesan''' was preserved in the past tense, in the form of '''was''' and '''were'''.

These verb forms were also preserved into the [[Middle English]] era, in an [[Epic]] called [[Brut]]: 
"Al swa muchel thu bist woruh, swa thu velden ært." 
(All as much thou art worth, as thou kind art) 
You are worth as much as you are kind. 

{|class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Bēon''' to be || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Wesan''' to be
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || bēo || bēoð || eom|| sind, sindon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || bist || bēoð || eart || sind, sindon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || bið || bēoð || is || sind, sindon
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense''' (for both)
|-
| || colspan="2"| sing. ||colspan="2"| pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || colspan="2"| wæs ||colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''2nd person''' || colspan="2"| wǣre || colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''3rd person''' || colspan="2"| wæs || colspan="2"|wǣron
|}

=Texts=
There are many primary texts in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous of which would be [[Beowulf]]. Other text's include, ''The Wife's Lament'', ''The Wanderer'', ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', ''Judith'', ''Cædmon's Hymn'', just to name a few.

=Sources and External Links=
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/runic.htm#futhorc

http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html

http://members.tripod.com/babaev/archive/grammar43.html

http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/index.htm

http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html

Finegan, Edward. "English." The World’s Major Languages. Ed. Bernard Comrie. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1990

Atherton, Mark. Teach Yourself Old English. Coventry, England, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.: 2006.

Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

=Translations=
Faind [[Anggloo-Saksyn|dhys peedx]] in [[Tawyr Oorthaagryfii]].

[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]

Palatal approximant

2009-04-26T05:49:27Z

Blackkdark: /* Anglo-Saxon */

This is the Palatal Glide/Approximant. It is also used as a semi-vowel, equivalent to the high front vowels /i/ or /ɪ/. It is often written in diphthongs for this reason. Thus /ai/ or /aɪ/ are similar or the same as /aj/. It is comes from Germanic languages that use '''j''' for /j/.
{| border="1"; style="float:right;" valign="top"
!style="background:#CCCCFF;" colspan=2 valign="center"| <big>j</big>
|-
|colspan=2 valign="center"| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || j
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || <tt>j</tt>
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || j
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Palatal]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Approximant]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: ||
[+consonantal] 
[+approximant] 
[+sonorant] 
[+contin-artic] 
[+contin-acous] 
[+delayed release] 
[+voice] 
'''[+DORSAL]''' 
  [+high] 
  [+front] 
  [+tense]
|}

=Natlangs=
==[[Germanic Languages]]==
===[[English]]===
====[[Anglo-Saxon]]====
In Anglo-Saxon, the Glide is represented by the symbol '''Ȝ''', '''ȝ''' (called yogh /jox/) and/or '''G''', '''g''' around a front vowel. Thus, '''gear''' is /jæar/. It was even used in the formation of diphthongs, so thus '''dæg''' is often pronounced like the modern Australian form /daj/. A common grammatical prefix was '''ge-''' /yə-/, used to indicate the past tense.

====[[Middle English]]====
The symbol '''Ȝ''' was still used well into the Middle English era, and '''Y''', '''y''' was beginning to be pronounced /i/ or /ɪ/. It was also used along with '''I''', '''i''' to form some diphthongs. The prefix in Anglo-Saxon merged into '''y-''' but was pronounced /i-/ or /ji-/ depending on dialect.
====[[Modern English]]====
In all forms of Modern English, '''Y''', '''y''' is used as the glide and occasionally as the diphthong. Thus '''year''' /yiɹ/ as a glide, and '''day''' /dej/ as the diphthong.
===[[High German]]===
In High German, the symbol used for this symbol is '''J''', '''j'''. The word '''Jäger''' is pronounced /yegər/. For diphthongs different symbols are used. For /oj/, '''eu''' or '''äu''' is used, and for /aj/, '''ei''' or occasionally '''ai''' is used.

==[[Japanese]]==
{|
| Plain || や, よ, ゆ (ya, yo, yu) || 四, /jon/
|}

=Conlangs=
==[[Toki Pona]]==
{|
| Plain || j || jelo “yellow”
|}

==[[Etimri]]==
{|
| Plain || j || jof (fem) and jod (masc) “gross”
|}

----
{{stub}}
==Sources==
Back to [[IPA]]

[[Category:Phonetic segments|j]]

Anglo-Saxon

2009-02-04T14:05:24Z

Blackkdark: /* Consonants */

Anglo-Saxon or Old English (OE '''Englisc''') is the ancestor of [[Modern English]]. It is a West Germanic Language and like Dutch and Low Saxon (Low German) it did not go through the [[High German Consonant Shift]].

{{Language|
| English = Anglo-Saxon
| native = Englisc
| dialect english =
| country = Anglo-Land (England)
| nativecountry = Angelcynn
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      Anglo-Frisian        Anglic
| wordorder = Unimportant/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 400-1066 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}

=Stages=
English has had 4 primary stages:
* '''Anglo-Saxon''' also known as '''Old English'''
* '''[[Middle English]]'''
* '''[[Early Modern English]]'''
* '''[[Modern English]]'''

The separation of '''Anglo-Saxon''' from '''Middle English''' is marked by [[The Battle of Hastings]] in 1066. The separation of '''Middle English''' and the '''Modern English''' stages is the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

Modern English words have many different origins, but a majority come from [[Anglo-Saxon]], [[Old French|Old Norman French]], and a little [[Old Norse]]. However in the global world today, many words from many other languages have entered the English language.

=The People, Dialects, and Literature=
The story was that the British leader Vortigern invited the Saxons to Britain to help fight off the Picts and Scots. A large migration of Saxons, Frisians, Franks, Jutes and Angles later moved from modern Northern Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands to England. The next few centuries they expanded westward constantly and gained more land. The Anglo-Saxons then fought with the Romano-British people already living there until they owned most of Modern England.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Danish Vikings invaded the Northern parts of England. The [[Old Norse]] influence can still be seen today including things such as the pronoun '''they'''.

The Dialects were split into 4 major ones: Northumbrian, Midlands, Kentish, and West Saxon. The majority of the texts we have are from the West Saxon region.

The most well known text in Anglo-Saxon is that of the Heroic Epic, [[Beowulf]]. Old English literature is known for alliteration. There are many Anglo-Saxon riddles, religious documents, heroic tales, and poems. A chronicle known as the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] was a chronicle of the events of the Kingdom, and was likely started in the 10th century and was continually updated into the 12th, although there are differences in the key Chronicle documents.

There is no standard spelling in Anglo-Saxon, so many words had more than one spelling.

=Orthography and Phonology=
==Runic==
[[Image:Anglo-saxon runes.gif|thumb|right|Anglo-Saxon Runic alphabet]]
Early forms of Anglo-Saxon writing was in [[Runic]]. It was an expansion of the original 24 rune Fuþark, and had become Fuþorc. Because the language had shifted to include new sounds, the alphabet itself shifted and included several new letters that had not been in the Elder Fuþark. However they did not develop the one Staff system similar to the runic designs in Norway, Sweden and Denmark.

When the Latin Alphabet was introduced, Anglo-Saxon added two symbols to the Latin alphabet from Runic, those would be "þ" /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/ and "Ƿ" /[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]/ from runic, called Thorn and Wynn respectively.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Inter-dental||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || || || ŋ
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || p || b || || || || || t || d || || || || || k || g ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || f || v || θ || ð || s || z || ʃ || (ʒ) || || ç || x || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || || || (ʦ) || (ʣ) || ʧ || ʤ || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants & glides || ʍ || w || || || || || || || || || || j
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || || ̥r || r || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || ̥l || l/ɫ
|}

</div>
[[Image:Wynn.png|right|thumb|100px|'''Ƿƿ''' ''wynn'', Old English '''[[Labial-velar approximant|w]]''', which is missing in many Unicode fonts.]]
* Placing '''h-''' before '''r''', '''l''', or '''w'''/'''ƿ''' yields the voiceless form of each sound /̥r ̥l ʍ/.
* When '''c''', '''g''' or '''sc''' are next to a front vowel (most often '''i''' but '''e''' and '''y''' can affect it sometimes too) they become /ʧ j ʃ/ respectively. This is how words like '''gear''' became '''year'''. '''-g''' is often not pronounced or becomes part of a diphtong, such as '''dæg''' /daj/. When it ends with '''-ig''' it has a pronunciation of /-i/, dropping the '''g''' altogether. From this, [[Modern English]] gets the '''-y''' ending (like '''halig''' > '''holy''', '''sceadwig''' > '''shady''', '''manig''' > '''many''')
* The diagraph '''cg''' is pronounced /ʤ/.
* '''þ''' and '''ð''' is pronounced /θ/ except in the case below.
* Fricatives, particularly '''f, þ/ð, s''' are voiceless most of the time /f θ s/, and are voiced intevocalically or adjacent to voiced consonants as /v ð z/. This is why '''v''' and '''f''' were not in Old English.
* '''h''' is pronounaced /ç/ after front vowels and /x/ after back vowels.
* The sound /w/ is often spelt with the letter '''Ƿ'''/'''ƿ''' (wynn). From the Runic Alphabet.

===Vowels===
 
<div style="text-align: center;">

{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - i || yː - y || || uː - u
|-
| Mid || eː - e || || ə || oː - o
|-
| Low || æ || || aː/a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax
|}

</div>

* With a macron the vowel becomes long.
*'''ī''', '''ȳ''', '''ē''', '''ǣ''', '''ā''', '''ō''', and '''ū''' are pronounced /iː yː eː æː aː oː uː/ respectively.
* Without a macron the vowels are short.
* '''i''', '''y''', '''e''', '''æ''', '''a''', '''o''', and '''u''' are pronounced /i y e æ a o u/ respectively.
* '''e''' at the end of a word, and unstressed often becomes /ə/.

=Grammar=
==Nouns==
 Main Article: [[Anglo-Saxon Nouns]] 
===Gender and Number===
There are there Genders in Old English: [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]]. These are the same genders in [[Latin]], as well as modern [[Russian]] and [[High German|German]]. Like most languages which have genders, Nouns which reflect living things are usually indicated in the [[Gender]] of the noun, but a majority is completely random.

The two numbers of Anglo-Saxon are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Pronouns have the Dual number as well.

===Cases===
Unlike [[Modern English]], Anglo-Saxon was filled with noun inflections denoting the case of the noun. The only one that survived through the [[Middle English]] era was the '''-'s''' ending denoting the original Genitive case. The cases were [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]].

===Strong and Weak===
Like with Verbs, Anglo-Saxon had many nouns which changed their stems, both in the plural and sometimes during some of the cases of the singular. These are the reasons for irregular nouns in [[Modern English]] with stem changes, such as Man-Men (AS Mann-Menn in Nom.). This is often how Anglo-Saxon nouns are categorized.

===Example charts===
'''Masculine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Dæg¹ 'Day'
! Dagas 'Days'
! Stān 'Stone'
! Stānas 'Stones'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|-
| '''Genitive''' || dæges || daga || stānes || stāna
|-
| '''Dative''' || dæge || dagum || stāne || stānum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || dæg || dagas || stān || stānas
|}
¹'''Dæg''' was pronounced much like the word '''Die''' in [[Modern English]], or the Australian/Cockney pronunciation of '''"Day."'''
* Note that both Nouns here are Strong 

'''Feminine:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hond² 'Hand'
! Honda 'Hands'
! Ƿynn³ 'Joy'
! Ƿynna 'Joys'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hond || hondu || Ƿynn || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Genitive''' || honda || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|-
| '''Dative''' || honda || hondum || Ƿynne || Ƿynnum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hond || honda || Ƿynne || Ƿynna
|}
²'''Hond''' could also be spelt/pronounced '''Hand'''. 
³'''Ƿ''' could also be spelt '''W''', so '''Ƿynn''' could easily be '''Wynn'''. 
* Note the '''Hond''' is strong and '''Wynn''' is weak.

'''Neuter:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Scip⁴ 'Ship'
! Scipu 'Ships'
! Dēor⁵ 'Animal'
! Dēor 'Animals'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|-
| '''Genitive''' || scipes || scipa || dēores || dēora
|-
| '''Dative''' || scipe || scipum || dēore || dēorum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || scip || scipu || dēor || dēor
|}

⁴'''Scip''' is pronounced the same way as the modern equivalent, '''Ship'''. 
⁵'''Dēor''', related to the German word '''Tier''' (animal), slowly became used for game animals, and later becomes '''Deer''' in Modern English. 
* Note that both nouns are strong here.

==Articles==
During the earlier ages of the Anglo-Saxon language, there were no articles. Later, especially after the Viking invasion and towards the end of the Anglo-Saxon era, articles were developed. They too declined by case and number, and included the [[Instrumental]] case, which was the same as Dative Nouns. This also includes the meaning of '''that''' in the demonstrative sense. Here are the articles:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || se || sēo || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Genitive''' || ðæs || ðǣre || ðæs || ðāra, ðǣra
|-
| '''Dative''' || ðǣm || ðǣre || ðǣm || ðǣm, ðām
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ðone|| ðā || ðæt || ðā
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || ðē, ðon || ðǣre || ðē, ðon || ðǣm, ðām
|}

==Personal Pronouns==
Personal pronouns in Anglo-Saxon are quite different than Modern English. They too are declined according to the four major cases, but also have an extra number illustration when there 2, [[Dual]]. With the dual, the verbs take the plural endings, and it only applies to the first and second person pronouns. Here are the Charts for the Pronouns: 
'''First person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ic, ih || Ƿit, wit || Ƿē, wē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || mīn || uncer || ūre
|-
| '''Dative''' || mē || unc || ūs
|-
| '''Accusative''' || mē|| unc || ūs
|}

'''Second person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || þū || git || gē
|-
| '''Genitive''' || þīn || incer || ēoǷer, ēower
|-
| '''Dative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|-
| '''Accusative''' || þē || inc || ēoǷ, ēow
|}

'''Third person:'''
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Mascu. Sing.
! Fem. Sing.
! Neut. Sing.
! Plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || hē || hēo || hit || hīe
|-
| '''Genitive''' || his || hiere || his || hiera
|-
| '''Dative''' || him || hiere || him || him, heom
|-
| '''Accusative''' || hine || hīe || hit || hīe
|}

==Adjectives==
Adjectives also decline by gender, number, and case. Because one adjective has to cover all three genders, two numbers, and four (five with the Strong) cases, there are more adjective forms than there are any other part of speech, with the possible exception of the verb. They too have Strong and Weak forms and can have root vowel stems which are umlauted. The plurals of the Weak forms are uniform across genders, but not in the Strong forms. The same adjective could be Weak or Strong depending on context and the noun.

===Examples===
'''Gōd = Good''' 
'''Weak''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōda || gōde || gōde || gōdan
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdena
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōdan || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdan || gōdan || gōde || gōdan
|}

'''Strong''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Pl. Masc.
! Pl. Fem.
! Pl. Neut.
|-
| '''Nominative''' || gōd || gōd || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Genitive''' || gōdes || gōdre || gōdes || gōdra || gōdra || gōdra
|-
| '''Dative''' || gōdum || gōdre || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|-
| '''Accusative''' || gōdne || gōde || gōd || gōde || gōda || gōd
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || gōde || gōdre || gōde || gōdum || gōdum || gōdum
|}

==Prepositions and Conjunctions==
Here is a list of Prepositions and Conjuctions.
===Prepositions===
æt - (dat.) at, from, (acc.) until, to 
tō - (dat.) to, towards, at, 
wið, wiþ - against, 
æfter - (dat.) after, 
on - (dat.) in, on, (acc.) into, onto 
mid - (dat.) with, 
of - (dat.) of, from, 
be - (dat. and acc.) by, near, along, about, 
beforan - (dat. and acc.) before, ahead of 
fram - (dat.) from, by, 
ofer - (dat.) over, upon (acc.) over to, across, 
þurh - (acc.) through 
under - (dat.) under (acc.) under, 
ymbe - (acc.) near, by, about, 
in - (dat.) in, (acc.) into, 
būtan - (dat. or acc.) outside, except, without, 
betweox - (dat. or acc.) between, among, 
binnan - (dat.) within, (acc.) to within, 
oð - (acc.) up to, until, 
geond - (acc.) through, throughout, 
bufan (dat.) above, (acc.) upwards, 
innan - (dat.) within (acc.) into, 

===Conjunctions===
æfter - after, 
ǣr - before 
gif - if, 
hwæðer, hwæþer - whether 
þā, ðā - when, 
hwīle - while, 
swā - as, such, (this word has a phonetic/semantic cognate in [[Old Norse]], sva.) 
swelce - as if, 
þæt, ðæt - that, so that, 
þǣr, ðǣr - where, 
þēah, ðēah - though, 
siððan, siþþan - since, after, (this one is also in [[Old Norse]] and [[Middle English]] such as the first line in [[Sir Gawayn and the Grene Knyght]].) 

==Verbs==
 Main Page: [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] 
===Verbal Comparison, Patterns, and General Overview===
Like nouns and adjectives, Verbs have [[Strong]] and [[Weak]] forms. The Strong forms usually involve vowel shifts in the stem, even in the present tense. It is also inflected based on [[person]], [[number]], [[tense]], and [[mood]].

It is known for having -st in the second person, which was used for '''thou''' in the [[Middle English]] era. It is also used in [[High German|German]] for the '''du''' form, which is the cognate to '''þū''' and '''thou''' (which is also a cognate to [[Latin]] '''tu'''). [[Anglo-Saxon Verbs]] are known for the signature -ð/-þ ending in the 3rd person singular, which was also used into the [[Early Modern English]] era, which [[Shakespeare]] is apart of, examples from that era include the words: hath, goeth, doth, knoweth, etc.

The infinitive ending is commonly '''-an''' or '''-en''', which is similar to the modern [[High German|German]] '''-en''' infinitive ending. Also the orthographic cognate '''ge-''' is used in both German and Anglo-Saxon to represent the past tense, even if they are not pronounced the same way, and in Standard [[High German]], the prefix is required, whereas the Anglo-Saxon one is more optional. The [[Weak]] past tense marker inserts '''-ed-''', whereas the [[Strong]] past tense usually involves a vowel change.

Although Anglo-Saxon did have the Subjunctive and Imperative, the examples shall be focused on the Present and Past tenses.

==='''Weak Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lufian''' to love || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Fremman''' to do
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufie || lufiað || fremme || fremmað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufast || lufiað || fremest || fremmað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufað || lufiað || fremeð || fremmað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || lufodest || lufodon || fremedest || fremedon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || lufode || lufodon || fremede || fremedon
|}

==='''Strong Examples'''===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Singan''' to sing || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Niman''' to take
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || singe || singað || nime || nimað
|-
| '''2nd person''' || singest || singað || nimest || nimað
|-
| '''3rd person''' || singeð || singað || nimeð || nimað
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense'''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || sang || sungon || nam || nāmon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || sunge || sungon || nāme || nāmon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || sang || sungon || nam|| nāmon
|}

==='''The Verb Bēon and Wesan '''===
There are two forms of the verb [[to be]] in Anglo-Saxon. They both share the same past tense, rooted in '''wesan'''. The verb form '''wesan''' was preserved in the past tense, in the form of '''was''' and '''were'''.

These verb forms were also preserved into the [[Middle English]] era, in an [[Epic]] called [[Brut]]: 
"Al swa muchel thu bist woruh, swa thu velden ært." 
(All as much thou art worth, as thou kind art) 
You are worth as much as you are kind. 

{|class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Bēon''' to be || colspan="2" align="center"| '''Wesan''' to be
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || bēo || bēoð || eom|| sind, sindon
|-
| '''2nd person''' || bist || bēoð || eart || sind, sindon
|-
| '''3rd person''' || bið || bēoð || is || sind, sindon
|-
| colspan="5" align="center"|'''Past Tense''' (for both)
|-
| || colspan="2"| sing. ||colspan="2"| pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || colspan="2"| wæs ||colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''2nd person''' || colspan="2"| wǣre || colspan="2"| wǣron
|-
| '''3rd person''' || colspan="2"| wæs || colspan="2"|wǣron
|}

=Texts=
There are many primary texts in Anglo-Saxon. The most famous of which would be [[Beowulf]]. Other text's include, ''The Wife's Lament'', ''The Wanderer'', ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', ''Judith'', ''Cædmon's Hymn'', just to name a few.

=Sources and External Links=
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/runic.htm#futhorc

http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html

http://members.tripod.com/babaev/archive/grammar43.html

http://home.comcast.net/~modean52/index.htm

http://www.wmich.edu/medieval/resources/IOE/index.html

Finegan, Edward. "English." The World’s Major Languages. Ed. Bernard Comrie. New York, NY Oxford University Press, 1990

Atherton, Mark. Teach Yourself Old English. Coventry, England, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.: 2006.

Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].

=Translations=
Faind [[Anggloo-Saksyn|dhys peedx]] in [[Tawyr Oorthaagryfii]].

[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]

Low German

2009-02-01T21:42:15Z

Blackkdark: /* Difference between High and Low German */

{{workinprogress}}
{{Language|
| English = Low German
| native = Nedersaksisch Plattdüütsch
| dialect english =
| country = Germany, Netherlands, Denamrk
| nativecountry = Norddütschland
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      [[German]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1800-Present C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = light green
| width = 33%
}}

=History and Stages=
* Stages of Low German
** [[Old Saxon]]
** [[Middle Low Saxon]]
** [[Low Saxon]] aka Low German

=Difference between [[High German|High]] and Low German=
High German differs from other West German languages such as Low German, [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that [[High German]] when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where;
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by Low German and [[Dutch]] as well as [[High German]].

=Orthography=
Because there is no standard dialect of Low German, there is no standard orthography. It can often differ by region.

=Grammar=

==Gender and Number==
There are three genders in Low German: Neuter, Masculine, and Feminine. There are two numbers as well: Singular and Plural.

==Articles==
The Masculine and Feminine genders take the definite article '''de'''. The Neuter form takes the article '''dat'''. The plural for all this is '''de'''. This makes it very close to its cousin of [[Dutch]] which has a similar pattern (save '''het''' instead of '''dat'''.)

The Indefinite article is the same for all, it is '''een''', '''en''', and ''''n'''.

Compare these with the [http://wiki.frath.net/High_German#Articles|High German Articles]]:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || de || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Genitive''' || den (-s)(sien)† || de (ehr) || dat (sien) || de (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || den || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Accusative''' || den || de || dat || de
|}
† '''sien''' or '''ehr''' appear after the noun in Genitive.

==Nouns==
There are 4 cases, although the dative and accusative are often collapsed together in Low German. This is reflected in the articles as well. The most common form of the plural is found in the ending '''-s''' but there are others, similar to those found in [[Dutch]] or [[High German]].
 
Here are examples for all three genders: 
'''Masculine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Macker 'Guy'
! Mackers'Guys'
! Appel 'Apple'
! Appeln 'Apples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Macker || De Mackers || De Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Den Macker(s) (sien) || De Mackers (ehr) || Den Appels (sien) || De Appeln (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|}
'''Feminine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hand 'Hand'
! Hände 'Hands'
! Fru 'Woman'
! Fruuslü 'Women'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Genitive''' || De Hann (ehr) || De Hannen (ehr) || De Fru (ehr) || De Fruuslü (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Accusative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|}
'''Neuter:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Schiff 'Ship'
! Schiffe 'Ships'
! Wief'Wife'
! Wiefer'Wives'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Dat Schipp (sien) || De Schipps (ehr) || Dat Wief (sien) || De Wiever (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|}

==Adjectives and Adverbs==
===Adjectives===

===Adverbs===

==Conjunctions==

==Preposition==

==Verbs==

===Present===

===Future===

===Past===

===Present Perfect===

===Imperative===

=Sources and Further Readings=

Low German

2009-02-01T21:41:42Z

Blackkdark: /* Difference between High and Low German */

{{workinprogress}}
{{Language|
| English = Low German
| native = Nedersaksisch Plattdüütsch
| dialect english =
| country = Germany, Netherlands, Denamrk
| nativecountry = Norddütschland
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      [[German]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1800-Present C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = light green
| width = 33%
}}

=History and Stages=
* Stages of Low German
** [[Old Saxon]]
** [[Middle Low Saxon]]
** [[Low Saxon]] aka Low German

=Difference between [[High German|High]] and Low German=
High German differs from other West German languages such as Low German, [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that [[High German]] when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where;
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

=Orthography=
Because there is no standard dialect of Low German, there is no standard orthography. It can often differ by region.

=Grammar=

==Gender and Number==
There are three genders in Low German: Neuter, Masculine, and Feminine. There are two numbers as well: Singular and Plural.

==Articles==
The Masculine and Feminine genders take the definite article '''de'''. The Neuter form takes the article '''dat'''. The plural for all this is '''de'''. This makes it very close to its cousin of [[Dutch]] which has a similar pattern (save '''het''' instead of '''dat'''.)

The Indefinite article is the same for all, it is '''een''', '''en''', and ''''n'''.

Compare these with the [http://wiki.frath.net/High_German#Articles|High German Articles]]:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || de || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Genitive''' || den (-s)(sien)† || de (ehr) || dat (sien) || de (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || den || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Accusative''' || den || de || dat || de
|}
† '''sien''' or '''ehr''' appear after the noun in Genitive.

==Nouns==
There are 4 cases, although the dative and accusative are often collapsed together in Low German. This is reflected in the articles as well. The most common form of the plural is found in the ending '''-s''' but there are others, similar to those found in [[Dutch]] or [[High German]].
 
Here are examples for all three genders: 
'''Masculine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Macker 'Guy'
! Mackers'Guys'
! Appel 'Apple'
! Appeln 'Apples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Macker || De Mackers || De Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Den Macker(s) (sien) || De Mackers (ehr) || Den Appels (sien) || De Appeln (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|}
'''Feminine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hand 'Hand'
! Hände 'Hands'
! Fru 'Woman'
! Fruuslü 'Women'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Genitive''' || De Hann (ehr) || De Hannen (ehr) || De Fru (ehr) || De Fruuslü (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Accusative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|}
'''Neuter:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Schiff 'Ship'
! Schiffe 'Ships'
! Wief'Wife'
! Wiefer'Wives'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Dat Schipp (sien) || De Schipps (ehr) || Dat Wief (sien) || De Wiever (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|}

==Adjectives and Adverbs==
===Adjectives===

===Adverbs===

==Conjunctions==

==Preposition==

==Verbs==

===Present===

===Future===

===Past===

===Present Perfect===

===Imperative===

=Sources and Further Readings=

Norwegian

2009-02-01T19:14:18Z

Blackkdark: /* Vowels */

Norwegian is a [[North Germanic]] Language spoken in Norway. It is a decedent of [[Old West Norse]].
{{Language|
| English = Norwegian
| native = Norsk
| dialect english =
| country = Norway
| nativecountry = Norge /(Nynosrk) Noreg
| universe = Real world
| speakers = 4.8 million native.
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[North Germanic]]      [[West Old Norse]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = Isolating (mostly)
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1525 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = red
| width = 33%
}}

=Norway=
The primary location where Norwegian is spoken is in Norway. The name Norway in English comes from the Anglo-Saxon name '''Norðweg''' meaning '''North-way'''. This is also seen in [[Old Norse]] in the word '''Norðmaðr''' which means both '''North-man''' and '''Norwegian''' (in that sense they might be one in the same).

[[Image:Norsk svensk and dansk.png|right|thumb]]
Norwegian has two standards, '''Nynorsk''' and the more popular written variation '''Bokmål'''. Norwegian Orthography is very close to that of [[Danish]], because for a long time the Danish had control over Norway. However, the spoken language is closer to Swedish. This means [[Swedish]] and Norwegian people would more easily understand each other in conversation, while Danish and Norwegian people would better understand each other's written languages. Danish speakers can understand Norwegian better than the reverse, due to Norwegian having a different phonetic structure to orthographic spellings. This makes Norwegian as a language dead center between Swedish and Danish.

=Phonetics and Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2|Retroflex ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || ɳ || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || ʈ || ɖ || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || ʂ || || || ç || || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ʦ}} || || (ʧ) || || || || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || || || j
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}} || || || || (ɽ) || || || || (ʀ)
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}} || || || || ɭ
|}

</div>
* Most of the letters are identical with their IPA equivalents, such as: b, p, t, d, f, v, j, h, s, l, r, m, and n.
* When an '''r''' is in front of another consonant, it can make it retroflex these include '''rs''' /ʂ/, '''rt''' /ʈ/, '''rd''' /ɖ/, '''rl''' /ɭ/, and '''rn''' /ɳ/. This also differs by dialect, and can result in /ʀs/ /ʀt/, /ʀd/, /ʀl/, and /ʀn/ are used.
* The orthographic '''k''' is pronounced /k/ except when in front of a '''i''' /i/, '''y''' /y/ or '''j''' /j/, where it becomes a /ç/. '''tj''' is also pronounced /ç/.
* '''w''' is pronounced /v/.
* '''sk''' is pronounced /sk/ except when in front of '''i''' /i/, '''y''' /y/, or '''j''' /j/, where it becomes /ʃ/ (except in some dialects). '''sj''' is also pronounced /ʃ/.
* '''g''' is pronounced /g/ except when in front of '''i''' /i/, '''y''' /y/, or '''j''' /j/, where it becomes /j/. At the end of a word, '''g''' is often either not pronounced or becomes a /j/ sound.
* In some dialects /v/ is pronounced /ʋ/ instead.

==Vowels==
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - i || yː - y || ʉː - ʉ || uː
|-
| Mid || eː - e/ɛ || øː - ø || ə || oː - o /ɔː - ɔ
|-
| Low || æː - æ || || aː - a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Long - Short
|}
In Norwegian there is a separation between Long and Short vowels. There are minimal pairs such as '''tak''' /taːk/ ''roof'', verse '''takk''' /tak/ ''thanks''.
* '''y''' is /yː/ and /y/.
* '''ø''' is /øː/ and /ø/.
* '''e''' is /eː/, /e/, /ɛ/, or /ə/.
* '''i''' is /iː/ and /i/.
* '''u''' is /ʉː/ and /ʉ/.
* '''o''' is /uː/, /oː/ and occasionally /ɔ/.
* '''a''' is /ɑː/ and /ɑ/.
* '''æ''' is /æː/ and /æ/.
* '''å''' is /ɔː/ and /ɔ/.

=Grammar=

==Nouns==
===Gender===
Norwegian originally had three genders, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. However, in many of the later stages and most of the modern dialects, the Masculine and Feminine genders have merged into a Common gender. However, even in '''Bokmål''' the feminine gender does occasionally exist. Because around 75% of nouns were once Masculine or Feminine, that is the amount which is Common, leaving 25% for the Neuter gender. The feminine gender does in
===Number===
There are two numbers in Norwegian: Singular and Plural. Singular is the usual state of the noun, and the form found in the dictionary. The Plural is formed by adding '''-er''' to the end of the noun. In neuter nouns with one syllable, the plural can be identical to the singular.
===Articles===
There are two types of articles for English, Indefinite and Definite. The number also comes into play, the indefinite plural is mentioned above. The definite articles in Norwegian are attached to the end of the noun. The indefinite article would go before the noun. The Common form is '''en''', and '''et''' for the Neuter form. So to say ''a dog'' it is '''en hund''', and ''the dog'' is '''hunden'''. And to say ''a hotel'' it is '''et hotell''', and ''the hotel'' is '''hotellet'''. In the plural, the informal ending is '''-er''' and the formal ending is '''-ene'''. So to say ''dogs'' it is '''hunder''', and ''the dogs'' is '''hundene'''. And to say ''hotels'' it is '''hoteller''', and ''the hotels'' is '''hotellene'''. In monosyllabic neuter nouns, the indefinite plural ending '''-er''' is not present, though all other forms are. So the singular form in the indefinite of ''a house'' is '''et hus''' and the plural indefinite form of ''house'' is just '''hus''', with the definite being '''huset''' and '''husene''' in the plural. Quite a few Norwegian nouns have a irregular forms.
===Genitive===
[[Old Norse]], like its (sometimes distant) relatives [[Old English]], [[Icelandic]], and [[High German]], had a complex series of cases that would be used for every noun. All of them had around four (Old English had the remnants of a 5th, which later died away) and were as follows: Nominative (subject), Accusative (direct object), Dative (indirect object), and Genitive (possessives). However, in modern Norwegian, like Danish and Swedish, the first three cases were merged into one, and the Genitive somehow survived (like in [[Modern English]]). The ending, similar to English, is '''-s'''.
===Noun Paradigm===

{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! Indef. sing.
! Def. sing.
! Indef. pl.
! Def. pl.
|-
| '''Common''' || en hund || hunden || hunder || hundene
|-
| '''Neuter polysyllabic''' || et hotell || hotellet || hoteller || hotellene
|-
| '''Nt. Monosyllabic''' || et hus || huset || hus || husene
|}

==Adjectives==
Adjectives agree with nouns according to gender, definiteness, and number. There is a Common indefinite, Neuter indefinite, and everything else (which all have the same form). The common indefinite form is usually the root of the adjective. The Neuter indefinite article often has an ending of '''-t'''. For everything else, such as indefinite plural, definite plural, definite common, and definite neuter, the ending '''-e''' is the regular ending. There are several forms which do not take the proper endings, such as forms which end with '''-ig''' or in most cases, '''-sk''' which don't have a neuter indefinite form, but does have the '''-e''' in the plural. There are also those which add '''-tt''' in the neuter indefinite, especially if its stem ends in a vowel and the vowel length must be preserved. Some have to convert the last consonant in words ending with two consonants, into a '''t'''. An example might be '''sunn''' to '''sunt'''.
===Adjectives with articles===
In the cases of the indefinite article, the normal article is added before the adjective, such as '''en god hund''', ''' et godt hotell''', or '''gode hunder''' . However, in the definite cases, something new is added. In these cases, a definite article is used before the adjective. The normal definite article is added to the end, as well as this additional article. So the examples above become '''de gode hunden''', '''det gode hotellet''' or '''de gode hundene'''.

===Adjective Paradigm===
Using '''god''' ''good''.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! Indef. sing.
! Def. sing.
! Indef. pl.
! Def. pl.
|-
| '''Common''' || en god hund || den gode hunden || gode hunder || de gode hundene
|-
| '''Neuter polysyllabic''' || et godt hotell || det gode hotellet || gode hoteller || de gode hotellene
|-
| '''Nt. Monosyllabic''' || et godt hus || det gode huset || gode hus || de gode husene
|}

==Adverbs==
Most adverbs that are formed from Adjectives use the neuter form, so '''god''' ''good'', becomes '''godt''' ''well''. Another major ending for adverbs is '''-vis''', with examples such as '''gradvis''' ''gradually''.
There are several other adverbs which have their own specific meanings and usages, such as the negation '''ikke''' ''not'', '''nå''' ''now'', '''lenge''' ''long'', and '''alltid''' ''always''. 
 
Some adverbs change form depending on if the verb is a verb of motion or not. Most of the differences involve the suffix '''-e''', but others such as '''her''' vs. '''hit''' ''here'' and '''der''' vs. '''dit''' ''there'' are a bit more irregular. Examples of this might be: 
'''Komm hit!''' ''Come here!''
'''Jeg er her.''' ''I am here.''

==Pronouns==
===Subject Pronouns===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! colspan="1" align="center"| Singular
! colspan="1" align="center"| Plural
|-
| '''First''' || jeg || vi
|-
| '''Second''' || du || dere
|-
| '''Third Masculine''' || han || de
|-
| '''Third Feminine''' || hun || de
|-
| '''Third Common/Neuter''' || den/det || de
|}

===Object Pronouns===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! colspan="1" align="center"| Singular
! colspan="1" align="center"| Plural
|-
| '''First''' || meg || oss
|-
| '''Second''' || deg || dere
|-
| '''Third Masculine''' || ham || dem
|-
| '''Third Feminine''' || henne || dem
|-
| '''Third Common/Neuter''' || den/det || dem
|}

===Reflexive Pronouns===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! colspan="1" align="center"| Singular
! colspan="1" align="center"| Plural
|-
| '''First''' || meg || oss
|-
| '''Second''' || deg || dere
|-
| '''Third''' || seg || seg
|-
|}

==Preposition==
The following is a list of prepositions: 
'''av''' - of, from, by 
'''blant''' - among, belong to 
'''etter''' - after, 
'''for''' - for, 
'''fra''' - from 
'''før''' - before 
'''hos''' - at, with 
'''i''' - in 
'''med''' - with 
'''mellom''' - between 
'''mot''' - against, towards 
'''om''' - about, around, concerning 
'''over''' - over 
'''på''' - on, in 
'''til''' - until 
'''under''' - under, during 
'''ved''' - at, with by 

==Conjunctions==
===Coordinating Conjunctions===
'''og''' - and 
'''men''' - but 
'''eller''' - or 
'''for''' - for, because 
'''samt'''- as well as 
'''både...og''' - both...and 
'''enten...eller''' - either...or 
'''hverken...eller''' - neither...nor 
===Subordinating Conjunctions===
'''at''' - that 
'''da''' - as, when 
'''fordi''' - because 
'''siden''' - since 
'''ettersom''' -since 
'''dersom''' - in the case that 
'''hvis''' - if 
'''med mindre''' - unless 
'''om''' - if, whether 
'''skjønt''' - although 
'''enskjønt''' - although 
'''selv om''' - even if, even though, 
'''når''' - when(ever) 
'''etter at''' - after 
'''før''' - before 
'''innen''' - before, until 
'''mens''' - while 
'''fra''' - from, forth 
'''så lenge som''' - as long as 
'''for at''' - so that 
'''så''' - so that, so 
'''så at''' - so that 
'''silk at''' - such that 
'''enn''' - than 
'''jo...jo'''/'''jo...desto''' - the...the 
'''Likesom''' - like 
'''som''' - as, like 
'''som om''' - as if 
'''så...som''' - as...as 

==Verbs==
 Main Articles: [[Norwegian Verbs]] 
The infinitive in most Norwegian verbs is formed by the root and '''å''' before it (similar to English ''to'') and by adding '''-e''' unless the word has one syllable, i.e. '''å kjøpe''' ''to buy'', '''å skrive''' ''to write'', '''å like''' ''to like'', and '''å prøve''' ''to try''. There are quite a few exceptions to this rule, such as if the root of the verb is different than the infinitive form (irregular), such as '''å være''' (''to be'', whose present form is '''er'''). For monosyllabic verbs, the root is the form given, and since almost all Norwegian verbs end with a vowel, these usually don't need the '''-e''' suffix. Examples include '''å se''' ''to see'', '''å bo''' ''to live''. 
=====Four Classes=====
* The first form, or class I, is a large class of verb and includes most verbs with the stem having a double consonant (gemminated or not) at the end.
* Another large class is class II, which has a long vowel and a single consonant in the stem. Many in this category can end with '''ll''', '''mm''', '''nn''', '''ld''', or '''nd'''. The gemminated ones often drop the second one in the past tense.
* Class III ends with a diphthong or '''-g''' or '''-v'''.
* Class IV ends with a stressed vowel.
===Present===
Norwegian verbs are not distinctive according to person and number in the subject. This means that the subject is required in order for the sentence to be understood. The verbs '''å være''' ''to be'' and '''å ha''' ''to have'' are important verbs that also do not make a distinction according to person and number. A few verbs have irregular forms in the present tense. Here are some examples, one from each of the four classes, with pronouns included:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg snakker || vi snakker || jeg liker || vi liker || jeg prøver || vi prøver || jeg bor || vi bor
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du snakker || dere snakker || du liker || dere liker || du prøver || dere prøver || du bor || dere bor
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun snakker || de snakker || han/hun liker || de liker || han/hun prøver || de prøver || han/hun bor || de bor
|}

===Future===
The future tense is formed in Norwegian in a similar way to the way it is formed in English. It uses modal verbs, specially '''vil''' and '''skal''', which are related to English '''will''' and '''shall'''. The former, '''vil''' which is related to German '''wollen''' as well, means more along the lines of '''want''' in the future tense, and '''shall''' is more like apathetic in nature. The expression
'''kommer til å''' is another one used to express the future tense, which is equivalent to English '''to be going to'''. Here are the samples using the same verbs above.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Future tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg skal snakke || vi skal snakke || jeg skal like || vi skal like || jeg skal prøve || vi skal prøve || jeg skal bo || vi skal bo
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du skal snakke || dere skal snakke || du skal like || dere skal like || du skal prøve || dere skal prøve || du skal bo || dere skal bo
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun skal snakke || de skal snakke || han/hun skal like || de skal like || han/hun skal prøve || de skal prøve || han/hun skal bo || de skal bo
|}

===Simple Past===
This is used in a way similar to English
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg snakket† || vi snakket || jeg likte || vi likte || jeg prøvde || vi prøvde || jeg bodde || vi bodde
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du snakket || dere snakket || du likte || dere likte || du prøvde || dere prøvde || du bodde || dere bodde
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun snakket || de snakket || han/hun likte || de likte || han/hun prøvde || de prøvde || han/hun bodde || de bodde
|}
†And alternate ending is '''-a''' instead of '''-et'''.

===Present Perfect===
The perfect tense is used with the verb '''ha''' + verb form.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present Perfect tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg har snakket || vi har snakket || jeg har likt || vi har likt || jeg har prøvd || vi har prøvd || jeg har bodd || vi har bodd
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du har snakket | dere har snakket || du har likt || dere har likt || du har prøvd || dere har prøvd || du har bodd || dere har bodd
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun har snakket || de har snakket || han/hun har likt || de har likt || han/hun har prøvd || de har prøvd || han/hun har bodd || de har bodd
|}

===Passive Voice===
The passive voice is formed two different ways in Norwegian. The first involves an auxiliary verb, '''å bli''', meaning '''become''' or '''remain''', and the past participle of the verb. The other way involves adding '''-s''' to the end of the verb. 
With '''å bli''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Passive compound construction'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg blir snakket || vi blir snakket || jeg blir likt || vi blir likt || jeg blir prøvd || vi blir prøvd || jeg blir bodd || vi blir bodd
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du blir snakket || dere blir snakket || du blir likt || dere blir likt || du blir prøvd || dere blir prøvd || du blir bodd || dere blir bodd
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun blir snakket || de blir snakket || han/hun blir likt || de blir likt || han/hun blir prøvd || de blir prøvd || han/hun blir bodd || de blir bodd
|}
With '''-s''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Passive voice'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg snakkes || vi snakkes || jeg likes || vi likes || jeg prøves || vi prøves || jeg bos || vi bos
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du snakkes || dere snakkes || du likes || dere likes || du prøves || dere prøves || du bos || dere bos
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun snakkes || de snakkes || han/hun likes || de likes || han/hun prøves || de prøves || han/hun bos || de bos
|}

===Modals and Auxiliaries===
The Modal verbs and Auxiliaries have few forms, but they do including infinitives and past tenses. The Auxiliaries are necessary for a lot of things such as the perfect and passive formations They are as follows:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
| '''English''' || '''Infinitive''' || '''Present''' || '''Past''' || '''Perfect'''
|-
|colspan="5" align="center"|'''Modals'''
|-
| '''to ought to, should''' || å burde || bør || burde || å ha burdet
|-
| '''to need to''' || å få || får || fikk || å ha fått
|-
| '''To be able, can''' || å kunne || kan || kunne || å ha hunnet
|-
| '''to have to, must''' || å måtte || må || måtte || å ha måttet
|-
| '''shall, will, should''' || å skulle || skal || skulle || å ha skullet
|-
| '''to dare to''' || å tore || tør || torde || å ha tort
|-
| '''to want, will''' || å ville || vil || ville || å ha villet
|-
|colspan="5" align="center"|'''Auxiliaries'''
|-
| '''to have''' || å ha || har || hadde || å ha hatt
|-
| '''to be''' || å være || er || var || å ha vært
|-
| '''to become''' || å bli || blir || ble || å ha blitt
|}

=Sources and Links=
Janus, Louis. ''Norwegian: Verbs & Essentials of Grammar'' 1999. McGraw-hill.

This page is by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]

Norwegian

2009-02-01T19:10:54Z

Blackkdark: /* Word Order */

Norwegian is a [[North Germanic]] Language spoken in Norway. It is a decedent of [[Old West Norse]].
{{Language|
| English = Norwegian
| native = Norsk
| dialect english =
| country = Norway
| nativecountry = Norge /(Nynosrk) Noreg
| universe = Real world
| speakers = 4.8 million native.
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[North Germanic]]      [[West Old Norse]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = Isolating (mostly)
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1525 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = red
| width = 33%
}}

=Norway=
The primary location where Norwegian is spoken is in Norway. The name Norway in English comes from the Anglo-Saxon name '''Norðweg''' meaning '''North-way'''. This is also seen in [[Old Norse]] in the word '''Norðmaðr''' which means both '''North-man''' and '''Norwegian''' (in that sense they might be one in the same).

[[Image:Norsk svensk and dansk.png|right|thumb]]
Norwegian has two standards, '''Nynorsk''' and the more popular written variation '''Bokmål'''. Norwegian Orthography is very close to that of [[Danish]], because for a long time the Danish had control over Norway. However, the spoken language is closer to Swedish. This means [[Swedish]] and Norwegian people would more easily understand each other in conversation, while Danish and Norwegian people would better understand each other's written languages. Danish speakers can understand Norwegian better than the reverse, due to Norwegian having a different phonetic structure to orthographic spellings. This makes Norwegian as a language dead center between Swedish and Danish.

=Phonetics and Phonology=
==Consonants==
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2|Retroflex ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || ɳ || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || ʈ || ɖ || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || ʂ || || || ç || || || h
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ʦ}} || || (ʧ) || || || || || ||
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || || || j
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}} || || || || (ɽ) || || || || (ʀ)
|-
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}} || || || || ɭ
|}

</div>
* Most of the letters are identical with their IPA equivalents, such as: b, p, t, d, f, v, j, h, s, l, r, m, and n.
* When an '''r''' is in front of another consonant, it can make it retroflex these include '''rs''' /ʂ/, '''rt''' /ʈ/, '''rd''' /ɖ/, '''rl''' /ɭ/, and '''rn''' /ɳ/. This also differs by dialect, and can result in /ʀs/ /ʀt/, /ʀd/, /ʀl/, and /ʀn/ are used.
* The orthographic '''k''' is pronounced /k/ except when in front of a '''i''' /i/, '''y''' /y/ or '''j''' /j/, where it becomes a /ç/. '''tj''' is also pronounced /ç/.
* '''w''' is pronounced /v/.
* '''sk''' is pronounced /sk/ except when in front of '''i''' /i/, '''y''' /y/, or '''j''' /j/, where it becomes /ʃ/ (except in some dialects). '''sj''' is also pronounced /ʃ/.
* '''g''' is pronounced /g/ except when in front of '''i''' /i/, '''y''' /y/, or '''j''' /j/, where it becomes /j/. At the end of a word, '''g''' is often either not pronounced or becomes a /j/ sound.
* In some dialects /v/ is pronounced /ʋ/ instead.

==Vowels==
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels
|-
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back
|-
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || iː - i || yː - y || ʉː - ʉ || uː
|-
| Mid || eː - e/ɛ || øː - ø || ə || oː - o /ɔː - ɔ
|-
| Low || æː - æ || || aː - a
|-
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Long - Short
|}
In Norwegian there is a separation between Long and Short vowels. There are minimal pairs such as '''tak''' /taːk/ ''roof'', verse '''takk''' /tak/ ''thanks''.
* '''y''' is /yː/ and /y/.
* '''ø''' is /øː/ and /ø/.
* '''e''' is /eː/, /e/, /ɛ/, or /ə/.
* '''i''' is /iː/ and /i/.
* '''u''' is /ʉː/ and /u/.
* '''o''' is /uː/, /oː/ and occasionally /ɔ/.
* '''a''' is /ɑː/ and /ɑ/.
* '''æ''' is /æː/ and /æ/.
* '''å''' is /ɔː/ and /ɔ/.

=Grammar=

==Nouns==
===Gender===
Norwegian originally had three genders, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. However, in many of the later stages and most of the modern dialects, the Masculine and Feminine genders have merged into a Common gender. However, even in '''Bokmål''' the feminine gender does occasionally exist. Because around 75% of nouns were once Masculine or Feminine, that is the amount which is Common, leaving 25% for the Neuter gender. The feminine gender does in
===Number===
There are two numbers in Norwegian: Singular and Plural. Singular is the usual state of the noun, and the form found in the dictionary. The Plural is formed by adding '''-er''' to the end of the noun. In neuter nouns with one syllable, the plural can be identical to the singular.
===Articles===
There are two types of articles for English, Indefinite and Definite. The number also comes into play, the indefinite plural is mentioned above. The definite articles in Norwegian are attached to the end of the noun. The indefinite article would go before the noun. The Common form is '''en''', and '''et''' for the Neuter form. So to say ''a dog'' it is '''en hund''', and ''the dog'' is '''hunden'''. And to say ''a hotel'' it is '''et hotell''', and ''the hotel'' is '''hotellet'''. In the plural, the informal ending is '''-er''' and the formal ending is '''-ene'''. So to say ''dogs'' it is '''hunder''', and ''the dogs'' is '''hundene'''. And to say ''hotels'' it is '''hoteller''', and ''the hotels'' is '''hotellene'''. In monosyllabic neuter nouns, the indefinite plural ending '''-er''' is not present, though all other forms are. So the singular form in the indefinite of ''a house'' is '''et hus''' and the plural indefinite form of ''house'' is just '''hus''', with the definite being '''huset''' and '''husene''' in the plural. Quite a few Norwegian nouns have a irregular forms.
===Genitive===
[[Old Norse]], like its (sometimes distant) relatives [[Old English]], [[Icelandic]], and [[High German]], had a complex series of cases that would be used for every noun. All of them had around four (Old English had the remnants of a 5th, which later died away) and were as follows: Nominative (subject), Accusative (direct object), Dative (indirect object), and Genitive (possessives). However, in modern Norwegian, like Danish and Swedish, the first three cases were merged into one, and the Genitive somehow survived (like in [[Modern English]]). The ending, similar to English, is '''-s'''.
===Noun Paradigm===

{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! Indef. sing.
! Def. sing.
! Indef. pl.
! Def. pl.
|-
| '''Common''' || en hund || hunden || hunder || hundene
|-
| '''Neuter polysyllabic''' || et hotell || hotellet || hoteller || hotellene
|-
| '''Nt. Monosyllabic''' || et hus || huset || hus || husene
|}

==Adjectives==
Adjectives agree with nouns according to gender, definiteness, and number. There is a Common indefinite, Neuter indefinite, and everything else (which all have the same form). The common indefinite form is usually the root of the adjective. The Neuter indefinite article often has an ending of '''-t'''. For everything else, such as indefinite plural, definite plural, definite common, and definite neuter, the ending '''-e''' is the regular ending. There are several forms which do not take the proper endings, such as forms which end with '''-ig''' or in most cases, '''-sk''' which don't have a neuter indefinite form, but does have the '''-e''' in the plural. There are also those which add '''-tt''' in the neuter indefinite, especially if its stem ends in a vowel and the vowel length must be preserved. Some have to convert the last consonant in words ending with two consonants, into a '''t'''. An example might be '''sunn''' to '''sunt'''.
===Adjectives with articles===
In the cases of the indefinite article, the normal article is added before the adjective, such as '''en god hund''', ''' et godt hotell''', or '''gode hunder''' . However, in the definite cases, something new is added. In these cases, a definite article is used before the adjective. The normal definite article is added to the end, as well as this additional article. So the examples above become '''de gode hunden''', '''det gode hotellet''' or '''de gode hundene'''.

===Adjective Paradigm===
Using '''god''' ''good''.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! Indef. sing.
! Def. sing.
! Indef. pl.
! Def. pl.
|-
| '''Common''' || en god hund || den gode hunden || gode hunder || de gode hundene
|-
| '''Neuter polysyllabic''' || et godt hotell || det gode hotellet || gode hoteller || de gode hotellene
|-
| '''Nt. Monosyllabic''' || et godt hus || det gode huset || gode hus || de gode husene
|}

==Adverbs==
Most adverbs that are formed from Adjectives use the neuter form, so '''god''' ''good'', becomes '''godt''' ''well''. Another major ending for adverbs is '''-vis''', with examples such as '''gradvis''' ''gradually''.
There are several other adverbs which have their own specific meanings and usages, such as the negation '''ikke''' ''not'', '''nå''' ''now'', '''lenge''' ''long'', and '''alltid''' ''always''. 
 
Some adverbs change form depending on if the verb is a verb of motion or not. Most of the differences involve the suffix '''-e''', but others such as '''her''' vs. '''hit''' ''here'' and '''der''' vs. '''dit''' ''there'' are a bit more irregular. Examples of this might be: 
'''Komm hit!''' ''Come here!''
'''Jeg er her.''' ''I am here.''

==Pronouns==
===Subject Pronouns===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! colspan="1" align="center"| Singular
! colspan="1" align="center"| Plural
|-
| '''First''' || jeg || vi
|-
| '''Second''' || du || dere
|-
| '''Third Masculine''' || han || de
|-
| '''Third Feminine''' || hun || de
|-
| '''Third Common/Neuter''' || den/det || de
|}

===Object Pronouns===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! colspan="1" align="center"| Singular
! colspan="1" align="center"| Plural
|-
| '''First''' || meg || oss
|-
| '''Second''' || deg || dere
|-
| '''Third Masculine''' || ham || dem
|-
| '''Third Feminine''' || henne || dem
|-
| '''Third Common/Neuter''' || den/det || dem
|}

===Reflexive Pronouns===
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! colspan="1" align="center"| Singular
! colspan="1" align="center"| Plural
|-
| '''First''' || meg || oss
|-
| '''Second''' || deg || dere
|-
| '''Third''' || seg || seg
|-
|}

==Preposition==
The following is a list of prepositions: 
'''av''' - of, from, by 
'''blant''' - among, belong to 
'''etter''' - after, 
'''for''' - for, 
'''fra''' - from 
'''før''' - before 
'''hos''' - at, with 
'''i''' - in 
'''med''' - with 
'''mellom''' - between 
'''mot''' - against, towards 
'''om''' - about, around, concerning 
'''over''' - over 
'''på''' - on, in 
'''til''' - until 
'''under''' - under, during 
'''ved''' - at, with by 

==Conjunctions==
===Coordinating Conjunctions===
'''og''' - and 
'''men''' - but 
'''eller''' - or 
'''for''' - for, because 
'''samt'''- as well as 
'''både...og''' - both...and 
'''enten...eller''' - either...or 
'''hverken...eller''' - neither...nor 
===Subordinating Conjunctions===
'''at''' - that 
'''da''' - as, when 
'''fordi''' - because 
'''siden''' - since 
'''ettersom''' -since 
'''dersom''' - in the case that 
'''hvis''' - if 
'''med mindre''' - unless 
'''om''' - if, whether 
'''skjønt''' - although 
'''enskjønt''' - although 
'''selv om''' - even if, even though, 
'''når''' - when(ever) 
'''etter at''' - after 
'''før''' - before 
'''innen''' - before, until 
'''mens''' - while 
'''fra''' - from, forth 
'''så lenge som''' - as long as 
'''for at''' - so that 
'''så''' - so that, so 
'''så at''' - so that 
'''silk at''' - such that 
'''enn''' - than 
'''jo...jo'''/'''jo...desto''' - the...the 
'''Likesom''' - like 
'''som''' - as, like 
'''som om''' - as if 
'''så...som''' - as...as 

==Verbs==
 Main Articles: [[Norwegian Verbs]] 
The infinitive in most Norwegian verbs is formed by the root and '''å''' before it (similar to English ''to'') and by adding '''-e''' unless the word has one syllable, i.e. '''å kjøpe''' ''to buy'', '''å skrive''' ''to write'', '''å like''' ''to like'', and '''å prøve''' ''to try''. There are quite a few exceptions to this rule, such as if the root of the verb is different than the infinitive form (irregular), such as '''å være''' (''to be'', whose present form is '''er'''). For monosyllabic verbs, the root is the form given, and since almost all Norwegian verbs end with a vowel, these usually don't need the '''-e''' suffix. Examples include '''å se''' ''to see'', '''å bo''' ''to live''. 
=====Four Classes=====
* The first form, or class I, is a large class of verb and includes most verbs with the stem having a double consonant (gemminated or not) at the end.
* Another large class is class II, which has a long vowel and a single consonant in the stem. Many in this category can end with '''ll''', '''mm''', '''nn''', '''ld''', or '''nd'''. The gemminated ones often drop the second one in the past tense.
* Class III ends with a diphthong or '''-g''' or '''-v'''.
* Class IV ends with a stressed vowel.
===Present===
Norwegian verbs are not distinctive according to person and number in the subject. This means that the subject is required in order for the sentence to be understood. The verbs '''å være''' ''to be'' and '''å ha''' ''to have'' are important verbs that also do not make a distinction according to person and number. A few verbs have irregular forms in the present tense. Here are some examples, one from each of the four classes, with pronouns included:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg snakker || vi snakker || jeg liker || vi liker || jeg prøver || vi prøver || jeg bor || vi bor
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du snakker || dere snakker || du liker || dere liker || du prøver || dere prøver || du bor || dere bor
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun snakker || de snakker || han/hun liker || de liker || han/hun prøver || de prøver || han/hun bor || de bor
|}

===Future===
The future tense is formed in Norwegian in a similar way to the way it is formed in English. It uses modal verbs, specially '''vil''' and '''skal''', which are related to English '''will''' and '''shall'''. The former, '''vil''' which is related to German '''wollen''' as well, means more along the lines of '''want''' in the future tense, and '''shall''' is more like apathetic in nature. The expression
'''kommer til å''' is another one used to express the future tense, which is equivalent to English '''to be going to'''. Here are the samples using the same verbs above.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Future tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg skal snakke || vi skal snakke || jeg skal like || vi skal like || jeg skal prøve || vi skal prøve || jeg skal bo || vi skal bo
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du skal snakke || dere skal snakke || du skal like || dere skal like || du skal prøve || dere skal prøve || du skal bo || dere skal bo
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun skal snakke || de skal snakke || han/hun skal like || de skal like || han/hun skal prøve || de skal prøve || han/hun skal bo || de skal bo
|}

===Simple Past===
This is used in a way similar to English
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Past tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg snakket† || vi snakket || jeg likte || vi likte || jeg prøvde || vi prøvde || jeg bodde || vi bodde
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du snakket || dere snakket || du likte || dere likte || du prøvde || dere prøvde || du bodde || dere bodde
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun snakket || de snakket || han/hun likte || de likte || han/hun prøvde || de prøvde || han/hun bodde || de bodde
|}
†And alternate ending is '''-a''' instead of '''-et'''.

===Present Perfect===
The perfect tense is used with the verb '''ha''' + verb form.
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present Perfect tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg har snakket || vi har snakket || jeg har likt || vi har likt || jeg har prøvd || vi har prøvd || jeg har bodd || vi har bodd
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du har snakket | dere har snakket || du har likt || dere har likt || du har prøvd || dere har prøvd || du har bodd || dere har bodd
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun har snakket || de har snakket || han/hun har likt || de har likt || han/hun har prøvd || de har prøvd || han/hun har bodd || de har bodd
|}

===Passive Voice===
The passive voice is formed two different ways in Norwegian. The first involves an auxiliary verb, '''å bli''', meaning '''become''' or '''remain''', and the past participle of the verb. The other way involves adding '''-s''' to the end of the verb. 
With '''å bli''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Passive compound construction'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg blir snakket || vi blir snakket || jeg blir likt || vi blir likt || jeg blir prøvd || vi blir prøvd || jeg blir bodd || vi blir bodd
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du blir snakket || dere blir snakket || du blir likt || dere blir likt || du blir prøvd || dere blir prøvd || du blir bodd || dere blir bodd
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun blir snakket || de blir snakket || han/hun blir likt || de blir likt || han/hun blir prøvd || de blir prøvd || han/hun blir bodd || de blir bodd
|}
With '''-s''':
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Passive voice'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å snakke''' ''to speak'' || colspan="2" align="center"| '''å like''' ''to like'' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''å prøve''' ''to try'' ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''å bo''' ''to live''
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.
|-
| '''1st person''' || jeg snakkes || vi snakkes || jeg likes || vi likes || jeg prøves || vi prøves || jeg bos || vi bos
|-
| '''2nd person''' || du snakkes || dere snakkes || du likes || dere likes || du prøves || dere prøves || du bos || dere bos
|-
| '''3rd person''' || han/hun snakkes || de snakkes || han/hun likes || de likes || han/hun prøves || de prøves || han/hun bos || de bos
|}

===Modals and Auxiliaries===
The Modal verbs and Auxiliaries have few forms, but they do including infinitives and past tenses. The Auxiliaries are necessary for a lot of things such as the perfect and passive formations They are as follows:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
| '''English''' || '''Infinitive''' || '''Present''' || '''Past''' || '''Perfect'''
|-
|colspan="5" align="center"|'''Modals'''
|-
| '''to ought to, should''' || å burde || bør || burde || å ha burdet
|-
| '''to need to''' || å få || får || fikk || å ha fått
|-
| '''To be able, can''' || å kunne || kan || kunne || å ha hunnet
|-
| '''to have to, must''' || å måtte || må || måtte || å ha måttet
|-
| '''shall, will, should''' || å skulle || skal || skulle || å ha skullet
|-
| '''to dare to''' || å tore || tør || torde || å ha tort
|-
| '''to want, will''' || å ville || vil || ville || å ha villet
|-
|colspan="5" align="center"|'''Auxiliaries'''
|-
| '''to have''' || å ha || har || hadde || å ha hatt
|-
| '''to be''' || å være || er || var || å ha vært
|-
| '''to become''' || å bli || blir || ble || å ha blitt
|}

=Sources and Links=
Janus, Louis. ''Norwegian: Verbs & Essentials of Grammar'' 1999. McGraw-hill.

This page is by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]

Low German

2009-02-01T19:10:09Z

Blackkdark: /* Nouns */

{{workinprogress}}
{{Language|
| English = Low German
| native = Nedersaksisch Plattdüütsch
| dialect english =
| country = Germany, Netherlands, Denamrk
| nativecountry = Norddütschland
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      [[German]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1800-Present C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = light green
| width = 33%
}}

=History and Stages=
* Stages of Low German
** [[Old Saxon]]
** [[Middle Low Saxon]]
** [[Low Saxon]] aka Low German

=Difference between [[High German|High]] and Low German=
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where;
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

=Orthography=
Because there is no standard dialect of Low German, there is no standard orthography. It can often differ by region.

=Grammar=

==Gender and Number==
There are three genders in Low German: Neuter, Masculine, and Feminine. There are two numbers as well: Singular and Plural.

==Articles==
The Masculine and Feminine genders take the definite article '''de'''. The Neuter form takes the article '''dat'''. The plural for all this is '''de'''. This makes it very close to its cousin of [[Dutch]] which has a similar pattern (save '''het''' instead of '''dat'''.)

The Indefinite article is the same for all, it is '''een''', '''en''', and ''''n'''.

Compare these with the [http://wiki.frath.net/High_German#Articles|High German Articles]]:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || de || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Genitive''' || den (-s)(sien)† || de (ehr) || dat (sien) || de (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || den || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Accusative''' || den || de || dat || de
|}
† '''sien''' or '''ehr''' appear after the noun in Genitive.

==Nouns==
There are 4 cases, although the dative and accusative are often collapsed together in Low German. This is reflected in the articles as well. The most common form of the plural is found in the ending '''-s''' but there are others, similar to those found in [[Dutch]] or [[High German]].
 
Here are examples for all three genders: 
'''Masculine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Macker 'Guy'
! Mackers'Guys'
! Appel 'Apple'
! Appeln 'Apples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Macker || De Mackers || De Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Den Macker(s) (sien) || De Mackers (ehr) || Den Appels (sien) || De Appeln (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|}
'''Feminine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hand 'Hand'
! Hände 'Hands'
! Fru 'Woman'
! Fruuslü 'Women'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Genitive''' || De Hann (ehr) || De Hannen (ehr) || De Fru (ehr) || De Fruuslü (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Accusative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|}
'''Neuter:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Schiff 'Ship'
! Schiffe 'Ships'
! Wief'Wife'
! Wiefer'Wives'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Dat Schipp (sien) || De Schipps (ehr) || Dat Wief (sien) || De Wiever (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|}

==Adjectives and Adverbs==
===Adjectives===

===Adverbs===

==Conjunctions==

==Preposition==

==Verbs==

===Present===

===Future===

===Past===

===Present Perfect===

===Imperative===

=Sources and Further Readings=

Low German

2009-02-01T19:09:17Z

Blackkdark: /* Articles */

{{workinprogress}}
{{Language|
| English = Low German
| native = Nedersaksisch Plattdüütsch
| dialect english =
| country = Germany, Netherlands, Denamrk
| nativecountry = Norddütschland
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      [[German]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1800-Present C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = light green
| width = 33%
}}

=History and Stages=
* Stages of Low German
** [[Old Saxon]]
** [[Middle Low Saxon]]
** [[Low Saxon]] aka Low German

=Difference between [[High German|High]] and Low German=
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where;
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

=Orthography=
Because there is no standard dialect of Low German, there is no standard orthography. It can often differ by region.

=Grammar=

==Gender and Number==
There are three genders in Low German: Neuter, Masculine, and Feminine. There are two numbers as well: Singular and Plural.

==Articles==
The Masculine and Feminine genders take the definite article '''de'''. The Neuter form takes the article '''dat'''. The plural for all this is '''de'''. This makes it very close to its cousin of [[Dutch]] which has a similar pattern (save '''het''' instead of '''dat'''.)

The Indefinite article is the same for all, it is '''een''', '''en''', and ''''n'''.

Compare these with the [http://wiki.frath.net/High_German#Articles|High German Articles]]:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || de || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Genitive''' || den (-s)(sien)† || de (ehr) || dat (sien) || de (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || den || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Accusative''' || den || de || dat || de
|}
† '''sien''' or '''ehr''' appear after the noun in Genitive.

==Nouns==
There are 4 cases, although the dative and accusative are often collapsed together in Low German. This is reflected in the articles as well. The most common form of the plural is found in the ending '''-s''' but there are others, similar to those found in [[Dutch]] or [[High German]].
 
Here are examples for all three genders:
'''Masculine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Macker 'Guy'
! Mackers'Guys'
! Appel 'Apple'
! Appeln 'Apples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Macker || De Mackers || De Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Den Macker(s) (sien) || De Mackers (ehr) || Den Appels (sien) || De Appeln (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|}
'''Feminine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hand 'Hand'
! Hände 'Hands'
! Fru 'Woman'
! Fruuslü 'Women'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Genitive''' || De Hann (ehr) || De Hannen (ehr) || De Fru (ehr) || De Fruuslü (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Accusative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|}
'''Neuter:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Schiff 'Ship'
! Schiffe 'Ships'
! Wief'Wife'
! Wiefer'Wives'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Dat Schipp (sien) || De Schipps (ehr) || Dat Wief (sien) || De Wiever (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|}

==Adjectives and Adverbs==
===Adjectives===

===Adverbs===

==Conjunctions==

==Preposition==

==Verbs==

===Present===

===Future===

===Past===

===Present Perfect===

===Imperative===

=Sources and Further Readings=

Low German

2009-02-01T19:07:50Z

Blackkdark:

{{workinprogress}}
{{Language|
| English = Low German
| native = Nedersaksisch Plattdüütsch
| dialect english =
| country = Germany, Netherlands, Denamrk
| nativecountry = Norddütschland
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      [[German]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1800-Present C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = light green
| width = 33%
}}

=History and Stages=
* Stages of Low German
** [[Old Saxon]]
** [[Middle Low Saxon]]
** [[Low Saxon]] aka Low German

=Difference between [[High German|High]] and Low German=
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where;
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

=Orthography=
Because there is no standard dialect of Low German, there is no standard orthography. It can often differ by region.

=Grammar=

==Gender and Number==
There are three genders in Low German: Neuter, Masculine, and Feminine. There are two numbers as well: Singular and Plural.

==Articles==
The Masculine and Feminine genders take the definite article '''de'''. The Neuter form takes the article '''dat'''. The plural for all this is '''de'''. This makes it very close to its cousin of [[Dutch]] which has a similar pattern (save '''het''' instead of '''dat'''.)

The Indefinite article is the same for all, it is '''een''', '''en''', and ''''n'''.

Compare these with the [[http://wiki.frath.net/High_German#Definite|High German Articles]]:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || de || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Genitive''' || den (-s)(sien)† || de (ehr) || dat (sien) || de (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || den || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Accusative''' || den || de || dat || de
|}
† '''sien''' or '''ehr''' appear after the noun in Genitive.

==Nouns==
There are 4 cases, although the dative and accusative are often collapsed together in Low German. This is reflected in the articles as well. The most common form of the plural is found in the ending '''-s''' but there are others, similar to those found in [[Dutch]] or [[High German]].
 
Here are examples for all three genders:
'''Masculine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Macker 'Guy'
! Mackers'Guys'
! Appel 'Apple'
! Appeln 'Apples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Macker || De Mackers || De Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Den Macker(s) (sien) || De Mackers (ehr) || Den Appels (sien) || De Appeln (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|}
'''Feminine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hand 'Hand'
! Hände 'Hands'
! Fru 'Woman'
! Fruuslü 'Women'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Genitive''' || De Hann (ehr) || De Hannen (ehr) || De Fru (ehr) || De Fruuslü (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Accusative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|}
'''Neuter:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Schiff 'Ship'
! Schiffe 'Ships'
! Wief'Wife'
! Wiefer'Wives'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Dat Schipp (sien) || De Schipps (ehr) || Dat Wief (sien) || De Wiever (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|}

==Adjectives and Adverbs==
===Adjectives===

===Adverbs===

==Conjunctions==

==Preposition==

==Verbs==

===Present===

===Future===

===Past===

===Present Perfect===

===Imperative===

=Sources and Further Readings=

Low German

2009-02-01T18:31:00Z

Blackkdark: /* Nouns */

{{Language|
| English = Low German
| native = Nedersaksisch Plattdüütsch
| dialect english =
| country = Germany, Netherlands, Denamrk
| nativecountry = Norddütschland
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      [[German]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1800-Present C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = light green
| width = 33%
}}

=History and Stages=
* Stages of Low German
** [[Old Saxon]]
** [[Middle Low Saxon]]
** [[Low Saxon]] aka Low German

=Difference between [[High German|High]] and Low German=
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where;
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

=Orthography=
Because there is no standard dialect of Low German, there is no standard orthography. It can often differ by region.

=Grammar=

==Gender and Number==
There are three genders in Low German: Neuter, Masculine, and Feminine. There are two numbers as well: Singular and Plural.

==Articles==
The Masculine and Feminine genders take the definite article '''de'''. The Neuter form takes the article '''dat'''. The plural for all this is '''de'''. This makes it very close to its cousin of [[Dutch]] which has a similar pattern (save '''het''' instead of '''dat'''.)

The Indefinite article is the same for all, it is '''een''', '''en''', and ''''n'''.

Compare these with the [[http://wiki.frath.net/High_German#Definite|High German Articles]]:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || de || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Genitive''' || den (-s)(sien)† || de (ehr) || dat (sien) || de (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || den || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Accusative''' || den || de || dat || de
|}
† '''sien''' or '''ehr''' appear after the noun in Genitive.

==Nouns==
There are 4 cases, although the dative and accusative are often collapsed together in Low German. This is reflected in the articles as well. The most common form of the plural is found in the ending '''-s''' but there are others, similar to those found in [[Dutch]] or [[High German]].
 
Here are examples for all three genders:
'''Masculine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Macker 'Guy'
! Mackers'Guys'
! Appel 'Apple'
! Appeln 'Apples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Macker || De Mackers || De Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Den Macker(s) (sien) || De Mackers (ehr) || Den Appels (sien) || De Appeln (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|}
'''Feminine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hand 'Hand'
! Hände 'Hands'
! Fru 'Woman'
! Fruuslü 'Women'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Genitive''' || De Hann (ehr) || De Hannen (ehr) || De Fru (ehr) || De Fruuslü (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Accusative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|}
'''Neuter:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Schiff 'Ship'
! Schiffe 'Ships'
! Wief'Wife'
! Wiefer'Wives'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Dat Schipp (sien) || De Schipps (ehr) || Dat Wief (sien) || De Wiever (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|}

==Adjectives and Adverbs==
===Adjectives===

===Adverbs===

==Conjunctions==

==Preposition==

==Verbs==

===Present===

===Future===

===Past===

===Present Perfect===

===Imperative===

=Sources and Further Readings=

Low German

2009-02-01T18:29:45Z

Blackkdark: /* Nouns */

{{Language|
| English = Low German
| native = Nedersaksisch Plattdüütsch
| dialect english =
| country = Germany, Netherlands, Denamrk
| nativecountry = Norddütschland
| universe = Real world
| speakers = unknown
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Germanic]]
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]]      [[German]]
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V2
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1800-Present C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = light green
| width = 33%
}}

=History and Stages=
* Stages of Low German
** [[Old Saxon]]
** [[Middle Low Saxon]]
** [[Low Saxon]] aka Low German

=Difference between [[High German|High]] and Low German=
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where;
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

=Orthography=
Because there is no standard dialect of Low German, there is no standard orthography. It can often differ by region.

=Grammar=

==Gender and Number==
There are three genders in Low German: Neuter, Masculine, and Feminine. There are two numbers as well: Singular and Plural.

==Articles==
The Masculine and Feminine genders take the definite article '''de'''. The Neuter form takes the article '''dat'''. The plural for all this is '''de'''. This makes it very close to its cousin of [[Dutch]] which has a similar pattern (save '''het''' instead of '''dat'''.)

The Indefinite article is the same for all, it is '''een''', '''en''', and ''''n'''.

Compare these with the [[http://wiki.frath.net/High_German#Definite|High German Articles]]:
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Masculine
! Feminine
! Neuter
! Plural (all Genders)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || de || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Genitive''' || den (-s)(sien)† || de (ehr) || dat (sien) || de (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || den || de || dat || de
|-
| '''Accusative''' || den || de || dat || de
|}
† '''sien''' or '''ehr''' appear after the noun in Genitive.

==Nouns==
There are 4 cases, although the dative and accusative are often collapsed together in Low German. This is reflected in the articles as well. Here are examples for all three genders:
'''Masculine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Macker 'Guy'
! Mackers'Guys'
! Appel 'Apple'
! Appeln'Apples'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Macker || De Mackers || De Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Den Macker(s) (sien) || De Mackers (ehr) || Den Appels (sien) || De Appeln (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Den Macker || De Mackers || Den Appel || De Appeln
|}
'''Feminine:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Hand 'Hand'
! Hände 'Hands'
! Fru 'Woman'
! Fruuslü 'Women'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Genitive''' || De Hann (ehr) || De Hannen (ehr) || De Fru (ehr) || De Fruuslü (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|-
| '''Accusative''' || De Hann || De Hannen || De Fru || De Fruuslü
|}
'''Neuter:''' 
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Cases
! Schiff 'Ship'
! Schiffe 'Ships'
! Wief'Wife'
! Wiefer'Wives'
|-
| '''Nominative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Genitive''' || Dat Schipp (sien) || De Schipps (ehr) || Dat Wief (sien) || De Wiever (ehr)
|-
| '''Dative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|-
| '''Accusative''' || Dat Schipp || De Schipps || Dat Wief || De Wiever
|}

==Adjectives and Adverbs==
===Adjectives===

===Adverbs===

==Conjunctions==

==Preposition==

==Verbs==

===Present===

===Future===

===Past===

===Present Perfect===

===Imperative===

=Sources and Further Readings=

Low German

2009-02-01T17:50:57Z

Blackkdark: /* Articles */

Low German

2009-02-01T17:37:49Z

Blackkdark: /* Articles */

Low German

2009-02-01T17:37:04Z

Blackkdark: /* Articles */

User:Blackkdark

2009-02-01T06:22:23Z

Germanic languages

2009-01-30T19:33:16Z

Blackkdark: /* Norwegian and Swedish Back Vowel Chain Shift */

=Sound Changes in Germanic Languages=
==Sound Changes from PIE to Common Germanic==
''These may not be 100% accurate.''
* ḱ, ǵ, ǵʰ → k, g, gʰ

===[[Grimm's law]]===
*bʰ, dʰ, gʰ, gʷʰ → β, ð, ɣ, β/ɣ
*b, d, g, gʷ → p, t, k, kʷ/k
*p, t, k, kʷ → f, θ, x, xʷ

===[[Verner's law]]===
*f, θ, s, x, xʷ → β, ð, z, ɣ, ɣʷ (except initially or following IE stress)

===Vowel changes===
*aː → oː
*e → i
*eː → æː
*ei → iː
*eːi → eː (?)
*oi → ai
*oːi → oː (?)
*aːi → oː (?)
*eu → iu
*ou → au

==[[High German Consonant Shift]]==
This shift separates [[High German]] from other Germanic languages.
The 4 stages of the shift could be defined as follows:
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. 
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

The shift occurred in the period before [[Old High German]] existed, and in fact was the marker of Old High German.

==English [[Great Vowel Shift]]==
The Great Vowel Shift is where the vowels of [[Middle English]] were raised or diphthongised (for already high vowels). This is the difference between Middle English and [[Modern English]].

{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
| '''Diphthong''' || aj || ||aw
|-
| '''High''' || ↑ i || || ↑ u
|-
| '''Mid''' || ↑ e || || ↑ o
|-
| '''Low''' || ↑ æ || ← a ||
|}

==Norwegian and Swedish Back Vowel Chain Shift==
The back vowel chain shift of Norwegian and Swedish has the long vowels raise, and in the case of the highest vowels, fronted towards /yː/. It would look as follows:

{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"
|-
!
! Front Rd.
! Central
! Back
|-
| '''High''' || ʉ* ← || ← || ← u
|-
| '''Mid-High''' || || || ↑ o
|-
| '''Mid-Low''' || || || ↑ ɔ
|-
| '''Low''' || || a ↗ ||
|}
*This symbol is used to contrast it with the Nor./Swed. /y/ sound.
All vowels are Long.

==Danish Front Vowel Shift==

=Listing of Germanic Languages=
* [[West Germanic]]
** [[German]]
*** Stages of High German:
****[[Old High German]]
****[[Middle High German]]
****[[Early New High German]]
****[[New High German]] or Modern (Standard) German
*** Stages of Low German
**** [[Old Saxon]]
**** [[Middle Low Saxon]]
**** [[Low Saxon]] aka Low German
** Stages of Dutch:
*** [[Old Dutch]]
*** [[Middle Dutch]]
*** [[Dutch]]
**Anglo-Frisian
***Stages of Frisian:
****[[Old Frisian]]
****[[Frisian]]
*** [[English]]
****Stages of English:
*****[[Anglo-Saxon]]
*****[[Middle English]]
*****[[Early Modern English]]
*****[[Modern English]]
******[[Scots]]
*[[North Germanic]]
**[[Old Norse]]
***[[Old West Norse]]
****[[Icelandic]]
****[[Norwegian]]
***[[Old East Norse]]
****[[Old Swedish]]
****[[Swedish]]
****[[Old Danish]]
****[[Danish]]
*[[East Germanic]]
**[[Gothic]]

----
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[[Category:Source material]]
[[Category:Germanic natlangs|!]]
[[Category:Germanic conlangs|!]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]