http://www.frathwiki.com/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Christina&feedformat=atomFrathWiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T16:01:21ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.24.4http://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:MissTerry&diff=148365User:MissTerry2022-04-24T02:46:49Z<p>Christina: Creating user page for new user.</p>
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<div>I love conlanging. I've been inventing conlangs since I was in the grade school [those were highly primitive back then]. I like to read and write. I like reading things about science and eastern philosophy. I like Esperanto even though it seems to be slightly sexist [patro vs patrino, etc]. I like making conlangs that are "autocryptolects" which are secret languages only I know and understand. My current autocryptolect is called "Humrayan" which is based on Vedic Sanskrit and contemporary Sanskrit.</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User_talk:MissTerry&diff=148366User talk:MissTerry2022-04-24T02:46:49Z<p>Christina: Welcome!</p>
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<div>'''Welcome to ''FrathWiki''!'''<br />
We hope you will contribute much and well.<br />
You will probably want to read the [Help:Contents help pages].<br />
Again, welcome and have fun! [[User:Christina|Christina]] ([[User talk:Christina|talk]]) 19:46, 23 April 2022 (PDT)</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Nostra_Linguistica&diff=148363User:Nostra Linguistica2022-04-24T02:46:32Z<p>Christina: Creating user page for new user.</p>
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<div>Hello, I had created an account called NostraLinguistica before (see User:NostraLinguistica), but can't log in anymore. I assume the server had been migrated and all previous accounts deleted. Please create this account for me again. Thanks!<br />
<br />
I plan to start off by creating a new page about Slovio, among other topics.</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User_talk:Nostra_Linguistica&diff=148364User talk:Nostra Linguistica2022-04-24T02:46:32Z<p>Christina: Welcome!</p>
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<div>'''Welcome to ''FrathWiki''!'''<br />
We hope you will contribute much and well.<br />
You will probably want to read the [Help:Contents help pages].<br />
Again, welcome and have fun! [[User:Christina|Christina]] ([[User talk:Christina|talk]]) 19:46, 23 April 2022 (PDT)</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Galhaf&diff=148362User:Galhaf2022-04-24T02:38:27Z<p>Christina: </p>
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<div>Creator of the Galhafan concultures</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Galhaf&diff=148360User:Galhaf2022-04-24T02:38:00Z<p>Christina: Creating user page for new user.</p>
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<div>This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me. This is me.</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User_talk:Galhaf&diff=148361User talk:Galhaf2022-04-24T02:38:00Z<p>Christina: Welcome!</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Welcome to ''FrathWiki''!'''<br />
We hope you will contribute much and well.<br />
You will probably want to read the [Help:Contents help pages].<br />
Again, welcome and have fun! [[User:Christina|Christina]] ([[User talk:Christina|talk]]) 19:38, 23 April 2022 (PDT)</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Christina&diff=148359User:Christina2022-04-24T02:28:13Z<p>Christina: </p>
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<div>Member of the Conculture list. Creator of the Galhafan concultures.</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Zheftakh&diff=148358Zheftakh2022-04-24T02:26:56Z<p>Christina: </p>
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<div>{| border=0 align=right cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f8f8f8; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"<br />
|+<big>'''Zheftakh'''</big><br />
|-<br />
| '''Mean distance from [[Chihazh]]''' || 368,541,000 km<br>2.46354 AU<br>3.50141 [[GAU]]<br />
|-<br />
| Perhelion || 353,274,000 km<br />
|-<br />
| Aphelion || 383,808,000 km<br />
|-<br />
| '''Orbital period''' || 1,701.18 d<br>4.65768 yr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Eccentricity''' || .0415<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sidereal day''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''Solar day''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''Diameter''' || 145,000 km<br />
|-<br />
| '''Mass''' || 1.846 × 10<sup>28</sup> kg<br>9.723 Jupiter-masses<br />
|-<br />
| '''Surface gravity''' || 234 m/s²<br>23.9 g<br />
|-<br />
| '''Moons''' || Many (3 visible from [[Galhaf]])<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Zheftakh''' is the second-largest<ref>Largest if one classifies [[Havatrakh]] as a [[wikipedia:brown dwarf|brown dwarf]]</ref> [[Planets of Chihazh|planet]] orbiting [[Chihazh]]<br />
<br />
==Naming==<br />
''Zheftakh'' is ultimately derived from the [[Classical Sanle]] ''Zhev tkab'' "Great Star", via [[Old Kassan]] ''wa-zeftëkábë'' through [[Classical Kasshian]] ''waZheftakav'' and Central Neokasshian Uzheftakha. In modern [[Ivetsian]], the -takh suffix has come to be reinterpreted as meaning simply "Planet". Many other languages, particularly in [[East Odirá]], derive their name for that planet from the [[Classical Blafu]] ''Lílí (néma) vále'' meaning "Fast (free) star", the "free" adjective indicating a [[wikipedia:superior planet|superior planet]] and the "fast" indicating its relatively fast motion through the ecliptic, in comparison with the outermost classically-known planet, [[Ozatraftakh]].<br />
<br />
==Physical structure==<br />
Zheftakh is a large gas giant, a [[wikipedia:super-Jupiter|super-Jupiter]]. Its mass falls a little short of the minimum mass needed for [[wikipedia:deuterium burning|deuterium burning]]. It thus falls just short of being a [[Wikipedia:brown dwarf|brown dwarf]]. As a gas giant, it is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, with a possibly rocky core. Zheftakh emits more radiation (primarily in infrared) than it receives, due primarily to gravitational energy.<br />
<br />
==Rings==<br />
Zheftakh is surrounded by a prominent ring system, considerably larger than [[wikipedia:Jupiter|Jupiter]]'s in our own solar system, though not nearly as dramatic as that of [[wikipedia:Saturn|Saturn]]<br />
<br />
==Satellites==<br />
Zheftakh has dozens of satellites, the largest three of whom are visible from Galhaf and were thus given names in ancient times. The satellites were referred to by Sanle astronomer as the "children" of Zheftakh: ák ald (Inner Child), kum ald (Middle Child) and nikh ald (Outer Child), which in modern Ivetsian became [[Handz]]<ref>ák ald -> Old Kassan w-akáldë -> Classical Kasshian wakadda -> Central Neo-kasshian Ukhand</ref>, [[Humandz]]<ref>kum ald -> Old Kassan wa-kumáldë -> Classical Kasshian wakumadda -> Central Neo-kasshian Ukhumand</ref>, and [[Nihandz]]<ref>nikh-ald -> Old Kassan wa-nikáldë -> Classical Kasshian wanikadda -> Central Neo-kasshian Unikhand</ref>. By analogy, the ''ald'' root (-andz in Ivetsian) has become a standard suffix for the names of satellites (with the exception of Galhaf's own moons). In modern times, Handz and Humandz also have [[Astronomical classification#Dependent planets|alternate names]] Yutakh and Hundakh. These three are locked into a 1:2:4 orbital resonance.<br />
<br />
==Observational history==<br />
Because of Zheftakh's large size, it is often the brightest planet seen from Galhaf, hence its name, which also happens to function quite well as a description of its actual size. Observations of Zheftakh and the three largest moons date back to ancient times. Observations of these moons played a significant role in the history of [[astronomy]], giving early support to heliocentric views. In particular, the observation that the satellites had regular periods but that the angular range of their movements varied according to the relative angle between Zheftakh and Chihazh proved that the distance between Zheftakh and Galhaf varied in a way that could only be explained by the two orbiting Chihazh.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Planets of Chihazh]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Planets]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Zheftakh&diff=148357Zheftakh2022-04-24T02:26:43Z<p>Christina: Created page with "{| {{infobox}} |+<big>'''Zheftakh'''</big> |- | '''Mean distance from Chihazh''' || 368,541,000 km<br>2.46354 AU<br>3.50141 GAU |- | Perhelion || 353,274,000 km |- | A..."</p>
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<div>{| {{infobox}}<br />
|+<big>'''Zheftakh'''</big><br />
|-<br />
| '''Mean distance from [[Chihazh]]''' || 368,541,000 km<br>2.46354 AU<br>3.50141 [[GAU]]<br />
|-<br />
| Perhelion || 353,274,000 km<br />
|-<br />
| Aphelion || 383,808,000 km<br />
|-<br />
| '''Orbital period''' || 1,701.18 d<br>4.65768 yr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Eccentricity''' || .0415<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sidereal day''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''Solar day''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''Diameter''' || 145,000 km<br />
|-<br />
| '''Mass''' || 1.846 × 10<sup>28</sup> kg<br>9.723 Jupiter-masses<br />
|-<br />
| '''Surface gravity''' || 234 m/s²<br>23.9 g<br />
|-<br />
| '''Moons''' || Many (3 visible from [[Galhaf]])<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Zheftakh''' is the second-largest<ref>Largest if one classifies [[Havatrakh]] as a [[wikipedia:brown dwarf|brown dwarf]]</ref> [[Planets of Chihazh|planet]] orbiting [[Chihazh]]<br />
<br />
==Naming==<br />
''Zheftakh'' is ultimately derived from the [[Classical Sanle]] ''Zhev tkab'' "Great Star", via [[Old Kassan]] ''wa-zeftëkábë'' through [[Classical Kasshian]] ''waZheftakav'' and Central Neokasshian Uzheftakha. In modern [[Ivetsian]], the -takh suffix has come to be reinterpreted as meaning simply "Planet". Many other languages, particularly in [[East Odirá]], derive their name for that planet from the [[Classical Blafu]] ''Lílí (néma) vále'' meaning "Fast (free) star", the "free" adjective indicating a [[wikipedia:superior planet|superior planet]] and the "fast" indicating its relatively fast motion through the ecliptic, in comparison with the outermost classically-known planet, [[Ozatraftakh]].<br />
<br />
==Physical structure==<br />
Zheftakh is a large gas giant, a [[wikipedia:super-Jupiter|super-Jupiter]]. Its mass falls a little short of the minimum mass needed for [[wikipedia:deuterium burning|deuterium burning]]. It thus falls just short of being a [[Wikipedia:brown dwarf|brown dwarf]]. As a gas giant, it is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, with a possibly rocky core. Zheftakh emits more radiation (primarily in infrared) than it receives, due primarily to gravitational energy.<br />
<br />
==Rings==<br />
Zheftakh is surrounded by a prominent ring system, considerably larger than [[wikipedia:Jupiter|Jupiter]]'s in our own solar system, though not nearly as dramatic as that of [[wikipedia:Saturn|Saturn]]<br />
<br />
==Satellites==<br />
Zheftakh has dozens of satellites, the largest three of whom are visible from Galhaf and were thus given names in ancient times. The satellites were referred to by Sanle astronomer as the "children" of Zheftakh: ák ald (Inner Child), kum ald (Middle Child) and nikh ald (Outer Child), which in modern Ivetsian became [[Handz]]<ref>ák ald -> Old Kassan w-akáldë -> Classical Kasshian wakadda -> Central Neo-kasshian Ukhand</ref>, [[Humandz]]<ref>kum ald -> Old Kassan wa-kumáldë -> Classical Kasshian wakumadda -> Central Neo-kasshian Ukhumand</ref>, and [[Nihandz]]<ref>nikh-ald -> Old Kassan wa-nikáldë -> Classical Kasshian wanikadda -> Central Neo-kasshian Unikhand</ref>. By analogy, the ''ald'' root (-andz in Ivetsian) has become a standard suffix for the names of satellites (with the exception of Galhaf's own moons). In modern times, Handz and Humandz also have [[Astronomical classification#Dependent planets|alternate names]] Yutakh and Hundakh. These three are locked into a 1:2:4 orbital resonance.<br />
<br />
==Observational history==<br />
Because of Zheftakh's large size, it is often the brightest planet seen from Galhaf, hence its name, which also happens to function quite well as a description of its actual size. Observations of Zheftakh and the three largest moons date back to ancient times. Observations of these moons played a significant role in the history of [[astronomy]], giving early support to heliocentric views. In particular, the observation that the satellites had regular periods but that the angular range of their movements varied according to the relative angle between Zheftakh and Chihazh proved that the distance between Zheftakh and Galhaf varied in a way that could only be explained by the two orbiting Chihazh.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Planets of Chihazh]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Planets]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Xenogenesis&diff=148356Xenogenesis2022-04-24T02:25:42Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Xenogenesis''' is the now-commonly-accepted theory that Human-type life (known to biology as ''neobiota'') did not originate on Galhaf, but on some other p..."</p>
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<div>'''Xenogenesis''' is the now-commonly-accepted theory that [[neobiota|Human-type life]] (known to biology as ''neobiota'') did not originate on [[Galhaf]], but on some other planet.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
It had long been recognized that [[human]]s and a [[neoanimalia|few other animals]] had a distinctive bodyplan that was not shared with other, more diverse, groups, and likewise that some important [[neoplantae|plants]] were also rather distinctive from other groups. Various explanations existed for this observation through the history of science. As paleontology gradually developed, a further mystery was revealed in that the human-type organisms appeared to have been a very recent development, while all other groups had ancient roots (which lead to their being named ''[[paleobiota]]''). But, in general, it was not seen as a major problem until the development of the theory of [[Wikipedia: evolution| evolution]] when the seemingly-sudden appearance of Human-style life was taken as a major problem with the theory.<br />
<br />
It was recognized that plants and animals from different parts of the world had different characteristic traits, and so an obvious explanation was that human-style life was native to some other place. As [[Wikipedia:plate tectonics|plate tectonics]] had not yet been developed, one early theory was that there had once been another continent, one well-isolated from the others, on which humans and related organisms evolved. According to this early version of xenogenesis, this continent subsequently sank and a few refugees fled to other continents, bringing with them some plants and animals. This theory became increasingly tenuous as the magnitude of the differences between the different groups of organisms became more apparent, and as the development of plate tectonics discredited the idea of a sunken continent.<br />
<br />
Subsequently, a controversial assertion was made that the human-style life had evolved on a different planet. The most obvious choice was [[Ufsandakh]], known even then to have liquid water on its surface, though very little land. It was though that some disaster had forced humanity to flee that planet, but the sparseness of dry land and the fact that Ufsandakh is tidelocked to [[Chihazh]] called that idea into question. It was finally accepted that humanity's origin was extra-Chihazhan.<br />
<br />
==Biochemistry Question==<br />
A major riddle exists in the fact that both neobiota and paleobiota use fundamentally similar biochemistry, including the use of the same set of [[wikipedia:amino acid|amino acid]]s. The mystery was reinforced when samples of [[Ufsandakhan life]] were obtained, revealing a different biochemistry, and thus discrediting the notion that perhaps only one biochemistry was possible. One possibility is that there are only a relatively small number of possible biochemistries, and that the human settlers had explored multiple possible worlds for colonization before they found one that shared their biochemistry<br />
<br />
[[Category:Scientific theories]]<br />
[[Category:Biology]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Ufsandakh&diff=148355Ufsandakh2022-04-24T02:24:55Z<p>Christina: Created page with "{| border=0 align=right cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f8f8f8; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: co..."</p>
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<div>{| border=0 align=right cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f8f8f8; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"<br />
|+ <big>'''Ufsandakh'''</big><br />
|-<br />
|'''Mean Distance from [[Chihazh|sun]]''': || 65,248,000 km<br>.43616 AU<br>.61990 [[GAU]]<br />
|-<br />
|Perhelion: || 60,860,000 km<br />
|-<br />
|Aphelion: || 69,636,000 km<br />
|-<br />
|'''Orbital Period''': || 126 d, 17 h, 29 m<br />
|-<br />
|'''Eccentricity''': || .067253<br />
|-<br />
|'''Sidereal day''': || 126 d, 17 h, 29 m<ref>Tide-locked</ref><br />
|-<br />
|'''Diameter''': || 18,895 km<br />
|-<br />
|'''Surface area''': || 1,121,600,000 km²<br />
|-<br />
|'''Axial tilt''': || 0º<br />
|-<br />
|'''Mass''': || 2.043×10<sup>25</sup> kg<br>(3.421 Earth-masses/3.864 Galhaf-masses)<br />
|-<br />
|'''Gravity''': || 15.278 m/s²<br>1.5580 g<br>1.6196 Galhafan gravity<br />
|-<br />
|'''Number of moons''': || 0<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Ufsandakh''' is the [[Planets of Chihazh|third planet]] orbiting [[Chihazh]], and one of two known life-bearing planets in the Chihazh system. At one time, it as thought by some to be the [[Xenogenesis|homeworld]] of [[human]]ity, but that is now known not to be the case, as Ufsandakhan life uses different biochemistry than [[neobiota|human-type life]] and [[paleobiota|native Galhafan life]].<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
The name ''Ufsandakh'' is derived from [[Classical Sanle]] ''Pshán tkab'' "bright star", due to its being a very bright planet in Galhaf's night sky. The Sanle name was borrowed as ''waFsantakav''.<br />
<br />
==Physical structure==<br />
Ufsandakh is significantly larger than [[Galhaf]] or Earth, being the largest terrestrial planet in the Chihazh system.<br />
<br />
==Observational history==<br />
Ufsandakh is one of the brighter planets in the night sky, due to its high albedo. It was among the earliest planets observed by telescope. As soon as telescopes of sufficiently high resolution were invented, the existence of oceans and clouds on Ufsandakh were revealed, leading to excited speculation about life on other worlds. It has long attracted the imagination of sci-fi authors, and was once thought by many to be the homeworld of humanity. The fact that it's tidal-locked was a major obstacle, as humans did display a circadian rhythm very similar to Galhaf's day, but the supporters of the Ufsandakhan Origin Theory argued that humans had adapted to Galhaf's circadian rhythm. One variant that was once popular proposed that some massive geological catastrophe occurred on Ufsandakh that caused once-great continents to sink beneath the ocean, or some kind of "slip" in its rotation causing a continental mass to shift to the nightside, resulting in an exodus of refugees to Galhaf. This theory has been thoroughly discredited, however.<br />
<br />
==Geology and climate==<br />
Ufsandakh is tide-locked to [[Chihazh]]. As a result, the planet can be divided into three broad zones, the dayside, the nightside, and a broad zone between the two in which, due to [[wikipedia:libration|libration]], a year-long (127-day) day/night cycle occurs.<br />
<br />
Ufsandakh has an active system of [[Wikipedia:plate tectonics|plate tectonics]], more active than Galhaf's. It has several continents, which are almost entirely covered by ocean. Several highlands and mountain ranges do emerge above the ocean. Overall, the planet is warmer than Galhaf, though not to the extent one might expect from it being nearly twice as close to Chihazh, as the greenhouse effect is weaker. The high temperatures cause significant evaporation, resulting in large areas covered by clouds at any given time, and heavy rainfall. Between the heavy rainfall and the stronger gravity, erosion tends to be very rapid on exposed land. Active plate tectonics continues to create new areas of dry land from volcanism and [[wikipedia:orogeny|orogeny]].<br />
<br />
==Biology==<br />
Ufsandakh is home to a third ''[[biological taxonomy|biota]]''. ''Biota'' is a term used to describe all organisms derived from a single [[wikipedia:abiogenesis|abiogenesis event]], originally created to distinguish the [[Paleobiota|native Galhafan life]] from the [[Neobiota|Human-type life]]. Ufsandakhan life uses different [[wikipedia:amino acid|amino acid]]s from Galhafan and human-type life<ref>Galhafan and human-type life use the same amino acids, but different [[wikipedia:nucleotide|nucleotides]]</ref>, and is thus even more distinct from the other two.<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid erosion on Ufsandakh, dry land tends to be relatively short-lived, which has hindered the evolution of land life. Most land life is actually amphibious. With the exception of flying animals, fullscale terrestrial adaptations are an evolutionary dead-end, and few islands last long enough for a full sea-to-land transition to occur. The massive volume of ocean allows for a wide diversity of life. There are also large areas of shallow seas, creating isolated habitats of shallow-sea life, promoting significant biodiversity. In addition, the geographic variation in sunlight, from the region directly underneath the Sun, to regions where the solar angle is lower, and thence to the libration zone and varying periods of daylight, create a ripe environment for plant specialization. There is evidence of the possible existence of at least one [[sapient]] aquatic species. The night side has sparse life. The perpetual darkness prevents any photosynthesis from occurring. There is some life, however, sustained by organic material brought in by wind or sea current, and by [[wikipedia:chemosynthesis|chemosynthesis]] around geothermal vents and the like. Most life is on the dayside or the libration zone.<br />
<br />
===Evolution===<br />
Ufsandakh would not have yet been tide-locked when life first appeared. It is estimated to have taken somewhere between 1 and 2 billion years for Ufsandakh to become tide-locked. The first life would thus have experienced regular day/night cycles, which would've become gradually longer. It is, at this time, unclear how exactly life coped with the transition to a tidally-locked planet.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Planets]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Trimundialism&diff=148354Trimundialism2022-04-24T02:24:15Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Trimundialism''' is a collective term for several modern religions that claim ''The Secret History of the Three Worlds'' as the Truth. Central to the Trimundial religi..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Trimundialism''' is a collective term for several modern religions that claim ''[[The Secret History of the Three Worlds]]'' as the Truth.<br />
<br />
Central to the Trimundial religions' beliefs is the idea that a non-corporeal race called the ''yebade'' exists on [[Ufsandakh]] with near-God-like powers, including the ability to restore the dead to life on the [[Holy World]] (which is often identified with [[Havatrakh]], or possibly an undiscovered moon of the same).<br />
<br />
They believe that the Yebade brought [[human]]s to [[Galhaf]].<br />
<br />
[[Category:Religions]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Planets_of_Chihazh&diff=148353Planets of Chihazh2022-04-24T02:22:54Z<p>Christina: Created page with "Chihazh is commonly considered by Galhafan astronomers to have 11 known major planets in 10 orbits<ref>Some..."</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Chihazh]] is commonly considered by Galhafan astronomers to have 11 known [[Astronomical classification#Major planets and dwarf planets|major planets]] in 10 orbits<ref>Some astronomers define "major planet" differently and thus count more than 11</ref>, although we would probably classify [[Havatrakh]] as a [[Wikipedia:brown dwarf|brown dwarf]] rather than as a planet. Names are given in both modern Ivetsian with their [[Classical Sanle roots in the Kasshian languages|derivation]] from [[Classical Sanle]] and in [[Classical Blafu]], the language of scholarship. Planetary names are descriptive. In Ivetsian, they end with a suffix derived from the Classical Sanle ''tkab'' meaning "star", but now used to simply mean "planet". In modern Ivetsian, this morpheme is usually -takh, but can sometimes be -dakh or -ska. Excluding [[Galhaf]] itself, there were five planets known to ancient observers.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=10 align=center | Major Planets<br />
|-<br />
! Order<br />
! Name ([[Ivetsian]])<br />
! Etymology ([[Classical Sanle]])<br />
! Mass<br />
! Type<br />
! Orbital period<br />
! Semimajor axis<br />
! Eccentricity<br />
! Discovered<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| [[Zhimblaska]]<br />
| Shimrá tkab (Hidden Star)<br />
| 5.432×10<sup>23</sup> kg<br />
| Rocky<br />
| 9.8175 d<br />
| 11,857,000 km<br />
| .024<br />
| 507 OE<ref>Due to its proximity to Chihazh, it is always lost in the glare</ref><br />
|-<br />
| II<br />
| [[Tuzatrakh]]<br />
| Tosár tkab (Fast Star)<br />
| 3.875×10<sup>23</sup> kg<br />
| Rocky<br />
| 37.3471 d<br />
| 28,895,000 km<br />
| .016<br />
| rowspan=3 | Known since ancient times<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| [[Ufsandakh]]<br />
| Pshán tkab (Bright Star)<br />
| 2.043×10<sup>25</sup> kg<br />
| Rocky<br />
| 126.728 d<br />
| 65,248,000 km<br />
| .067<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| [[Galhaf]]<br />
| Wagallapa (Our World)<ref>[[Classical Kasshian]]</ref><br />
| 5.28962×10<sup>24</sup> kg<br />
| Rocky<br />
| 259.655 d<br />
| 105,255,160 km<br />
| .066<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=10 align=center| Inner Asteroid belt<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | V<br />
| [[Zheftakh]]<br />
| Zhev tkab (Great Star)<br />
| 1.846 × 10<sup>28</sup> kg <br />
| Gas<ref>Sub-brown dwarf</ref><br />
| rowspan=2 | 1,701.18 d<br>4.65768 yr<br />
| rowspan=2 | 368,541,000 km<br />
| rowspan=2 | .0415<br />
| rowspan=3 | Known since ancient times<br />
|-<br />
| [[Uspendakh]]<ref>[[Wikipedia:Trojan planet|Trojan planet]]</ref><br />
| Tpen tkab (Follower Star)<br />
| 3.0471 × 10<sup>24</sup> kg<br />
| Rocky<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| [[Vozataftakh]]<br />
| Ksátlhap tkab (Slow Star)<br />
| 9.131 × 10<sup>26</sup> kg<br />
| Gas<br />
| 5,963.68 d<br>16.3280 yr<br />
| 850,475,000 km<br />
| .0212<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| [[Undaska]]<br />
| Ald tkab (Child star)<br />
| 1.8723 × 10<sup>24</sup> kg<br />
| Rocky<br />
| 8,945.52 d<br>24.4920 yr<ref>In 3:2 resonance with Vozataftakh</ref><br />
| 1,114,440,000 km <br />
| .1613<br />
| 828 OE<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| [[Nyatakh]]<br />
| Nikh tkab (Outer Star)<br />
| 2.0507 × 10<sup>26</sup> kg<br />
| Ice giant<br />
| 18,587.2 d<br>50.8901 yr<br />
| 1,814,660,000 km<br />
| .0563<br />
| 185 BOE<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=10 align=center | Middle asteroid belt<br />
|-<br />
| IX<br />
| [[Ufsahastakh]]<br />
| Psaks tkab (Shepherd Star)<br />
| <br />
| Ice giant<br />
| 90,178 d<br>246.897 yr<ref>In 2:3 orbital resonance with Havatrakh</ref><br />
| 5,200,060,000 km<br />
| .068<br />
| 845 OE<br />
|-<br />
| X<br />
| [[Havatrakh]]<br />
| Kabar tkab (Found star)<br />
| 7.0645 × 10<sup>28</sup> kg <br />
| Brown dwarf<br />
| 135,267 d<br>370.348 yr<br />
| 6,814,690,000 km <br />
| .057<br />
| 882 OE<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=10 align=center | Outer asteroid belt<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8 align=center | Lesser Planets (incomplete)<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8 align=center | Located in Inner Asteroid Belt<br />
|-<br />
! Name ([[Ivetsian]])<br />
! Etymology<br />
! Mass<br />
! Orbital period<br />
! Semimajor axis<br />
! Eccentricity<br />
! Discovered<br />
|-<br />
| Dakuska<ref>Originally known as Jishiska, then Dakuhezh</ref><br />
| Tak-lo tkab (First star)<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| Zhibaska<br />
| Divb tkab (Ally Star)<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| Ostagaska<br />
| Shtark tkab (Brother Star)<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8 align=center | Located in Middle Asteroid Belt<br />
|-<br />
| [[Ungyaska]]<br />
| Mkék tkab (Cold Star)<br />
| <br />
| 76.3352 yr<ref name="nya32">In 3:2 resonance with Nyatakh</ref><br />
| 2,377,880,000 km<br />
| 0.2403<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| [[Dreftakh]]<br />
| Dref tkab (Winter Star)<br />
| <br />
| 76.3352 yr<ref name="nya32"/><br />
| 2,377,880,000 km<br />
| 0.1723<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8 align=center | Located in Outer Asteroid Belt<br />
|-<br />
| [[Shivrashandakh]]<br />
| [[Shivrashan]] + -takh<br />
| <br />
| 2,740 yr<br />
| 25,873,200,000 km<br />
| 0.1896<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Astronomy]]<br />
*[[Astronomical classification]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Conworlds]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=The_Secret_History_of_the_Three_Worlds&diff=148352The Secret History of the Three Worlds2022-04-24T02:22:04Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''''The Secret History of the Three Worlds''''' is a controversial book claiming to "uncover" the "secret history" of Galhaf, Ufsandakh, and the Xenogenesis|unknown..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''''The Secret History of the Three Worlds''''' is a controversial book claiming to "uncover" the "secret history" of [[Galhaf]], [[Ufsandakh]], and the [[Xenogenesis|unknown homeworld]] of [[human|humanity]], written in 795 OE.<br />
<br />
According to this book's claims, a godlike, but noncorporeal, race exists on [[Ufsandakh]] called the ''yebade'' (claimed to translate as "wise thinkers" in their own language). This race has sought to create intelligent beings to serve them and spread life and enlightenment throughout the universe. The book claims that the [[hive-mind]]s were their first attempt at creating a [[sapient]] race. After that attempt failed, they tried again, creating the [[pteranthropan]]s. While the pteranthropans lacked the hive-minds single-minded aggressiveness, they proved too passive for the yebade, who, after long experimenting, discovered a way to bring [[human]]s to Galhaf. Humans were the ideal middle ground. They've further directed human development on Galhaf through strategic "possession" of various individuals throughout history, including great military and political leaders and scientists. They've also posed as gods to shape religions.<br />
<br />
Supporters of this book point to its allegedly successful prediction of the discovery of [[Havatrakh]]. It is true that <i>The Secret History</i> did describe an additional planet beyond the orbit of [[Ufsahastakh]], but critics point out that A) <i>The Secret History</i> described it as Galhaf-like (supporters retort that the description may refer to a moon of Havatrakh, rather than Havatrakh itself), and that B) there had long been speculation about the possible existence of an eleventh planet.<br />
<br />
Several rival religions have been founded upon the claims of this book, both collectively referred to as the [[Trimundialism|Trimundial faiths]]. Both are centered on the belief in the Yebade as godlike beings, and on the rejection of an immortal soul, believing, rather, that only those who find favor with the Yebade will be preserved post-mortem.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Books]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Taremba_language_family&diff=148351Taremba language family2022-04-24T02:20:56Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The '''Taremba language family''' is a primary language family on Galhaf. Its name is derived from the reconstructed word ''táremba'' meaning "language" in the proto-languag..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Taremba language family''' is a primary language family on Galhaf. Its name is derived from the reconstructed word ''táremba'' meaning "language" in the proto-language. It is divided into three major branches: Kasshian, Coastal, and Inland. In modern times, the most prominent branch of this family are the [[Neokasshi languages]], descendants of [[Classical Kasshian]]. The common ancestor is known as [[Proto-Taremba]], which was mostly unrecorded, though a few words show up in various records. There is some speculation that it may be related to the Oppaic languages in a larger Taremba-Oppaic family.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
The ancestral language had a fairly simple [[Proto-Taremba#phonology|phonology]], with mostly simple syllables and a relatively small set of phonemes (18 consonants and 6 vowels). There were no complex codas, and the only syllable-initial clusters permitted were stop-liquid sequences. While a few Tareban languages have developed more complex syllables, most still retain simple syllables with relatively small phonemic sets.<br />
<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
Proto-Taremba was highly agglutinative, with multiple sets of affixes. Words could often have several affixes. Most of the descendant languages preserve some degree of that agglutination, though various degrees of fusion are common. Some descendants have undergone sufficiently drastic sound changes that the original agglutinative structure is no longer visible.<br />
<br />
== Noun inflections ==<br />
The protolanguage had a rich set of classifiers, which evolved into a gender system in all of its descendants. The gender system of the descendants is highly variable, and none preserve all of the ancestral classifiers. Most have also altered the meaning of at least a few of the genders, making direct comparison between languages difficult. The protolanguage also had a rich case system, preserved in most (but not all) modern Taremban languages.<br />
<br />
== Verb inflections ==<br />
Verbal inflection was particularly rich in Proto-Taremba, and remains rich in most modern languages.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
Proto-Taremba was an [[Wikipedia:ergative-absolutive language|ergative language]]. Due to influence from other languages, many of the modern languages have switched to an [[Wikipedia:nominative-accusative language|accusative syntax]].<br />
<br />
== Languages ==<br />
There are three major branches, the Kasshian, the Coastal, and the Inland. Some linguists group the Coastal and Inland together in a Continental branch, others group the Coastal and Kasshian together as a Coastal-Kasshian branch, while still others believe that the three represent a fundamental threeway split. An incomplete listing:<br />
*[[Kasshian languages|Kasshian]]<br />
**North Kasshian<br />
***[[Gitanilan]]<br />
****[[Hassan]]<br />
**South Kasshian<br />
***[[Neokasshi languages|Neokasshi]]<br />
****[[Ivetsian]]<br />
****[[Shivrashanian]]<br />
*Coastal<br />
**[[Sanu]]<br />
*Inland<br />
**Ultramontane<br />
**Mountain<br />
**Southern<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
*[[Proto-Taremba]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Taremban languages| ]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Sasalh&diff=148350Sasalh2022-04-24T02:20:07Z<p>Christina: Created page with "{| border=0 align=right cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f8f8f8; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: co..."</p>
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<div>{| border=0 align=right cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f8f8f8; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"<br />
|+ <big>'''Sasash'''</big><br />
|-<br />
| '''Mean distance from [[Galhaf]]''' || 272,568 km<br />
|-<br />
| '''Perigee''' || 264,827 km<br />
|-<br />
| '''Apogee''' || 280,309 km<br />
|-<br />
| '''Orbital period''' || 17 d, 22 h, 26 m, 13.155 s (Earth time)<br>16 d, 21 h, 56 m, 8.674 s (Galhafan time)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Synodic period (average)''' || 19 d, 6 h, 22 m, 28.924 s (Earth time)<br>18 d, 4 h, 3 m, 19.816 s (Galhafan time) <br />
|-<br />
| '''Rotational period''' || 17 d, 22 h, 26 m, 13.155 s (Earth time)<br>16 d, 21 h, 56 m, 8.674 s (Galhafan time)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Eccentricity''' || .0284<br />
|-<br />
| '''Diameter''' || 2,104 km<br />
|-<br />
| '''Surface area''' || 13,910,000 km²<br />
|-<br />
| '''Angular size''' || 25.8'- 26.5'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Mass''' || 2.343×10<sup>22</sup> kg<br />
|-<br />
| '''Surface Gravity''' || 1.414 m/s²<br>.1442 g<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Sasash''' is the larger of [[Galhaf]]'s two moons, orbiting in an only slightly-eccentric orbit just a little under 17 Galhafan days. As is common with satellites, it is tide-locked to Galhaf. Its orbit varies somewhat due to gravitational influences from other planets and [[Chihazh]].<br />
<br />
Its name is related to the common noun ''zash'' meaning "moon". The name ''Sasash'' is derived from the [[Classical Kasshian]] ''waTassaklas'', which included the root ''(wa)saklas'' meaning "moon" or "month", the source of the common noun ''zash''.<br />
<br />
==Origin==<br />
Sasash is generally believed to have formed from the impact of a large planetary object early in Galhaf's history. Sasash originated in a much closer orbit to Galhaf, and has slowly moved outwards due to tidal interactions with Galhaf, simultaneously slowing Galhaf's rotational speed. At some point in its outward migration, the lesser moon, [[Lhásta]], got caught in a 3:2 [[wikipedia:orbital resonance|orbital resonance]] with Sasash.<br />
<br />
==Physical structure==<br />
Sasash is significantly denser than Earth's moon, presumably due to differences in the details of the giant impacts that formed each body. It is significantly smaller than Earth's moon, however, with a radius just 60.6% the Moon's and a mass 31.9% the Moon's. It has no real atmosphere.<br />
<br />
==Appearance from Galhaf==<br />
From the surface of Galhaf, Sasash appears only a little smaller than our own Moon. Its apparent angular size is just a little smaller than [[Chihazh]]'s, thus, total solar eclipses are unknown on Galhaf.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Moons]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Category:Sanle&diff=148349Category:Sanle2022-04-24T02:18:57Z<p>Christina: Created page with "Category:Concultures"</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Concultures]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Sanle_calendar&diff=148348Sanle calendar2022-04-24T02:18:42Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The '''Sanle calendar''' is an obsolete lunisolar calendar once used by the Sanle Empire and areas under their influence. == Year lengths == Years contained..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Sanle calendar''' is an obsolete lunisolar [[calendars|calendar]] once used by the [[Sanle Empire]] and areas under their influence.<br />
<br />
== Year lengths ==<br />
Years contained either 13 months or 14 months. Years containing the 14th month were determined according to an 86-year cycle called the Large Sun Cycle which, in turn, was based on a 21-year cycle, called the Small Sun Cycle. In the Small Sun Cycle, the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th, and 20th years had 14 months. After every 4th Small Sun Cycle, two additional years were added, the first 13 month the second 14 months, to make the 86-year Large Sun Cycle.<br />
<br />
== Month lengths ==<br />
Most months were 18 days. The 3rd and 9th months were 19 days, while the 6th month was usually 18 days but sometimes 19 days. Its length was determined by a set of nested cycles. The first was the 7-year Small Lunar Cycle. In the Small Cycle, the 2nd and 5th years had a long 6th month. Sixteen of these made up the 112-year Large Lunar Cycle. In the 16th Small Cycle, the 5th year had a short 6th month. 10 Large Cycles in turn made a Grand Cycle (1,120 years). In the 10th Large Cycle, the 16th Small Cycle had a long month in the 2nd and 5th years<br />
<br />
== Month names ==<br />
The months were simply numbered, although various names were sometimes used for different months in different areas. There was no united naming system, however, and thus the months are generally referred to by numbers.<br />
<br />
== Accuracy ==<br />
The Sanle calendar has a very high degree of accuracy. On average, the lunar months are accurate to about 1 day every 80,000 year or so, although this is only an average and in the short term, the months be a day or so off one way or the other. The months gradually drift relative to the seasons by about one day every 2800 years, although, due to precession, this is dwarfed on a practical timescale by changes in seasonal lengths.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Sanle]]<br />
[[Category:Calendars]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Major_faith_(Kasshi_Empire)&diff=148347Major faith (Kasshi Empire)2022-04-24T02:18:09Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The term '''major faith''' is used within the Kasshi Empire to refer to certain religions with legal privileges. They are permitted to elect repres..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The term '''major faith''' is used within the [[Kasshi Empire (modern)|Kasshi Empire]] to refer to certain religions with legal privileges. They are permitted to elect representatives to the [[Kasshi parliament#Grand Assembly|Grand Assembly]]. They are also granted certain legal rights over their followers, for example, being permitted to inflict certain legal punishments on those who break the laws of their faith, and receive government funding. They are required to provide certain social services, officially without regard to religion, though in practice, they tend to favor their own followers. All citizens are registered as being either a member of one of the major faiths or as being "none of the above", the official term translates as "secular", but in this context, is somewhat misleading, since it can be used for not only non-believers, but also members of religions without "major faith" status.<br />
<br />
Most of the major faiths are large religions, but [[Nrastaism]] and [[Kasshi Paganism]], both of which in modern times are relatively small religions, have major faith status due to their historical significance to the Kasshi people. The largest religion among the modern Kasshi is [[Neopaganism]], which is based on traditional paganism, but with large-scale syncretism with other religions.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Religions]]<br />
[[Category:Kasshi]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Kasshi_Paganism&diff=148346Kasshi Paganism2022-04-24T02:17:38Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Kasshi Paganism''' refers to the original, polytheistic, religion of the Kasshi. Kasshi Paganism originated in their homeland, the island of Kassa...."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Kasshi Paganism''' refers to the original, polytheistic, [[religions|religion]] of the [[Kasshi]]. Kasshi Paganism originated in their homeland, the island of [[Kassa]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The origins of Kasshi paganism are lost in the ancient past. The religion has no single founder, but evolved gradually, without any centralized structure, although several cities on Kassa were centers of major schools of thought, such as [[Lambets]] and [[Gitanila]]. There were general commonalities between different regions, but no centralized doctrine. After the founding of [[Nrastaism]], many pagans on the mainland converted to the new faith. On Kassa, there was also some initial headway made by missionaries, but this spurred a centralizing movement to revitalize and strengthen the traditional beliefs. Among the products of this movement was, for the first time, a largely unified theology, and a formal authorized collection of myths and teachings.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Religions]]<br />
[[Category:Kasshi|Paganism]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Religions_of_Galhaf&diff=148345Religions of Galhaf2022-04-24T02:17:11Z<p>Christina: Created page with "As on Earth, there are many religions on Galhaf. This is a very incomplete list of religions. *Blafu Religion *Kasshi Paganism *Laughing Mystics: A mystery re..."</p>
<hr />
<div>As on Earth, there are many religions on [[Galhaf]]. This is a very incomplete list of religions.<br />
*[[Blafu Religion]]<br />
*[[Kasshi Paganism]]<br />
*[[Laughing Mystics]]: A mystery religion popular in [[East Odirá]]<br />
*[[Major faith (Kasshi Empire)]]<br />
*[[Nrastaism]]: Historically the major religion of the [[Kasshi Empire]], a relatively small religion today<br />
*[[Trimundialism]]: A new religion, originating in this century<br />
<br />
[[Category:Religions| ]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Category:Taremban_languages&diff=148344Category:Taremban languages2022-04-24T02:16:37Z<p>Christina: Created page with "Category:Conlangs"</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Proto-Taremba&diff=148343Proto-Taremba2022-04-24T02:16:20Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Proto-Taremba''' is the reconstructed ancestor of the Taremba language family, which includes Classical Kasshian. == Name == When Kasshian linguists first began to..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Proto-Taremba''' is the reconstructed ancestor of the [[Taremba language family]], which includes [[Classical Kasshian]].<br />
<br />
== Name ==<br />
When Kasshian linguists first began to study languages related to [[Classical Kasshian]], they did not initially give a name to the family or the ancestral language. Related languages were simply referred to as ''wafsagachii wafnestuçasai'' ("related languages"). Sometimes the whole group was collectively referred to as the "Kasshi family". Once work began on reconstructing the ancestor itself, the term ''waskachi wachika'' ("old language") was used, eventually translated into the protolanguage itself as ''tara Táremba tobán''. Táremba was then used for the family itself.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Consonants<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=3 | '''Stop'''<br />
| '''Prenasalized'''<br />
| mb<br />
| <br />
| nd<br />
| <br />
| ŋg<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Voiced'''<br />
| b<br />
| <br />
| d<br />
| <br />
| g<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| '''Voiceless'''<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Nasal'''<br />
| m<br />
|<br />
| n<br />
|<br />
| ŋ<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | '''Fricative'''<br />
| '''Voiced'''<br />
| <br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Voiceless'''<br />
| <br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
| h<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Aproximates'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| r<br />
| y<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Laterals'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
/j/ was a highly restricted phoneme. It only occurred word-initially preceding /a/.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || i || || || || || || || || || u<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || e || || ə || || o || ||<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || a<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Syllables ===<br />
Syllables were more restricted than in Classical Kasshian. Syllables could start with:<br />
*Any vowel<br />
*Any consonant<br />
*A stop followed by an l or r<br />
Syllables could end with<br />
*Any nasal<br />
*Any voiceless fricative<br />
*L or R<br />
<br />
In addition, no word could have more than one prenasalized stop or one voiced stop.<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
Any syllable could be stressed. The stressed syllable was indicated with an acute.<br />
<br />
== Nouns ==<br />
Nouns took number and case suffixes, and noun phrases were preceded by article-like classifiers, traditionally referred to as genders based on how they developed in most descendants. The gender markers agreed with the noun in number and case.<br />
=== Genders ===<br />
The "gender" system of Proto-Taremba was actually a classifier system. There is some uncertainty over the exact number, as some classifiers may have disappeared from all descendants before they were written, and some branches may have created new classifiers. The most common reconstruction contains 39 classifiers, on the assumption that, with the exception of gender III in the Kasshian languages, no new classifiers/genders were developed after the protolanguage began to breakup. Most linguists believe that by that point, classifiers had already become obligatory for all nouns. The classifiers are believed to have been derived from free nouns, in some cases phonetically simplified. A few had no clear cognate, most likely because the source word was lost by this point. There was no system of gender agreement in Proto-Taremba. These classifiers were placed before nouns, after numbers and demonstratives but before any other adjectives. They could also be used as pronouns. The classifiers took the same case and number suffixes as the nouns.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Classifier <br />
! Presumed origin<br />
! Use<br />
! Kasshian<br>Gender<br />
|-<br />
| bəra<br />
| mbərá (thing)<br />
| Generic tangible nouns<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| bihu<br />
| mbihú (uninhabited place<ref group="n">Presumably originally just "place"</ref>)<br />
| Places<br />
| <br />
|- <br />
| bite<br />
| mbisté (lump)<br />
| Irregularly-shaped objects, mass nouns<br />
| VII<br />
|-<br />
| bitu<br />
| bíftu (shape)<br />
| Spatial relationships, shapes<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| dake<br />
| odáske (swarm)<br />
| Swarming creatures<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| daza<br />
| ndázətə (root)<br />
| Beginnings, sources, origins<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| era<br />
| erá (star)<br />
| Celestial objects<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| hasna<br />
| tuhásnə (box)<br />
| Containers<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| hatu<br />
| quháftu (sword)<br />
| Violence<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| heka<br />
| héka (fish)<br />
| Fish<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| hevo<br />
| tuhévo (tail)<br />
| Generic animal classifier<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| hitu<br />
| hikaŋgətú (rock)<br />
| Hard objects<br />
| <br />
|- <br />
| hona<br />
| kahóna (handle)<br />
| Instruments and tools<br />
| VIII<br />
|-<br />
| isa<br />
| yasági (clothing)<br />
| Coverings<br />
| <br />
|- <br />
| karə<br />
| efkárə (book, scroll)<br />
| Long, narrow, objects<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| katə<br />
| bikátə (wing)<br />
| Birds<br />
| XII<ref name="OK" group="n">Old Kasshian</ref><br />
|- <br />
| kira<br />
| kərágənos? (body)<br />
| body parts<br />
| <br />
|- <br />
| kita<br />
| kíltas (beast of burden)<br />
| Domesticated animals<br />
| IV<br />
|-<br />
| kodi<br />
| kódiŋgəte (thought)<br />
| Emotions, mental states/actions<br />
| <br />
|- <br />
| kula<br />
| kuláta (house)<br />
| Groups of humans, buildings, trade, objects used in trade, interpersonal relationships<br />
| XI<ref name="OK" group="n"/><br />
|-<br />
| laŋes<br />
| yalaŋés (idea)<br />
| Concepts, abstractions, generic non-physical<br />
| <br />
|- <br />
| lase<br />
| laséte (prayer)<br />
| Sacred objects, religious practices, religion<br />
| X<br />
|- <br />
| makis<br />
| maqís (leaf)<br />
| Plants<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| mase<br />
| agəmáses (cart)<br />
| Vehicles<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| nade<br />
| ndáde (change)<br />
| Change of state<br />
| <br />
|- <br />
| nako<br />
| nakósə (man)<br />
| Male human<br />
| II<br />
|-<br />
| nano<br />
| nálo (fruit<ref group="n">Thought to have originally been more generally "food"</ref>)<br />
| Food<br />
| <br />
|- <br />
| nika<br />
| maníka (ball)<br />
| Round objects<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| ŋuhas<br />
| teŋuhás (hear)<br />
| Sounds<br />
| <br />
|- <br />
| quha<br />
| qúha (burn)<br />
| Water and fire<br />
| VI<br />
|-<br />
| raka<br />
| ráqə (grain of sand)<br />
| Small objects, objects that come in large numbers<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| raza<br />
| raqəzás (day)<br />
| Events, time<br />
|- <br />
| rəba<br />
| rəblá (strength)<br />
| Large animals<br />
| V<br />
|-<br />
| sagan<br />
| sáŋgən (sky)<br />
| Weather phenomena<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| tara<br />
| tárba (word)<br />
| Words, languages, grammatical concepts, etc.<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| teba<br />
| <ref name="unknown" group="n">Unknown, probably a word that had been lost by the Proto-Taremba stage</ref><br />
| Female human<br />
| I<br />
|- <br />
| tokan<br />
| trokám (glory)<br />
| Deities, supernatural beings, spiritual concepts<br />
| IX<br />
|-<br />
| zega<br />
| dazéŋga (shadow)<br />
| Physical states<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| zəde<br />
| ŋəzəndé (table)<br />
| Objects with flat surfaces<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<references group="n"/><br />
<br />
=== Number ===<br />
Proto-Tareba had four numbers, singular, dual, paucal, and plural, with the following suffixes:<br />
*Dual: -li<br />
*Paucal: -(ə)f<br />
*Plural: -na<br />
<br />
-li and -na became -l and -n after vowel-final classifiers<br />
<br />
=== Case ===<br />
*Topic: -la<ref>Overrode other cases</ref><br />
*Patient: -he<br />
*Agent: -arə, -ka<br />
**-arə was used on nouns and adjectives, -ka on pronouns and articles<br />
*Genitive: -afə<br />
*Dative: -azə<br />
==== Postpositions ====<br />
These postpositions had case-like functions. In the earliest form of the language, they are believed to have been placed at the end of the entire noun-phrase, later becoming clitics on the head noun. The nouns would be in various cases:<br />
*Patient<br />
**Commitative: ran<br />
**Locative: qavə<br />
**Inessive: ka<br />
**Circumlocative: nde<br />
*Genitive<br />
**Ablative: ta<br />
**Circumablative: ŋgos<br />
*Dative<br />
**Allative: sə<br />
**Illative: mba<br />
**Perillative: mbaba<br />
**Circumallative: ma<br />
**Circumperlative: mama<br />
**Benefactive: ŋa<br />
*Ergative<br />
**Perlative: ne<br />
**Elative: ndu<br />
**Instrumental: li<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
=== Clitics ===<br />
==== Personal Clitics ====<br />
These were prefixed either to verb or the auxilary.<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!<br />
!Singular<br />
!Dual<br />
!Paucal<br />
!Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!1<sup>st</sup><br />
| hə<br>(later qo-)<br />
| lopə<br />
| taqe<br />
| ne<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!2<sup>nd</sup><br />
| fen<br />
| feni<br />
| fenəf<br />
| fana<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!3<sup>rd</sup> sapient<ref>Humans and gods, whether [[pteranthropan]]s would've been classified thus is unknown</ref><br />
| tas<br />
| tehi<br />
| taf<br />
| tan<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!3<sup>rd</sup> non-sapient<br />
| lə<br />
| li<br />
| ləf<br />
| ləna<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Reflexive ====<br />
*ko-<br />
This was attached immediately to the beginning of the verb-phrase<br />
<br />
=== Prefixes ===<br />
<br />
==== Trigger ====<br />
Trigger in Proto-Tareba was a voice-like system that dictated the role of the topic (marked by -la)<br />
*Agent: so-<br />
*Patient: qə-<br />
*Allative: sar-<br />
*Ablative: ta-<br />
*Locative: qavə-<br />
*Benefactive: na-<br />
<br />
==== Tense ====<br />
*Past: fa-<br />
*Future: naqe-<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
*If: ve(h)-<br />
*Counter-factual: gula-<br />
*Then: hos-<br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Mood was suffixed to both the main verb and the aspectual auxiliary<br />
*Indicative: Ø<br />
*Irrealis: -ko<br />
*Imperative/hortative: -kə<br />
*Prohibitive: -ral<br />
<br />
=== Auxilaries ===<br />
These typically followed the verb, with personal clitics attaching either to the free verb or to the auxiliary, or sometimes both.<br />
*Prospective: flamá<br />
*Inceptive: túŋgə (Also a free verb meaning "open")<br />
*Progressive: faqé(l) (Also a free verb meaning "go")<br />
*Habitual: válnas (Also a free verb menaing "walk")<br />
*Cessative: gará (Also a free verb meaning "close")<br />
*Retrospective: ŋókə (From the verb leŋókə "finish")<br />
The lack of an auxiliary typically indicated a perfective meaning<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!<br />
!Singular<br />
!Dual<br />
!Paucal<br />
!Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!1<sup>st</sup><br />
| Qo<br />
| Sa<br />
| əná<br />
| Ti<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!2<sup>nd</sup><br />
| Ŋgil<br />
| Ndre<br />
| Ŋgíləf<br />
| Ŋgílna<br />
|}<br />
In addition, the gender-markers listed earlier were used as 3rd person pronouns<br />
These pronouns took the following cases<br />
*Nominative: no suffix<br />
*Accusative: -he<br />
*Genetive: -wa<br />
*Dative: -tuf<br />
*Postpositional: -in<br />
Third person pronouns took null for absolutive and -ka for ergative<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
Proto-Taremba was strictly verb-final, with modifiers typically following their head, with the major exception of demonstratives, numbers, and genitives, which typically preceded nouns.<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Taremban languages]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Old_Kasshian&diff=148342Old Kasshian2022-04-24T02:15:14Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Old Kasshian''' is the ancestor of the Kasshian branch of the Taremba language family. It was descended from Proto-Taremba, to which it rema..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Old Kasshian''' is the ancestor of the [[Kasshian languages|Kasshian branch]] of the [[Taremba language family]]. It was descended from [[Proto-Taremba]], to which it remained quite similar. This page will focus on Late Old Kasshian, at the stage where it began to break up into the Kasshian languages.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Consonants<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
! Glottal<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | '''Stop'''<br />
| '''Voiced'''<br />
| b<br />
| <br />
| d<br />
| <br />
| g<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Voiceless'''<br />
| p<br />
|<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Nasal'''<br />
| m<br />
|<br />
| n<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | '''Fricative'''<br />
| '''Voiced'''<br />
| <br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Voiceless'''<br />
| <br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Aproximates'''<br />
| w<br />
| <br />
| r<br />
| y<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Laterals'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The phoneme /h/ had been lost entirely by Old Kasshian. /r/ was lost word-finally and /l/ was lost intervocalically and the prenasalized stops had become voiced stops. Otherwise, the consonant inventory was the same as in Proto-Tareba, though northern dialects had introduced a nasal allophone of /g/<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2| Back<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| High || i || || || || || || || || || u<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Mid || || || e || || ə || || o || ||<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Low || || || || || a<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Vowels could be long or short. Long vowels were less common than in [[Classical Kasshian]], the only long vowels existing being descended from sequences of like vowels.<br />
<br />
=== Syllables ===<br />
Permitted syllables were broader than in either Proto-Tareba or Classical Kasshian. Syllables could begin with<br />
*Any consonant<br />
*Any vowel<br />
*Any consonant followed by an l, r, w, or y<br />
Syllables could end with any consonant<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
Stressed remained variable in Old Kasshian.<br />
<br />
== Nouns ==<br />
=== Gender ===<br />
The classifiers of Proto-Tareba were in the process of developing into a true gender system in Old Kasshian. In the earliest stages, agreement was only in predicates, and not obligatory even there. By Late Old Kasshian, agreement was obligatory in predicates and optional in attributive adjectives, obligatory when the adjective preceded the noun, as still sometimes happened in Old Kasshian.<br />
<br />
In the earliest recorded form of Old Kasshian, there were 11 genders, genders I, II, and IV-XII, which subsequently increased to 12 with the acquisition of gender III. The genders were similar to those of Classical Kasshian, except for XI and XII<br />
*Gender I was for female humans<br />
*Gender II was for male humans<br />
*Gender III was for epicene and [[androgyne (Kasshi)|androgyne]]s. This was a development of Late Old Kasshian, and had different forms in northern and southern dialects<br />
*Gender IV was for domestic animals and culturally-significant animals, as well as infants<br />
*Gender V was for other animals<br />
*Gender VI was for liquids, fire, wind, and other moving inanimates, as well as plants<br />
*Gender VII was for most inanimates<br />
*Gender VIII was for instruments, tools, language, beliefs, and other cultural abstractions<br />
*Gender IX was for gods, weather phenomena, stars, etc.<br />
*Gender X was for sacred items<br />
*Gender XI was for groups of humans, towns, cities, political units, etc.<br />
*Gender XII was for birds<br />
<br />
Genders IX and X were already beginning to be confused by the Late Old Kasshian stage, with nouns moving back and forth between them. Gender XII was vestigial in all dialects, while gender XI was beginning to disappear as well.<br />
<br />
Body parts were mixed in their assignment. Some were placed into specific genders, genders VIII and VI being common, while others were assigned according to their owner. The earliest stages of Old Kasshian show the most variability in assignment. By Late Old Kasshian, there was more stability in their assignment, though differing between dialects.<br />
<br />
=== Prefixes ===<br />
Gender-prefixes had slight variations in form according to the noun or adjective they were attached to. There were three sets of prefixes, one for "hard" consonants (consonants other than l, r, w, or y), one for "soft" consonants (l, r, w, y), and one for vowels. Genders III, V, VI, and IX had dialectal variants. In the case of gender III, the variants derive from different sources, while genders V, VI and IX had the same [[Proto-Taremba#Genders|Proto-Taremba origin]].<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | Gender<br />
! colspan=3 | Hard consonants<br />
! rowspan=19 | <br />
! colspan=3 | Soft consonants<br />
! rowspan=19 | <br />
! colspan=3 | Vowels<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | I<br />
| te<br />
| tel<br />
| tef<br />
| t<br />
| tel<br />
| tef<br />
| t(y)<br />
| tl<br />
| tef<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | II<br />
| na<br />
| nal<br />
| naf<br />
| n<br />
| nal<br />
| naf<br />
| n<br />
| nl<br />
| naf<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | III<br />
! Northern<br />
| do<br />
| dol<br />
| dof<br />
| d<br />
| dol<br />
| dof<br />
| d(w)<br />
| dl<br />
| dof<br />
|-<br />
! Southern<br />
| so<br />
| sol<br />
| sof<br />
| s<br />
| sol<br />
| sof<br />
| s(w)<br />
| sl<br />
| sof<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | IV<br />
| ki<br />
| kil<br />
| kif<br />
| k<br />
| kil<br />
| kif<br />
| k(y)<br />
| kl<br />
| kif<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | V<br />
! Variant I<br />
| rə<br />
| rəl<br />
| rəf<br />
| r<ref>rə- before r or l</ref><br />
| rəl<br />
| rəf<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | r<br />
| rəf<br />
|-<br />
! Variant II<br />
| pa<br />
| pal<br />
| paf<br />
| p<br />
| pal<br />
| paf<br />
| p<br />
| pl<br />
| paf<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | VI<br />
! Variant I<br />
| wa<br />
| wal<br />
| waf<br />
| wa<br />
| wal<br />
| waf<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | w<br />
| waf<br />
|-<br />
! Variant II<br />
| kwa<br />
| kwal<br />
| kwaf<br />
| kwa<br />
| kwal<br />
| kwaf<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | kw<br />
| kwaf<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | VII<br />
| pi<br />
| pil<br />
| pif<br />
| p<br />
| pil<br />
| pif<br />
| p(y)<br />
| pl<br />
| pif<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | VIII<br />
| on<br />
| ol<br />
| of<br />
| n<br />
| l<ref>ol- before l or r</ref><br />
| f<br />
| n<br />
| l<br />
| f<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | IX<br />
! Variant I<br />
| ton<br />
| tonli<br />
| tonna<br />
| ton<br />
| tonli<br />
| tonna<br />
| rowspan=2 | tonk<br />
| tonny<br />
| tonn<br />
|-<br />
! Variant II<br />
| rowspan=2 | tok<br />
| tonkli<br />
| tonka<br />
| tonk<br />
| tonkli<br />
| rowspan=2 | tonk<br />
| tonkl<br />
| rowspan=2 | tonk<br />
|-<br />
! Variant III<br />
| tokəl<br />
| tokən<br />
| tok<br />
| tokl<ref>tok before l or r</ref><br />
| tok<br />
| tokl<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | X<br />
| la<br />
| lal<br />
| laf<br />
| l<ref>la- before l or r</ref><br />
| lal<br />
| laf<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | l<br />
| laf<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | XI<br />
| kla<br />
| klal<br />
| klaf<br />
| kla<br />
| klal<br />
| klaf<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | kl<br />
| klaf<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | XII<br />
| ka<br />
| kal<br />
| kaf<br />
| k<br />
| kal<br />
| kaf<br />
| k<br />
| kl<br />
| kaf<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Number ==<br />
Number was marked for dual and plural<br />
*Dual: After vowels, -i was used; with consonant-final nouns, some nouns used -li, other nouns added -l- before the final consonant and -i after it<ref>This is the origin of the geminating and non-geminating paradigms in Classical Kasshian</ref><br />
*Plural: -f after vowels, -əf after consonants<br />
In Late Old Kassan, the distinction between the dual and plural suffixes had weakened, and some dialects tended to use one or the other for both dual and plural.<br />
<br />
== Case ==<br />
There were just four cases in Old Kasshian<br />
*Absolutive: None<br />
*Ergative: -(a)r<br />
*Genitive: -(a)f<br />
*Dative: -(a)z<br />
<br />
=== Case-like postpositions ===<br />
There were several enclitic postpositions with case-like function, added to noun phrases placed in various cases. In the earliest stages of Old Kassan, they were placed at the end of the entire noun phrase, but by Late Old Kasshian, they'd migrated to the head noun.<br />
*Absolutive<br />
**Instrumental: li<br />
**Benefactive: na<br />
**Commitative: ran<br />
**Locative: qav<br />
**Inessive: ka<br />
**Circumlocative: de<br />
**Perlative: ne<br />
*Genitive<br />
**Ablative: ta<br />
**Ellative: tu<br />
**Circumablative: kos<br />
*Dative<br />
**Allative: zə<br />
**Illative: ba<br />
**Perillative: baba<br />
**Circumallative: ma<br />
**Circumperlative: mama<br />
<br />
== Verbs ==<br />
=== Person and aspect ===<br />
Person and aspect were indicated by an inflected auxiliary. Typically, the verb itself, with optional prefixes, occurred at the beginning of the sentence while the auxiliary was at the end. By the Late Old Kasshian period, however, a tendency had developed to attach the auxiliary as a clitic to the end of the verb. Person was marked by a prefix on the auxiliary<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Paucal<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! 1st<br />
| qo-<br />
| lof-<br />
| taqe-<br />
| ne-<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd<br />
| fen-<br />
| feni-<br />
| fen(ə)f-<br />
| fana-<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd sapient<br />
| tas-<br />
| te-<br />
| colspan=2 | tan-<br />
|-<br />
! 3rd non-sapient<br />
| lə-<br />
| li-<br />
| colspan=2 | ləna-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Aspects in Late Old Kasshian were<br />
*Inceptive: tu(n)<br />
*Progressive: qe<br />
*Habitual: va(n) (sometimes -v after vowels)<br />
*Cessative: ra (sometimes -r after vowels)<br />
*Retrospective: nok<br />
*Perfective: ∅<br />
<br />
=== Verbal prefixes ===<br />
==== Voice ====<br />
*Reflexive: ko-/kw-<br />
*Dative: pə-/p-<br />
*Antipassive: so-<br />
<br />
==== Tense ====<br />
*Past: fa-<br />
*Future: naqe-<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
*If: ve-<br />
*Contrafactual: kwa-<br />
*Then: os-<br />
<br />
=== Verbal suffixes ===<br />
Mood was marked by a suffix<br />
*Indicative: -Ø<br />
*Irrealis: -ko<br />
*Imperative/hortative: -kə<br />
*Prohibitive: -ral<br />
<br />
== Pronouns ==<br />
=== Simple ===<br />
The simple pronouns were used primarily for clarity, and were typically unstressed<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=4 | 1st person<br />
! rowspan=3 |<br />
! colspan=4 | 2nd person<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Paucal<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Paucal<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| qo<br />
| sa<br />
| na<br />
| ti<br />
| gil<br />
| dre<br />
| gif<br />
| gilna<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The gender prefixes (of the set used before consonants) were also used as 3rd person pronouns.<br />
<br />
Case was marked with the suffixes:<br />
*Nominative: Ø or -ka<br />
*Accusative: -e<br />
*Genitive: -wa<br />
*Dative: -tu<br />
<br />
=== Emphatic ===<br />
There were two sets of emphatic pronouns, the "ordinary" set, used with standard case-suffixes, and the postpositional set, used with case-like postpositions.<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Paucal<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| Ordinary<br />
| rowspan=2 | Qódeg<br />
| Sádeg<br />
| Nádeg<br />
| Tídeg<br />
|-<br />
| Postpositional<br />
| Sándeg<br />
| Nándeg<br />
| Tíndeg<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| Ordinary<br />
| Gíldeg<br />
| Drédeg<br />
| Gífdeg<br />
| Gílnadeg<br />
|-<br />
| Postpositional<br />
| Gíndeg<br />
| Dréndeg<br />
| Gífindeg<br />
| Gílnandeg<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Case was marked by the same cases as simple pronouns.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
Word order was flexible in Old Kasshian. In the earliest stages, the verb was usually at the end of the sentence. In later stages, the verb's position became more variable, with a tendency towards the beginning of the sentence. Over the Old Kasshian period, adjective placement gradually became more consistently post-nominal.<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshian languages]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Nrastaism&diff=148341Nrastaism2022-04-24T02:14:21Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Nrastaism''' (Classical Kasshian ''wanrastakan'') was the major religion of the Second and Third Kasshi Empires, but today is a relatively..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Nrastaism''' ([[Classical Kasshian]] ''wanrastakan'') was the major religion of the [[Second Kasshi Empire|Second]] and [[Third Kasshi Empire]]s, but today is a relatively small religion. It is classified as a [[Major Faith (Kasshi Empire)|Major Faith]] within the [[Kasshi Empire (modern)|modern Kasshi Empire]]. It is named after its founder, chiNrasta (a title translating as simply "the Prophetess"). It was founded in 2969 BOE<br />
<br />
==Basic beliefs==<br />
Nrastaism is, nominally, a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] faith. Nrastaists believe in a single supreme Deity (''tonDinau''). The Deity is not seen as gendered, although the Deity is often depicted with female symbolism. For convenience, feminine pronouns will be used in English to refer to the Deity. The Deity is seen as the Creator of the universe, but is not seen as being directly involved in running it. Deity's first creations were the [[Divinity (Nrastaism)|Divinities]] (''tonnaDinaukanni'' singular ''tonDinaukan'', literally "Children of the Deity"; note: some speakers place the Divinities in [[Classical Kasshian#Gender|genders I-III]] which would make the plural ''sodDinaukanni''), whom She created as companions.<br />
<br />
===Creation story===<br />
In the Nrastaist creation myth, after creating them, Her first command to them was "Create!" Each Divinity created a different thing, and together, all their creations made the world, but at this time there were no [[Sapient]]s. This was not the Deity's first creation, nor was it her last. She approved of their creation and left it in their care. She then departed into the Void and created other groups of Divinities, and other worlds. Every star, according to Nrastaist doctrine, is another Sun with another World.<br />
<br />
After the Deity departed, some of the Divinities sought to follow the Deity's lead and create companions of their own, "beings like unto themselves, but of lesser glory" in the words of the Book of Creation. There were debates among them over whether it was proper to create sapient beings, with some arguing that only the Deity could do that. The Council split between those who supported the project of creating sapients and those who opposed it, known as the Creators and the Preservers (from their desire to preserve the world as it was). A war broke out, and in the end, the Creators won. A prison was made for the Preservers, which was [[Lhasta]]. The Creators then gathered to design their new creation. Different Divinities proposed different designs. In the end, there were several acts of creation, creating the different races of humanity, and the [[Pteranthropan]]s.<br />
<br />
The humans and the pteranthropans flourished, living in peace and harmony for a [[wiktionary:great gross|great gross]] years (1,728), until they became too numerous. And then they began fighting amongst themselves. The Creators attempted to bring harmony back to the world, by teaching morality and civilization to their creation, but they failed. Some began to feel that perhaps the Preservers had been right to oppose the creation of Sapients. And so, a small group of rebels freed the Preservers from their prison. They constructed a great fortress, which is [[Sasalh]]. When they were sure of their strength, they launched an invasion of the world, attempting to destroy humanity, and for this reason they became known as the Destroyers. But some among the former Preservers disagreed, and returned to the Creator side (they are known as the Redeemed). Another war broke out, and there were massive casualties among humanity and the Pteranthropans. Both species became mortal in this war, and the humans lost the power of flight which they'd previously had<ref>Different explanations exist as to why only humans lost the power of flight, and why their lives are shorter. Some theologians believed that the Pteranthropans were inherently more righteous, and therefore could withstand the attacks of the Destroyers better. Still others held the opposite view, that they avoided the worst by collaborating with the Destroyers</ref>. The Creators captured the fortress Sasalh, but were unable to reimprison the Destroyers. The war ended in a ceasefire.<br />
<br />
The Destroyers themselves fell into civil war, with a core group still believing in the necessity of destroying sapients, while others felt that the cost was too high, and argued that they should simply leave the world as it was. Still others argued that if sapients could not be destroyed, they could be taught morality to limit their destructiveness. Yet others renounced all concerns with sapients and entered the world as spirits unconcerned with sapients. The Creators, too, divided amongst themselves, but more peacefully, on how to heal the world after the Great Wars. In the end, the Divinities came to be divided into the five categories of '''Maintainers''', who kept the world going and gave blessings to sapients, mostly former Creators but also a few Destroys, the '''Teachers''', who sought to raise up sapients, and came from both of the original factions, the '''Powers''', who were corrupted Teachers, mostly former Destroyers but some former Creators, and came to demand worship and obedience from sapients, the '''Neutrals''' who largely ignored sapients, and instead simply lived in the world as residents, sometimes helping an individual who struck their fancy, but mostly keeping to themselves, and the remaining '''Destroyers'''. The remaining Destroyers, having learned that they could not win in an open war, sought their goal through subterfuge. They created plagues and disasters, and manipulated humans into killing each other.<br />
<br />
===Eschatology===<br />
It is believed that one day the Deity will return and restore the world to its former glory. It is believed that at that time, she will judge sapients and choose whether to keep them and restore them, or whether to destroy them.<br />
<br />
===The soul and the afterlife===<br />
Nrastaism teaches a form of reincarnation. A person has a ''talli'' (''watalli''), which can be translated as "soul". The ''talli'' is divided into two ''trai'' (''waftrai'') singular ''tra'' (''watra''), or "half-soul". Upon death, the soul divides into its constituent halves. The half-souls are reincarnated separately, finding other halves, to form a new soul in a new body. The soul is short-lived, dying within 6 days if not incarnated into a new living body. It is therefore imperative to cremate the body immediately after death, to aid the soul's attempt to leave the prison of the corpse. A particularly righteous individual may achieve Preservation, by which the Divine Council clothes them in an immortal body, and gives them a place among them. The particularly wicked have their souls destroyed by being denied reincarnation.<br />
<br />
A theological dilemma arises with this belief. What about times when there are more people dying than being born? Some theologians argue that their souls are simply lost. Others argue that those who are righteous but not so righteous as to achieve Preservation are placed in "slow-time", a state where time flows much slower, so that 6 days for the may be 6 years or 600 years for everyone else. Still another view is that they are incarnated in animals.<br />
<br />
The half-souls were not originally perceived as having any inherent differences between them. Some schools of thought held, however, that there were two types of half-soul and that a healthy soul was formed from two half-souls of opposite types.<br />
<br />
==Worship==<br />
As Goddess herself is not involved in the world, orthodox Nrastaists pray to the Divinities as a collective, referred to as the Divine Council (''wafchidinaukan'') or to the High Divinity, the leader of the Council (''tonDinaukanjezh'', literally "Leader of the Divinities"). Many Nrastaists also worship individual Divinities, making Nrastaism effectively a polytheistic faith.<br />
<br />
==Writings==<br />
ChiNrasta wrote four books promulgating the faith, they were:<br />
*The Book of Creation<br />
*The Book of the Divinities (describing the various Divinities)<br />
*The Book of the Laws<br />
*The Book of Prophecies<br />
Her original texts have been long lost, and a few variants exist, all claiming to be authentic copies of her original writings. A few other books were written during the Unified Faith period<br />
*The Book of Further Prophecies<br />
*The Book of Revelations<br />
*The Book of the History of the Divine Wars<br />
*The Book of Other Worlds<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Chinrasta's life===<br />
During chiNrasta's lifetime, the faith quickly spread throughout the mainland portions of the [[First Kasshi Empire]], and played a role in the political split that created the Second Kasshi Empire. The faith was relatively centralized during her time, with a number of temples being established in cities, each headed by a Priestess. The temples sent out Teachers to surrounding villages. The church was thus divided into a number of territories headed by a single Priestess with assistants within the central temple and Teachers in surrounding villages. The number of Temples quickly grew, and by the time of chiNrasta's death there were several hundred.<br />
<br />
===Early post-Chinrasta period===<br />
After chiNrasta's death, there was no central organization, and the Temples became largely autonomous, drifting in their teachings, and often conflicting over jurisdictional borders. Sometimes even in the central city, a split would arise among the faithful leading to the establishment of rival temples. A number of influential priestesses became recognized as having special authority, coming to be referred to as Matriarchs, with lesser priestesses gravitating towards one or another Matriarch.<br />
<br />
This disorganization became a frequent source of conflict, sometimes violent. As a result, Empress [[Chila]], in 2685 BOE called together a conference of all the Matriarchs to settle various doctrinal disputes and to establish a clear organization. At this point, there were nearly 250 priestesses, and around 30 recognized Matriarchs, plus several disputed Matriarchs. The first order of business, indeed, was to determine who was and who was not a Matriarch. A distinction was drawn between Temple-Matriarchs, whose status as Matriarch was acquired by right of the Temple to which they were Priestess, and Non-Temple-Matriarchs, whose status was earned on an individual level. The Matriarchs formed a permanent Council of Matriarchs, electing one of their own as [[Supreme Matriarch]]. The position of Supreme Matriarch was not to be a permanent one, but rather, one to be chosen only in time of need. At other times, the Council as a whole would administer the church and settle disputes.<br />
<br />
===Schism===<br />
This structure survived for several centuries, until the reign of Empress [[Chinikan]], who attempted to enact a major reform of the religion, correcting what she saw as corruptions and attempting to eliminate other religions which had been tolerated in the Empire. This culminated in her proclaiming herself Supreme Matriarch, and dismissing Matriarchs with whom she disagreed. In the end, this sparked a major civil war in the Empire, and shattered the church irrevocably. She had executed many dissenting priestesses and matriarchs, placing her own puppets in their place. After her death, her own appointments were universally rejected, but often it was unclear who the legitimate holder of those titles was. This was made worse by the civil war that broke out after her death. In the end, several churches arose with overlapping territories.<br />
<br />
===Later development===<br />
The Church never reunified. After the Empire [[Third Kasshi Empire|was restored]], an attempt was made to restore a unified Council of Matriarchs. All attempts failed, and the several churches began to drift relative to each other, and several themselves underwent later schisms, creating further splits. Eventually the Nrastaist churches went into decline, several completely dying out. There are still around a dozen Nrastaist churches. Within the Kasshi Empire, a Congress of Nrastaist Churches exists to provide a unified body to relate to the government which, for some purposes, treats Nrastaism as a single religion.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Kasshi Paganism]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshi]]<br />
[[Category:Religions]]<br />
[[Category:Nrastaism| ]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Category:Kasshian_languages&diff=148340Category:Kasshian languages2022-04-24T02:13:43Z<p>Christina: Created page with "Category:Conlangs"</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Neokasshi_languages&diff=148339Neokasshi languages2022-04-24T02:13:29Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The '''Neokasshi languages''' are a modern language family descended from Classical Kasshian, or, more precisely, from Common or Old Neokasshi, considered a dialect of Cla..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Neokasshi languages''' are a modern language family descended from [[Classical Kasshian]], or, more precisely, from Common or Old Neokasshi, considered a dialect of Classical Kasshian.<br />
<br />
== Common Neokasshi ==<br />
Common Neokasshi was very similar to [[Classical Kasshian]], and the two were mutually intelligible. The term Common Neokasshi covers several centuries, during which there were various small changes.<br />
<br />
=== Phonetics ===<br />
There were several phonological differences between Common Neokasshi and Classical Kasshian:<br />
*The [[Classical Kasshian phonology|complex consonants]] (ch, j, ç) were treated as single phonemes, and thus could be geminated before any vowel.<br />
*/t/ and /d/ were pronounced [ts] and [dz] before i/e/y<br />
*Geminate voiced stops and affricates were replaced by nasal-stop sequences, that is, -bb-, -dd-, -gg-, and -jj- were pronounced as -mb-, -nd-, -ng-, and -nj-<br />
*Later stages lost ''ng''' as a phoneme, replacing it with either ''ng'' or ''n'' by dialect<br />
*zr was pronounced as r in Late Old Neokasshi<br />
*tw, dw, nw, sw, zw dropped the /w/ in Late Old Neokasshi<br />
<br />
=== Nouns ===<br />
*Plural forms of gender prefixes lost (number marked only by -i suffix)<br />
*Many loan-words adopted without a gender-prefix added<br />
*The hidden-consonant paradigm was lost, those nouns becoming geminating.<br />
*Type 2 L-final paradigm was (mostly) lost, generally becoming type 1 L-final, but sometimes vowel-final<br />
*Class IV long-vowels were lost entirely<br />
*For some dialects, alternating nouns changed the absolutive singular from -f/-s/-v/-z to -pa/-ta/-ba/-da and long vowel I/II to -ka/-ga<br />
*Class III long vowel sometimes became simple vowel-final.<br />
*Comparative and superlative were simplified by the adoption of the intensifier prefix mā- with forms (nu)pā-/(nu)pak- for comparative and (nu)lā-/(nu)lak- for superlative.<br />
*In Late Common Neokasshi, gender VI came to be used as an honorific for noblewomen<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
*Loss of os- prefix<br />
*Loss of prohibitive forms<br />
*Reduced use of fa- and nai-, with increased reliance on perfect and prospective aspects<br />
*Loss of dual in 3rd person<br />
*Change of meanings of 1st person forms; 1st person dual -> 1st person inclusive dual; 1st person paucal -> 1st person dual/plural exclusive; 1st person plural -> 1st person plural inclusive<br />
*Most type 2 l-final verbs become either type 1 or vowel-final, varying by dialect<br />
*Most complex verbs become vowel-final<br />
<br />
=== Syntax ===<br />
*Increased importance of animacy hierarchy<br />
**Three main levels: human/non-human/inanimate; highest-animacy noun in the absolutive, ergative used for agent if lower animacy, dative used for patient if lower animacy<br />
<br />
== Post-Imperial ==<br />
After the fall of the Third Empire, dialects of Common Neokasshi began to diverge increasingly, evolving into separate languages, this stage is referred to as Old Post-Imperial Neokasshi, and gradually transitioned into such languages as Old Ivetsian or Old Ratan<br />
<br />
== General tendencies ==<br />
Most Neokasshi languages continued to tendency begun in Common Neokasshi towards using absolutive to mark a higher-animacy noun. Some lost absolutive, however, retaining ergative to mark agents and dative to mark patients, and marking the subjects of intransitive verbs with either one depending on usage. Verbal agreement is typically with the absolutive in those that retain a distinct absolutive, while in those that have lost it, verbal agreement tends to be with the agent. The gender system was reorganized in various ways in many descendants (and sometimes reduced). Simplification of the case system also took place in many branches. Verbal prefixes tended to be lost, tense and voice being marked by aspects or auxiliaries, and the conditional prefixes replaced by particles. Word order remained verb-initial in most languages, but some shifted to SVO or SOV order. A phonemic split between i/e and u/o took place in all Neokasshi languages, although it was probably still allophonic in Old Post-Imperial Neokasshi. Most Neokasshi languages remain highly inflected. Some languages have changed the sapient/non-sapient distinction in verbs to an animate/inanimate distinction. Articles have been acquired in many branches.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshian languages]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Mathematics_of_the_Kasshi_Calendar&diff=148338Mathematics of the Kasshi Calendar2022-04-24T02:12:49Z<p>Christina: Created page with "This page is for those who want to know more details about the mathematics behind the Kasshi calendar. ==Segments== The basic unit of the calendar is the ''segment'', of..."</p>
<hr />
<div>This page is for those who want to know more details about the mathematics behind the [[Kasshi calendar]].<br />
<br />
==Segments==<br />
The basic unit of the calendar is the ''segment'', of which there are 1,152. Each segment represents an equal angular division of the orbit, equal to .3125 degrees. Segment 1 starts at [[Wikipedia:apsis|perihelion]]. The length of time from the beginning of the 1st segment to the beginning of each individual second is a fixed value, measured down to the [[International Units of Measurement#Time|daythird]]. For example, the 2nd segment begins 11 daymins, 9 daysecs, and 26 daythirds after the start of the 1st segment. The segments vary in length from 11:9:26<ref>Colon divides daymins, daysecs, and daythirds, thus, this is 11 daymins, 9 daysecs, 26 daythirds</ref> for the 1st and 1152nd segments to 14:30:55 for the 576th and 577th segments. To these fixed values, an ''offset'' is added which is determined for each ''sidereal year'' by multiplying the number of the year minus one by the length of the sidereal year - calculated at 244 days, 52:13:26 (accurate to within a fraction of a daythird), adding the ''standard offset'' of 22:30:42. This is used to determine which segments are in a given day in a continuous count of days. For example, for 965, the offset is 236,055 days 3:42:42 making segments 1-6 part of day 236,055, segments 7-11 day 236,056, 12-16 day 236,057, 17-22 day 236,058, and so on. Each month is assigned to a particular range of segments. Early Spring, for example, is segments 756-851, Mid-Spring is 852-947, etc. Because the tropical, and thus calendar, year does not begin on segment 1 of the orbit, one must calculate offsets for two orbits. The later part of the year thus uses an onset calculated as above, but adding one to the year-number, as that part of the tropical year is included in the next sideral year. For example, Early Spring through the first part of Mid-Summer of 965 is included in sidereal year 965 (segments 756-1152) while the later part of Mid-Summer through Late Winter of 965 are in sidereal year ''966'' (segments 1-755).<br />
<br />
==Months==<br />
To calculate the months for a particular year, one only needs to note the days on which 12 segments occur, namely, at present, 756 for Early Spring, 850 for Mid-Spring, etc. The fixed values for the key segments are:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! Segment<br />
! Day<br />
! Daymin<br />
! Daysec<br />
! Daythird<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 84<br />
| 15<br />
| 29<br />
| 56<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 180<br />
| 33<br />
| 55<br />
| 23<br />
| 29<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 276<br />
| 53<br />
| 22<br />
| 7<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 372<br />
| 74<br />
| 9<br />
| 27<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 468<br />
| 96<br />
| 16<br />
| 39<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 564<br />
| 119<br />
| 17<br />
| 25<br />
| 55<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 660<br />
| 142<br />
| 25<br />
| 12<br />
| 42<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=6 |<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 756<br />
| 164<br />
| 50<br />
| 34<br />
| 41<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 852<br />
| 186<br />
| 0<br />
| 38<br />
| 54<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 948<br />
| 205<br />
| 47<br />
| 58<br />
| 45<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 1,044<br />
| 224<br />
| 27<br />
| 19<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 1,140<br />
| 242<br />
| 27<br />
| 9<br />
| 50<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The fixed values for Early Spring through Mid-Summer are added to the offset for the sidereal year with the same number as the Calendar Year, while Late Summer through Late Winter are added to the offset for the following sidereal year. For Sidereal Year 965, the offset is 236,055 days 26:20:25 while for Sidereal Year 966, the offset is 236,300 days 18:33:52 making the values for Calendar Year 965 as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Sid. Year<br />
! Month<br />
! Segment<br />
! Day<br />
! Daymin<br />
! Daysec<br />
! Daythird<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=5 | 965<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 756<br />
| 236,220<br />
| 16<br />
| 55<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 852<br />
| 236,241<br />
| 26<br />
| 59<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 948<br />
| 236,261<br />
| 14<br />
| 19<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 1,044<br />
| 236,279<br />
| 53<br />
| 39<br />
| 34<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 1,140<br />
| 236,297<br />
| 53<br />
| 30<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=7 | 966<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 84<br />
| 236,315<br />
| 48<br />
| 30<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 180<br />
| 236,334<br />
| 13<br />
| 57<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 276<br />
| 236,353<br />
| 40<br />
| 40<br />
| 52<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 372<br />
| 236,374<br />
| 28<br />
| 1<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 468<br />
| 236,396<br />
| 35<br />
| 13<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 564<br />
| 236,419<br />
| 35<br />
| 59<br />
| 47<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 660<br />
| 236,442<br />
| 43<br />
| 46<br />
| 34<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Each month begins on the day that starts ''after'' the first segment occurs. Thus, Early Spring starts on day 236,221. Note, by way of example, that Early Summer starts on day 236,280 and Mid-Summer on day 236,298. If the offset for this year were 6 daymins 20 daysecs, 26 daythirds longer longer, then Early Summer would start on day 236,281 while Mid-Summer would still start on day 236,298. Thus, Early Summer would only have 17 days. But if the offset were 6:29:44 longer, then Mid-Summer would start on day 236,299, giving Early Summer 18 days. This shows why short Early Summers are so rare<ref>In fact, the last short Early Summer was in 792</ref>. It requires a very narrow range of offsets to cause that. As the length of each segment is fixed, the time between any two segments is constant. At present, the lengths of the months are:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! Day<br />
! Daymin<br />
! Daysec<br />
! Daythird<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 21<br />
| 10<br />
| 4<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 19<br />
| 47<br />
| 19<br />
| 50<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 18<br />
| 39<br />
| 20<br />
| 23<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 17<br />
| 59<br />
| 50<br />
| 42<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 17<br />
| 54<br />
| 59<br />
| 45<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 18<br />
| 25<br />
| 27<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 19<br />
| 26<br />
| 43<br />
| 31<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 20<br />
| 47<br />
| 20<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 22<br />
| 7<br />
| 12<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 23<br />
| 0<br />
| 46<br />
| 43<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 23<br />
| 7<br />
| 46<br />
| 47<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 22<br />
| 25<br />
| 21<br />
| 59<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Calendar types ==<br />
=== Explanation ===<br />
For any given ''shift'', there are 13 possible calendars, as defined by combinations of long and short days, though not all will actually be realized. This follows logically from the following consideration: the day a month starts is determined by adding the fixed value to the annual offset. The first day of each month can thus fall on one of two dates, depending on that year's offset. For each month, there is a particular offset that will be necessary to shift it to the later date, in addition to the Early Spring of the following year (necessary to determine the length of Late Winter). It is easiest to explain when measuring relative to the segment at the start of spring, 756 at present, if that segment begins at 0:0:0, then the year would appear as follows:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! Day<br />
! Daymin<br />
! Daysec<br />
! Daythird<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 21<br />
| 10<br />
| 4<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 40<br />
| 57<br />
| 24<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 59<br />
| 36<br />
| 44<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 77<br />
| 36<br />
| 35<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 95<br />
| 31<br />
| 34<br />
| 54<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 113<br />
| 57<br />
| 2<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 133<br />
| 23<br />
| 45<br />
| 44<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 154<br />
| 11<br />
| 5<br />
| 52<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 176<br />
| 18<br />
| 17<br />
| 56<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 199<br />
| 19<br />
| 4<br />
| 39<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 222<br />
| 26<br />
| 51<br />
| 26<br />
|-<br />
| (Next Year)<br />
| 244<br />
| 52<br />
| 13<br />
| 25<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, each month's first day and length is:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! First Day<br />
! Length<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 1<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 22<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 41<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 60<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 78<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 96<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 114<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 134<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 155<br />
| 22<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 177<br />
| 23<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 200<br />
| 23<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 223<br />
| 22<br />
|-<br />
| (Next Year)<br />
| 245<br />
| N/A<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Start dates ===<br />
The total length of the year is thus 244 days, a short year. With an offset of 2 daymins, 35 daysecs, 56 day thirds, Late Spring's start becomes 41 days, 0:0:0 making its first day day number 42, and making Mid-Spring 20 days and Late Spring 18 days, in effect, what had formerly been the first day of Late Spring becomes the last day of Mid-Spring. A slightly higher offset of 0:2:57:46 pushes Early Fall to day 115, shortening it to 19 days and lengthening Late Summer to 19, etc. Thus, each of 12 different offsets pushes the start of a different month or the next year ahead one day, 13 calendars in total, including those that result when the offset is less than the smallest offset. At present, the thirteen possible calendars with the shifted day highlighted in red, are:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Month<br />
! colspan=13 | Minimum Offset (Daymin:Daysec:Daythird)<br />
|-<br />
! 0:0:0<br />
! 2:35:56<br />
! 2:57:46<br />
! 7:46:35<br />
! 23:15:33<br />
! 23:24:51<br />
! 28:25:5<br />
! 33:8:33<br />
! 36:14:16<br />
! 40:55:20<br />
! 41:42:3<br />
! 48:54:7<br />
! 49:55:47<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| style="background:red" | 23<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 41<br />
| style="background:red" | 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
| 42<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 60<br />
| 60<br />
| 60<br />
| 60<br />
| style="background:red" | 61<br />
| 61<br />
| 61<br />
| 61<br />
| 61<br />
| 61<br />
| 61<br />
| 61<br />
| 61<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 78<br />
| 78<br />
| 78<br />
| 78<br />
| 78<br />
| style="background:red" | 79<br />
| 79<br />
| 79<br />
| 79<br />
| 79<br />
| 79<br />
| 79<br />
| 79<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 96<br />
| 96<br />
| 96<br />
| 96<br />
| 96<br />
| 96<br />
| style="background:red" | 97<br />
| 97<br />
| 97<br />
| 97<br />
| 97<br />
| 97<br />
| 97<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 114<br />
| 114<br />
| style="background:red" | 115<br />
| 115<br />
| 115<br />
| 115<br />
| 115<br />
| 115<br />
| 115<br />
| 115<br />
| 115<br />
| 115<br />
| 115<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 134<br />
| 134<br />
| 134<br />
| 134<br />
| 134<br />
| 134<br />
| 134<br />
| 134<br />
| style="background:red" | 135<br />
| 135<br />
| 135<br />
| 135<br />
| 135<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| 155<br />
| style="background:red" | 156<br />
| 156<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 177<br />
| 177<br />
| 177<br />
| 177<br />
| 177<br />
| 177<br />
| 177<br />
| 177<br />
| 177<br />
| 177<br />
| style="background:red" | 178<br />
| 178<br />
| 178<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 200<br />
| 200<br />
| 200<br />
| 200<br />
| 200<br />
| 200<br />
| 200<br />
| 200<br />
| 200<br />
| style="background:red" | 201<br />
| 201<br />
| 201<br />
| 201<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 223<br />
| 223<br />
| 223<br />
| 223<br />
| 223<br />
| 223<br />
| 223<br />
| style="background:red" | 224<br />
| 224<br />
| 224<br />
| 224<br />
| 224<br />
| 224<br />
|-<br />
| Next Year<br />
| 245<br />
| 245<br />
| 245<br />
| style="background:red" | 246<br />
| 246<br />
| 246<br />
| 246<br />
| 246<br />
| 246<br />
| 246<br />
| 246<br />
| 246<br />
| 246<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Lengths===<br />
<br />
As a result, the ''lengths'' of each month in the above calendars is (typical months in white, long months in green, short months in blue)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Month<br />
! colspan=13 | Minimum Offset (Daymin:Daysec:Daythird)<br>Calendar type<br />
|-<br />
! 0:0:0<br>1<br />
! 2:35:56<br>2<br />
! 2:57:46<br>3<br />
! 7:46:35<br>4<br />
! 23:15:33<br>5<br />
! 23:24:51<br>6<br />
! 28:25:5<br>7<br />
! 33:8:33<br>8<br />
! 36:14:16<br>9<br />
! 40:55:20<br>10<br />
! 41:42:3<br>11<br />
! 48:54:7<br>12<br />
! 49:55:47<br>13<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| style="background:green" | 22<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| style="background:blue" | 19<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| style="background:blue" | 19<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 19<br />
| style="background:blue" | 18<br />
| style="background:blue" | 18<br />
| style="background:blue" | 18<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| style="background:blue" | 17<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| style="background:blue" | 17<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| style="background:green" | 19<br />
| style="background:green" | 19<br />
| style="background:green" | 19<br />
| style="background:green" | 19<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| style="background:green" | 20<br />
| style="background:green" | 20<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| style="background:green" | 20<br />
| style="background:green" | 20<br />
| style="background:green" | 20<br />
| style="background:green" | 20<br />
| style="background:green" | 20<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| style="background:blue" | 20<br />
| style="background:blue" | 20<br />
| style="background:blue" | 20<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| style="background:green" | 23<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| style="background:green" | 24<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| style="background:green" | 24<br />
| style="background:green" | 24<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| style="background:green" | 23<br />
| style="background:green" | 23<br />
| style="background:green" | 23<br />
| style="background:green" | 23<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note how the months change in length effectively as the transfer of days from one month to another. For example, between calendar 1 and calendar 2, one day is shifted from Late Spring to Mid-Spring, and in calendar 3 a day is shifted from Early Fall to Late Summer, in calendar 4 an extra day is added to the calendar itself (the first three calendars are short years). These calendar-types change over time as the calendar shifts. Not every shift changes the calendar-types available, but they do at least change the relative frequencies<br />
<br />
== Weekdays ==<br />
The day of the week of a particular day can be found by adding 3 to its day number and then finding the [[Wikipedia:Modulo operation|modulo 9]] of that number, 0 representing Opening and so forth. Upper and Lower can be found by taking the day number + 3 and dividing that by 9, and then taking the integral portion. If it is an odd number, then you have an Upper-Week day, if even, it is a Lower-Week day.<br />
<br />
== Precession and Calendar Shifts ==<br />
Above, it was noted that Early Spring begins in segment 756. That is true at present, but due to [[Wikipedia:axial precession|axial precession]], it is not always true. Thus, 756 is not a fixed value. The first segment of Early Spring is determined by the formula 808{{frac|9|75}}-{{frac|4|75}}*YEAR and dropping the fractional part. It can be seen from this formula that the first segment of Early Spring will move back 4 segments in 75 years, or approximately once every 19 years. When this happens, it is referred to as a ''shift''. Consequently, 4 times every 75 years, there is a year that is only 1,151 segments long. Calendar year 977, for example, will run from segment 756 of Sidereal Year 977 to segment '''754''' of SY 978, with calendar year 978 starting on segment 755. Each of the other months will likewise move back one segment, so that Mid-Spring will start on 851, and so forth, altering the lengths of each month slightly. Over time, these shifts can make for considerably different calendars, though there can never be months shorter than 17 days or longer than 24. The shortest possible month is 17 d 52:36:20 and the longest possible is 23 d, 11:16:1. Both the longest possible and the shortest possible would occur in the same year.<br />
<br />
For example, after the next shift, in the year 978, the fixed values will be<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! Segment<br />
! Day<br />
! Daymin<br />
! Daysec<br />
! Daythird<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 83<br />
| 15<br />
| 18<br />
| 38<br />
| 26<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 179<br />
| 33<br />
| 43<br />
| 36<br />
| 25<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 275<br />
| 53<br />
| 9<br />
| 34<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 371<br />
| 73<br />
| 56<br />
| 1<br />
| 29<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 467<br />
| 96<br />
| 2<br />
| 29<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 563<br />
| 119<br />
| 2<br />
| 29<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 659<br />
| 142<br />
| 10<br />
| 53<br />
| 50<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 755<br />
| 164<br />
| 36<br />
| 54<br />
| 59<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 851<br />
| 185<br />
| 47<br />
| 51<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 947<br />
| 205<br />
| 36<br />
| 0<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 1,043<br />
| 224<br />
| 15<br />
| 55<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 1,139<br />
| 242<br />
| 16<br />
| 0<br />
| 11<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Giving month-lengths of:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! Day<br />
! Daymin<br />
! Daysec<br />
! Daythird<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 21<br />
| 10<br />
| 56<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 19<br />
| 48<br />
| 8<br />
| 53<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 18<br />
| 39<br />
| 55<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 18<br />
| 0<br />
| 5<br />
| 0<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 17<br />
| 54<br />
| 51<br />
| 41<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 18<br />
| 24<br />
| 57<br />
| 58<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 19<br />
| 25<br />
| 57<br />
| 36<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 20<br />
| 46<br />
| 27<br />
| 27<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 22<br />
| 6<br />
| 27<br />
| 35<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 23<br />
| 0<br />
| 26<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 23<br />
| 7<br />
| 58<br />
| 31<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 22<br />
| 26<br />
| 1<br />
| 8<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The months of Mid-Winter through Early Summer become slightly longer, by up to 52 daysecs 2 daythirds (for Early Spring) while Mid-Summer through Early Winter become slightly shorter, by up to 52 daysecs 40 daythirds (for Mid-Fall). In the case of Early Summer, the extra time is enough to change it from just slightly under 18 days to slightly over 18 days, meaning that 17-day Early Summers will become impossible, while 19-day Early Summers will be possible, though they will remain rare for quite some time<ref>The first occurrence of a long Early Summer will be in the year 1051</ref><br />
<br />
By way of comparison, in the year 721 when the [[Kasshi Empire (modern)|modern Empire]] was established, the month lengths were:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! First segment<br />
! Day<br />
! Daymin<br />
! Daysec<br />
! Daythird<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 769<br />
| 20<br />
| 58<br />
| 44<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 865<br />
| 19<br />
| 36<br />
| 51<br />
| 50<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 961<br />
| 18<br />
| 32<br />
| 7<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 1,057<br />
| 17<br />
| 57<br />
| 5<br />
| 44<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 1<br />
| 17<br />
| 57<br />
| 5<br />
| 44<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 97<br />
| 18<br />
| 32<br />
| 7<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 193<br />
| 19<br />
| 36<br />
| 51<br />
| 50<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 289<br />
| 20<br />
| 58<br />
| 44<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 385<br />
| 22<br />
| 16<br />
| 33<br />
| 38<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 481<br />
| 23<br />
| 4<br />
| 44<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 577<br />
| 23<br />
| 4<br />
| 44<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 673<br />
| 22<br />
| 16<br />
| 33<br />
| 38<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note the perfect symmetry. This only happens when a month starts on segment 1. Comparing the year 721 to 965, and for a more dramatic comparison, 1 OE, noting the typical length (that is, the most common length) with the length with which it alternates:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! 1<br />
! 721<br />
! 965<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 20 (21)<br />
| 21 (20)<br />
| 21 (22)<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 19 (20)<br />
| 19 (20)<br />
| 20 (19)<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 18 (19)<br />
| 18 (19)<br />
| 19 (18)<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 18 (17)<br />
| 18 (17)<br />
| 18 (17)<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 18 (19)<br />
| 18 (17)<br />
| 18 (17)<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 19 (18)<br />
| 18 (19)<br />
| 18 (19)<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 20 (21)<br />
| 19 (20)<br />
| 19 (20)<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 21 (22)<br />
| 21 (20)<br />
| 21 (20)<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 23 (22)<br />
| 22 (23)<br />
| 22 (23)<br />
|-<br />
| Early winter<br />
| 23 (24)<br />
| 23 (24)<br />
| 23 (24)<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 22 (23)<br />
| 23 (24)<br />
| 23 (24)<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 22 (21)<br />
| 22 (23)<br />
| 22 (23)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
It is clear that only small differences exist between 721 and 965. Mostly frequencies of the month-lengths, though Early Spring has changed from being usually 21 days with some 20-day months to being usually 21 days with some 22-day months. Thus, 20-day Early Springs occurred in the early days of the Empire, but no longer occur, while 22-day Early Springs now occur but never did in the early days. However, in comparison with the calendar of 1 OE, greater shifts have occurred. 19-day Mid-Summers occurred, which never occur today, likewise, 21-day Early Falls and 22-day Late Falls could occur. Mid-Winter could never have 24 days, and most often had 22 days, while Late Winter never had 23 days, and sometimes had only 21.<br />
<br />
== Possible future refinements ==<br />
At present, the calendar assumes that Galhaf's orbit never changes. In reality, due to gravitational influences from other planets, especially [[Zheftakh]], the planet's eccentricity does change gradually. At present, the eccentricity is slowly decreasing. It has been suggested that the orbital segments themselves be periodically recalculated to maintain accuracy. However, it is difficult to calculate exactly what the future eccentricity will be, making it impossible to project future calendars. In addition, the changes in eccentricity are very small over time spans relevant to humans.<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Calendars]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Laughing_Mystics&diff=148337Laughing Mystics2022-04-24T02:11:49Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The '''Laughing Mystics''' are a mystery religion primarily found in East Odirá, originating in Kalpan. While some of their beliefs are closely-held secrets, there a..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Laughing Mystics''' are a mystery religion primarily found in [[East Odirá]], originating in [[Kalpan]]. While some of their beliefs are closely-held secrets, there are some beliefs which are public. It is known that they reject the notion that sapients were a special creation of the gods, or that life has a higher purpose. They believe that the gods did not, in fact, create sapients at all, but that they appeared on its own, and was a surprise to the gods.<br />
<br />
The secret to eternal bliss, they believe, is to realize that nothing matters. ''Only when one lets go of the delusion that this world matters can one escape the suffering of this world. The only genuine Truth in this world is that the world is absurd'', their founder, the First Enlightened One, proclaimed in her teaching. Their belief in the fundamental absurdity and pointlessness of the world is the source of their common name, as they tend to laugh at piety and theology, as well as at such thing as politics. ''The ultimate devotion to the absolute absurd'' they call such activities.<br />
<br />
They also use logical arguments against theology and religion. They have few doctrines, and even fewer dogmas. They generally hold to some form of reincarnation, but believe that the full truth is beyond the understanding of any mortal. They typically reject concepts such as divine justice or karma.<br />
<br />
In terms of morality, they again have no absolute laws. Instead, they believe that one should seek to minimize suffering in the world. That ones goal should be to avoid causing pain, and, beyond that, to seek to eliminate it. They therefore work towards charitable goals, and believe that differences based on class, race, species, sex, religion, etc., are all artificial, and harmful. Their ideal is an egalitarian culture.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Religions]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Languages_of_Galhaf&diff=148336Languages of Galhaf2022-04-24T02:10:56Z<p>Christina: Created page with "There are many languages spoken on Galhaf, which can be grouped into several language families. *Tareba language family **Kasshian languages *Classical Blafu *C..."</p>
<hr />
<div>There are many languages spoken on Galhaf, which can be grouped into several language families.<br />
<br />
*[[Tareba language family]]<br />
**[[Kasshian languages]]<br />
*[[Classical Blafu]]<br />
*[[Classical Sanle]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conlangs|Galhaf]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Kasshian_languages&diff=148335Kasshian languages2022-04-24T02:09:59Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The '''Kasshian languages''' are a branch of the Taremba language family, originating on Has (Kassa in ancient times). The most prominent group in modern times are th..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Kasshian languages''' are a branch of the [[Taremba language family]], originating on [[Has]] (Kassa in ancient times). The most prominent group in modern times are the [[Neokasshian languages]], descendants of [[Classical Kasshian]]. The ancestral language of the Kasshian languages is known as simply [[Old Kasshian]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshian languages]]<br />
[[Category:Taremban languages]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Kasshi_lunisolar_calendar&diff=148334Kasshi lunisolar calendar2022-04-24T02:09:16Z<p>Christina: /* Half-months */</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Kasshi lunisolar calendar''' is currently used to determine religious holidays. The (calculated) dates of full moon are also used as holidays in the [[Kasshi calendar|civil calendar]]. This article describes the modern form of the lunisolar calendar. For earlier forms, see [[History of the Kasshi calendar]]<br />
<br />
== Half-months ==<br />
Most months are 18 days. The average length of a [[Wikipedia:synodic month|synodic month]] is about 18.169 days, just a hair over 18<sup>1</sup>/<sub>6</sub> days. Thus, most months are 18 days with the occasional 19-day month. Each month is divided into two ''half-months'', which are the origin of the [[Kasshi calendar#Weeks|weeks]] in the solar calendar. The first half-month is referred to as the Upper half-month while the second half-month is referred to as the Lower half-month. Each day within the half-months are named:<br />
:1/10. Dark/Bright<br />
:2/11. Fasting<br />
:3/12. First Council<br />
:4/13. Second Council<br />
:5/14. Middle<br />
:6/15. Market<br />
:7/16. Preparation<br />
:8/17. Worship<br />
:9/18. Rest<br />
<br />
Note that, except for the first day, these are the same names as the days of the week in the solar calendar. The adjectives "solar" and "lunar" can be used to distinguish when needed. 19-day months are formed by duplicating one of the days other than New Moon or Full Moon, using the adjective "second" in front of the name, or "repeated" in the case of First Council and Second Council. Occasionally, a day may also be skipped.<br />
<br />
=== Determining days ===<br />
In order to determine what a particular day is named, one must determine the [[Mathematics of the Kasshi calendar#Segments|segments]] in which the [[Chihazh|Sun]] and [[Sasalh|Moon]] are located at the beginning of the day. The solar segment is calculated according to the computed orbit, the same method used to calculate the solar calendar's months. The lunar segment is calculated according to the assumption that the Moon travels a constant speed around [[Galhaf]]. The [[Wikipedia:Sidereal month|orbital period]] is calculated as being 16 days, 54 daymins, 50 daysecs, 21 daysecs. It is assumed that Sasalh travels its orbit at a constant rate. Due to the complexities of determining Sasalh's exact orbit, this simplifying assumption is necessary. It thus travels just a little more than 68.1 segments per day. Each day thus sees Sasalh's calculated (i.e., mean) position as 68 or 69 segments further, while the Sun travels between 4-6 segments each day. The day is determined by taking the number of segments by which Sasalh is ahead of the Sun, dividing by 64, and taking the integer and adding 1. Thus, day 1 is 0-63 segments ahead, day 2 is 64-127 segments, etc. The difference can increase by anywhere between 62 and 65 segments. This can result in the occasional doubled day (every year has 2 or 3 months with a double day) and, much more rarely a skipped day. A special rule exists that every month must have one and only one each of New Moon and Full Moon. If the calculations would result in a doubled New Moon or Full Moon, the second version is pushed to Fasting, causing a duplication of Fasting that half-month. Likewise, if New Moon or Full Moon would've been skipped, then what would've been Fasting is shifted to New/Full Moon.<br />
<br />
An example showing both a doubled day and a shifted day, Late Winter, 970. Doubling is highlighted with red and the shifted day by blue. To make discussion simpler, each day is marked by a letter<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Day<br />
! Solar Segment<br />
! Lunar Segment<br />
! Difference<br />
! Day (initial)<br />
! Day (adjusted)<br />
|-<br />
| A<br />
| 299<br />
| 299<br />
| 0<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| B<br />
| 304<br />
| 367<br />
| 63<br />
| style="background:red" | 1<br />
| style="background:blue" | 2<br />
|-<br />
| C<br />
| 308<br />
| 435<br />
| 127<br />
| 2<br />
| style="background:red" | 2<br />
|-<br />
| D<br />
| 313<br />
| 503<br />
| 190<br />
| 3<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| E<br />
| 318<br />
| 571<br />
| 253<br />
| 4<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| F<br />
| 322<br />
| 639<br />
| 317<br />
| 5<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| G<br />
| 327<br />
| 707<br />
| 380<br />
| 6<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| H<br />
| 332<br />
| 775<br />
| 443<br />
| 7<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| 336<br />
| 844<br />
| 508<br />
| 8<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| J<br />
| 341<br />
| 912<br />
| 571<br />
| 9<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| K<br />
| 345<br />
| 980<br />
| 635<br />
| 10<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| L<br />
| 350<br />
| 1,048<br />
| 698<br />
| 11<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| M<br />
| 354<br />
| 1,116<br />
| 762<br />
| 12<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| N<br />
| 359<br />
| 32<br />
| 825<ref>1152 + 32 - 359; segment 32 represents the moon having simply passed the starting point again, and thus 1,152 representing a complete cycle must be added to 32 to compute how far ahead it is; same applies to the remaining days of this month</ref><br />
| 13<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| O<br />
| 363<br />
| 100<br />
| 889<br />
| 14<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| P<br />
| 368<br />
| 168<br />
| 952<br />
| 15<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| Q<br />
| 372<br />
| 236<br />
| 1,016<br />
| 16<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| R<br />
| 377<br />
| 305<br />
| 1,080<br />
| 17<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| S<br />
| 381<br />
| 373<br />
| 1,144<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that day A began with the Sun and Sasalh in the same segment. Sasalh moved ahead 68 segments between day A and day B, while the Sun moved ahead 5, causing the difference to increase by 63, making it still less than 64 segments ahead. Thus, days A and B are initially calculated as being New Moon. To satisfy the One New Moon rule, day B is shifted to Upper Fasting, making day C Second Upper Fasting. Shifts are relatively uncommon.<br />
<br />
A further example showing the rare skipped day, Lunar Mid-Spring, 955:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Day<br />
! Solar Segment<br />
! Lunar Segment<br />
! Difference<br />
! Day (initial)<br />
! Day (adjusted)<br />
|-<br />
| A<br />
| 816<br />
| 820<br />
| 4<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| B<br />
| 820<br />
| 888<br />
| 68<br />
| 2<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| C<br />
| 825<br />
| 956<br />
| 131<br />
| 3<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| D<br />
| 829<br />
| 1,024<br />
| 195<br />
| 4<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| E<br />
| 834<br />
| 1,092<br />
| 258<br />
| 5<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| F<br />
| 839<br />
| 8<br />
| 321<br />
| 6<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| G<br />
| 843<br />
| 76<br />
| 385<br />
| 7<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| H<br />
| 848<br />
| 144<br />
| 448<br />
| 8<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| 853<br />
| 212<br />
| 511<br />
| style="background:red" | 8<br />
| style="background:red" | 8<br />
|-<br />
| J<br />
| 857<br />
| 281<br />
| 576<br />
| 10<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| K<br />
| 862<br />
| 349<br />
| 639<br />
| style="background:red" | 10<br />
| style="background:blue" | 11<br />
|-<br />
| L<br />
| 867<br />
| 417<br />
| 702<br />
| 11<br />
| style="background:red" | 11<br />
|-<br />
| M<br />
| 872<br />
| 485<br />
| 765<br />
| 12<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| N<br />
| 876<br />
| 553<br />
| 829<br />
| 13<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| O<br />
| 881<br />
| 621<br />
| 892<br />
| 14<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| P<br />
| 886<br />
| 689<br />
| 955<br />
| 15<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| Q<br />
| 891<br />
| 757<br />
| 1,018<br />
| 16<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| R<br />
| 896<br />
| 825<br />
| 1,081<br />
| 17<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| S<br />
| 900<br />
| 894<br />
| 1,146<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There is no 9th day in this month, instead, it jumps from Second Uppper Worship Day to Full Moon. In turn, Full Moon would've been doubled, except that day K was shifted from being Full Moon to Lower Fasting, and causing L to become Second Lower Fasting. Skipped days are always accompanied by two doubled days very close, not always immediately adjacent as here, but never more than 2 or 3 days away.<br />
<br />
=== Further notes on doubling ===<br />
Doubled days are most common in the Summer months, due to the fact that those months occur near perihelion, when the sun is moving fastest in the sky, and rares in the Winter months for the converse reason, but any month can contain a double day.<br />
<br />
== Months ==<br />
Each month is named according to the solar month (traditionally called ''solar periods'') that its full moon is in. Because a lunar month is 18 or 19 days, and the solar months can be longer than that, there may be 2 full moons in a given solar month, especially in the Winter months, when the solar months are longest. Any solar month of 19 or more days thus has the potential to have two full moons, which means any month except Early Summer or Mid-Summer may be doubled. In this case, the first month is given the simple name (such as Early Fall) while the second month is prefixed with the adjective Second (e.g., Second Early Fall). The Winter months are the most commonly doubled, being the longest. Every year has at least one doubled month, and two in almost half of all years.<br />
<br />
Conversely, it is possible in the short summer months for a solar month to have no full moons. This is only possible in months of 17 or 18 days<ref>And only with long lunar months in the case of an 18-day solar month</ref>. Only Late Spring to Late Summer can do that. Years with a skipped month will invariably have three doubled months, for a total of 14 months.<br />
<br />
== Controversies ==<br />
In some regions, the skipped days and months are abolished. As a skipped day or month is always accompanied by two doubled days, this is handled by simply shifting other days/months. For example, in the example above of Mid-Spring, 955, there are two Upper Worships and (after the shift) two Lower Fastings but no Upper Rest. There are two ways to fix it, which are used by different groups. The "forward-shifters" would shift Second Upper Worship forward to Upper Rest, while the "backwards shifters" would shift Full Moon back to Upper Rest and Lower Fasting to Full Moon making Second Lower Fasting into simply Lower Fasting. Similar processes work to avoid skipped months.<br />
<br />
== Lengths ==<br />
There are 4 possible lengths of a year. Each year can have 13 or 14 months, of which 2 or 3 may be long. A year may thus be:<br />
*13 months, of which 2 are long: 236 days (13 * 18 + 2)<br />
*13 months, of which 3 are long: 237 days (13 * 18 + 3)<br />
*14 months, of which 2 are long: 254 days (14 * 18 + 2)<br />
*14 months, of which 3 are long: 255 days (14 * 18 + 3)<br />
<br />
== Example ==<br />
By way of example, this is the year 965. The first day is equivalent to Late Winter, 964 in the solar calendar<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Spring<br />
! rowspan=14 | <br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Spring<br />
! rowspan=14 |<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Spring<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Summer<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Summer<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Summer<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Fall<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Fall<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Fall<br />
! rowspan=6 | <br />
! colspan=9 | Second Late Fall<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
|- <br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Winter<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Winter<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Winter<br />
! colspan=9 | Second Late Winter<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshi]]<br />
[[Category:Calendars]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Kasshi_lunisolar_calendar&diff=148333Kasshi lunisolar calendar2022-04-24T02:08:36Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The '''Kasshi lunisolar calendar''' is currently used to determine religious holidays. The (calculated) dates of full moon are also used as holidays in the Kasshi calendar|..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Kasshi lunisolar calendar''' is currently used to determine religious holidays. The (calculated) dates of full moon are also used as holidays in the [[Kasshi calendar|civil calendar]]. This article describes the modern form of the lunisolar calendar. For earlier forms, see [[History of the Kasshi calendar]]<br />
<br />
== Half-months ==<br />
Most months are 18 days. The average length of a [[Wikipedia:synodic month|synodic month]] is about 18.169 days, just a hair over 18{{frac|1|6}} days. Thus, most months are 18 days with the occasional 19-day month. Each month is divided into two ''half-months'', which are the origin of the [[Kasshi calendar#Weeks|weeks]] in the solar calendar. The first half-month is referred to as the Upper half-month while the second half-month is referred to as the Lower half-month. Each day within the half-months are named:<br />
:1/10. Dark/Bright<br />
:2/11. Fasting<br />
:3/12. First Council<br />
:4/13. Second Council<br />
:5/14. Middle<br />
:6/15. Market<br />
:7/16. Preparation<br />
:8/17. Worship<br />
:9/18. Rest<br />
<br />
Note that, except for the first day, these are the same names as the days of the week in the solar calendar. The adjectives "solar" and "lunar" can be used to distinguish when needed. 19-day months are formed by duplicating one of the days other than New Moon or Full Moon, using the adjective "second" in front of the name, or "repeated" in the case of First Council and Second Council. Occasionally, a day may also be skipped.<br />
<br />
=== Determining days ===<br />
In order to determine what a particular day is named, one must determine the [[Mathematics of the Kasshi calendar#Segments|segments]] in which the [[Chihazh|Sun]] and [[Sasalh|Moon]] are located at the beginning of the day. The solar segment is calculated according to the computed orbit, the same method used to calculate the solar calendar's months. The lunar segment is calculated according to the assumption that the Moon travels a constant speed around [[Galhaf]]. The [[Wikipedia:Sidereal month|orbital period]] is calculated as being 16 days, 54 daymins, 50 daysecs, 21 daysecs. It is assumed that Sasalh travels its orbit at a constant rate. Due to the complexities of determining Sasalh's exact orbit, this simplifying assumption is necessary. It thus travels just a little more than 68.1 segments per day. Each day thus sees Sasalh's calculated (i.e., mean) position as 68 or 69 segments further, while the Sun travels between 4-6 segments each day. The day is determined by taking the number of segments by which Sasalh is ahead of the Sun, dividing by 64, and taking the integer and adding 1. Thus, day 1 is 0-63 segments ahead, day 2 is 64-127 segments, etc. The difference can increase by anywhere between 62 and 65 segments. This can result in the occasional doubled day (every year has 2 or 3 months with a double day) and, much more rarely a skipped day. A special rule exists that every month must have one and only one each of New Moon and Full Moon. If the calculations would result in a doubled New Moon or Full Moon, the second version is pushed to Fasting, causing a duplication of Fasting that half-month. Likewise, if New Moon or Full Moon would've been skipped, then what would've been Fasting is shifted to New/Full Moon.<br />
<br />
An example showing both a doubled day and a shifted day, Late Winter, 970. Doubling is highlighted with red and the shifted day by blue. To make discussion simpler, each day is marked by a letter<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Day<br />
! Solar Segment<br />
! Lunar Segment<br />
! Difference<br />
! Day (initial)<br />
! Day (adjusted)<br />
|-<br />
| A<br />
| 299<br />
| 299<br />
| 0<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| B<br />
| 304<br />
| 367<br />
| 63<br />
| style="background:red" | 1<br />
| style="background:blue" | 2<br />
|-<br />
| C<br />
| 308<br />
| 435<br />
| 127<br />
| 2<br />
| style="background:red" | 2<br />
|-<br />
| D<br />
| 313<br />
| 503<br />
| 190<br />
| 3<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| E<br />
| 318<br />
| 571<br />
| 253<br />
| 4<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| F<br />
| 322<br />
| 639<br />
| 317<br />
| 5<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| G<br />
| 327<br />
| 707<br />
| 380<br />
| 6<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| H<br />
| 332<br />
| 775<br />
| 443<br />
| 7<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| 336<br />
| 844<br />
| 508<br />
| 8<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| J<br />
| 341<br />
| 912<br />
| 571<br />
| 9<br />
| 9<br />
|-<br />
| K<br />
| 345<br />
| 980<br />
| 635<br />
| 10<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| L<br />
| 350<br />
| 1,048<br />
| 698<br />
| 11<br />
| 11<br />
|-<br />
| M<br />
| 354<br />
| 1,116<br />
| 762<br />
| 12<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| N<br />
| 359<br />
| 32<br />
| 825<ref>1152 + 32 - 359; segment 32 represents the moon having simply passed the starting point again, and thus 1,152 representing a complete cycle must be added to 32 to compute how far ahead it is; same applies to the remaining days of this month</ref><br />
| 13<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| O<br />
| 363<br />
| 100<br />
| 889<br />
| 14<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| P<br />
| 368<br />
| 168<br />
| 952<br />
| 15<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| Q<br />
| 372<br />
| 236<br />
| 1,016<br />
| 16<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| R<br />
| 377<br />
| 305<br />
| 1,080<br />
| 17<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| S<br />
| 381<br />
| 373<br />
| 1,144<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that day A began with the Sun and Sasalh in the same segment. Sasalh moved ahead 68 segments between day A and day B, while the Sun moved ahead 5, causing the difference to increase by 63, making it still less than 64 segments ahead. Thus, days A and B are initially calculated as being New Moon. To satisfy the One New Moon rule, day B is shifted to Upper Fasting, making day C Second Upper Fasting. Shifts are relatively uncommon.<br />
<br />
A further example showing the rare skipped day, Lunar Mid-Spring, 955:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Day<br />
! Solar Segment<br />
! Lunar Segment<br />
! Difference<br />
! Day (initial)<br />
! Day (adjusted)<br />
|-<br />
| A<br />
| 816<br />
| 820<br />
| 4<br />
| 1<br />
| 1<br />
|-<br />
| B<br />
| 820<br />
| 888<br />
| 68<br />
| 2<br />
| 2<br />
|-<br />
| C<br />
| 825<br />
| 956<br />
| 131<br />
| 3<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| D<br />
| 829<br />
| 1,024<br />
| 195<br />
| 4<br />
| 4<br />
|-<br />
| E<br />
| 834<br />
| 1,092<br />
| 258<br />
| 5<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| F<br />
| 839<br />
| 8<br />
| 321<br />
| 6<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| G<br />
| 843<br />
| 76<br />
| 385<br />
| 7<br />
| 7<br />
|-<br />
| H<br />
| 848<br />
| 144<br />
| 448<br />
| 8<br />
| 8<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| 853<br />
| 212<br />
| 511<br />
| style="background:red" | 8<br />
| style="background:red" | 8<br />
|-<br />
| J<br />
| 857<br />
| 281<br />
| 576<br />
| 10<br />
| 10<br />
|-<br />
| K<br />
| 862<br />
| 349<br />
| 639<br />
| style="background:red" | 10<br />
| style="background:blue" | 11<br />
|-<br />
| L<br />
| 867<br />
| 417<br />
| 702<br />
| 11<br />
| style="background:red" | 11<br />
|-<br />
| M<br />
| 872<br />
| 485<br />
| 765<br />
| 12<br />
| 12<br />
|-<br />
| N<br />
| 876<br />
| 553<br />
| 829<br />
| 13<br />
| 13<br />
|-<br />
| O<br />
| 881<br />
| 621<br />
| 892<br />
| 14<br />
| 14<br />
|-<br />
| P<br />
| 886<br />
| 689<br />
| 955<br />
| 15<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| Q<br />
| 891<br />
| 757<br />
| 1,018<br />
| 16<br />
| 16<br />
|-<br />
| R<br />
| 896<br />
| 825<br />
| 1,081<br />
| 17<br />
| 17<br />
|-<br />
| S<br />
| 900<br />
| 894<br />
| 1,146<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There is no 9th day in this month, instead, it jumps from Second Uppper Worship Day to Full Moon. In turn, Full Moon would've been doubled, except that day K was shifted from being Full Moon to Lower Fasting, and causing L to become Second Lower Fasting. Skipped days are always accompanied by two doubled days very close, not always immediately adjacent as here, but never more than 2 or 3 days away.<br />
<br />
=== Further notes on doubling ===<br />
Doubled days are most common in the Summer months, due to the fact that those months occur near perihelion, when the sun is moving fastest in the sky, and rares in the Winter months for the converse reason, but any month can contain a double day.<br />
<br />
== Months ==<br />
Each month is named according to the solar month (traditionally called ''solar periods'') that its full moon is in. Because a lunar month is 18 or 19 days, and the solar months can be longer than that, there may be 2 full moons in a given solar month, especially in the Winter months, when the solar months are longest. Any solar month of 19 or more days thus has the potential to have two full moons, which means any month except Early Summer or Mid-Summer may be doubled. In this case, the first month is given the simple name (such as Early Fall) while the second month is prefixed with the adjective Second (e.g., Second Early Fall). The Winter months are the most commonly doubled, being the longest. Every year has at least one doubled month, and two in almost half of all years.<br />
<br />
Conversely, it is possible in the short summer months for a solar month to have no full moons. This is only possible in months of 17 or 18 days<ref>And only with long lunar months in the case of an 18-day solar month</ref>. Only Late Spring to Late Summer can do that. Years with a skipped month will invariably have three doubled months, for a total of 14 months.<br />
<br />
== Controversies ==<br />
In some regions, the skipped days and months are abolished. As a skipped day or month is always accompanied by two doubled days, this is handled by simply shifting other days/months. For example, in the example above of Mid-Spring, 955, there are two Upper Worships and (after the shift) two Lower Fastings but no Upper Rest. There are two ways to fix it, which are used by different groups. The "forward-shifters" would shift Second Upper Worship forward to Upper Rest, while the "backwards shifters" would shift Full Moon back to Upper Rest and Lower Fasting to Full Moon making Second Lower Fasting into simply Lower Fasting. Similar processes work to avoid skipped months.<br />
<br />
== Lengths ==<br />
There are 4 possible lengths of a year. Each year can have 13 or 14 months, of which 2 or 3 may be long. A year may thus be:<br />
*13 months, of which 2 are long: 236 days (13 * 18 + 2)<br />
*13 months, of which 3 are long: 237 days (13 * 18 + 3)<br />
*14 months, of which 2 are long: 254 days (14 * 18 + 2)<br />
*14 months, of which 3 are long: 255 days (14 * 18 + 3)<br />
<br />
== Example ==<br />
By way of example, this is the year 965. The first day is equivalent to Late Winter, 964 in the solar calendar<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Spring<br />
! rowspan=14 | <br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Spring<br />
! rowspan=14 |<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Spring<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 6<br />
|-<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Summer<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Summer<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Summer<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br />
| rowspan=2 | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| rowspan=2 | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 5<br />
|-<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Fall<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Fall<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Fall<br />
! rowspan=6 | <br />
! colspan=9 | Second Late Fall<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
|- <br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Winter<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Winter<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Winter<br />
! colspan=9 | Second Late Winter<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshi]]<br />
[[Category:Calendars]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Kasshi_calendar&diff=148332Kasshi calendar2022-04-24T02:08:06Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The modern '''Kasshi calendar''' is a complex solar calendar in use in the Kasshi Empire and many other cultures historically influenced by the Ka..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The modern '''Kasshi calendar''' is a complex solar calendar in use in the [[Kasshi Empire (modern)|Kasshi Empire]] and many other cultures historically influenced by the [[Kasshi]]. It uses the common [[OE|Odiran Era]] for year-numbering. The year is divided into 12 months of irregular length, from a minimum of 17 days to a maximum of 24 days, reflecting the mild eccentricity of [[Galhaf]]'s orbit.<br />
<br />
== Basic principles ==<br />
Each of the 12 months of the calendar represent a 30-degree segment of Galhaf's orbit, and are derived from the solar periods of the traditional [[Kasshi lunisolar calendar|lunisolar calendar]], at which time they were conceived as representing a 30-degree segment of [[Chihazh|the Sun]]'s path through the sky. The two are, of course, mathematically equivalent. Due to the fact that Galhaf has a mildly [[Wikipedia:eccentricity|eccentric]] orbit, its speed around the Sun is not constant. The year begins in Northern-hemisphere spring. The solstices and equinoxes are seen as the ''midpoints'' of the seasons, rather than the beginnings. The first day of spring is thus at the point where Galhaf is 45 degrees past winter solstice. Each month is considered to begin on the first day that Galhaf is in the orbital section associated with said month. Due to the fact that each section does not take an integral number of days to traverse, the length of a month in a given year may be one of two values, namely, either rounded down or rounded up. The months are named quite simply, as Early Spring, Mid-Spring, Late Spring, etc. To account for axial precession, the calendar is periodically shifted slightly, 4 times in every 75 years.<br />
<br />
== Weeks ==<br />
The Kasshi use a 9-day week and an 18-day double-week. For many purposes, the double-week is preferred to the month, due to the large variation in the lengths of the months. For example, rent and other bills are typically by the double-week. Weeks are referred to alternatingly as "upper week" or "lower week". When necessary, the adjectives "upper" and "lower" are applied to weekday names. The weeks are historically derived from the [[Kasshi lunisolar calendar#Half-months|half-months]] of the lunisolar calendar, whose months are usually 18 days. The names "upper" and "lower" are derived from this origin as well. Originally, "upper" referred to the first half of a month, and lower to the second half, the names coming from the fact that the upper half was literally above the second half on a calendar.<br />
<br />
Each week day is traditionally associated with a color, given with their translated names here:<br />
#Opening (Red)<br />
#Fasting (Pink)<br />
#First Council (Orange)<br />
#Second Council (Yellow)<br />
#Feasting (Green)<br />
#Market (Green-Blue)<br />
#Preparation (Blue)<br />
#Worship (Light Blue)<br />
#Rest (Purple)<br />
<br />
Most people get two days off work every week, usually Worship and Rest, as well as the Full Moon (see [[#Major holidays|below]])<br />
<br />
== Months ==<br />
{{further|Mathematics of the Kasshi calendar}}<br />
Each month can take one of two values, the "typical" value and either a "long" or a "short" value. The typical value effectively amounts to its actual length rounded to the nearest integer, while the "short" or "long" value is the alternate value. For example, Early Spring has a typical length of 21 days and a long length of 22 days, its actual length being approximately 21.17 days, while Mid-Spring has a typical value of 20 days and a short value of 19 days, its true length being 19.79 days. The first day of a month is the first day following the moment when Galhaf enters the orbit-section associated with that month. The total length of a year is usually 245 days, but is 244 days in short years, which occur slightly less often than once every 7 years.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br>([[Classical Kasshian]])<br />
! Month<br>(English translation)<br />
! Actual length<br>(Approximate)<br />
! Calendar length<ref>Typical length, with atypical length in parentheses</ref><br />
|-<br />
| Walītra<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 21.1678<br />
| 21 (22)<br />
|-<br />
| Wakunrī<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 19.7888<br />
| 20 (19)<br />
|-<br />
| Walenkalel<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 18.6557<br />
| 19 (18)<br />
|-<br />
| Wamūtra<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 17.9974<br />
| 18 (17)<br />
|-<br />
| Wakommū<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 17.9166<br />
| 18 (17)<br />
|-<br />
| Wamūnalel<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 18.4243<br />
| 18 (19)<br />
|-<br />
| Watreshtra<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 19.4454<br />
| 19 (20)<br />
|-<br />
| Wakontresh<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 20.7889<br />
| 21 (20)<br />
|-<br />
| Watreshnalel<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 22.1200<br />
| 22 (23)<br />
|-<br />
| Wadreftra<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 23.0130<br />
| 23 (24)<br />
|-<br />
| Wakondref<br />
| Mid Winter<br />
| 23.1297<br />
| 23 (24)<br />
|-<br />
| Wadrefnalel<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 22.4228<br />
| 22 (23)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
How frequently a month will be in its atypical length depends on how close its actual length is to an integer. For example, Early Summer is very rarely short<ref>In fact, it will never again be short, after the next shift in 978, it will become slightly ''longer'' than 18 days, meaning that instead of being usually 18 with rare 17-day months, it'll be usually 18 with rare 19-day months</ref>, whereas Early Fall is short in about 45% of years. At present, the typical lengths add up to only 244 days, meaning that a common year must have at least one long year. Currently, there are no years without at least one non-typical-length month, though this is not always the case, and there are times when the total of all typical lengths add up to 245 or 246 days. There are periods when there are years with all-typical lengths (though obviously not when the total adds up to 246 days)<br />
<br />
== Major holidays ==<br />
*[[Kasshi lunisolar calendar|Lunar new year]] Movable day; Late Winter 13 (of previous solar year) - Early Spring 13. Not all years in the solar calendar have a lunar new year, and many years have two, one in Early Spring and one in Late Winter for the next year. The year 965, for example, has no lunar new year, but 964 has lunar new year on Early Spring 9 (for LY 964) and Late Winter 23 (for LY 965)<br />
*Seasonal Days: The 1st day of Early Spring, Early Summer, Early Fall, and Early Winter<br />
*Mid-Spring Day (Vernal equinox) Usually Mid-Spring 11, sometimes Mid-Spring 12<br />
*Empire Day (signing of [[Treaty of Union]]) Late Spring 12<br />
*Mid-Summer Day (Summer solstice) Usually Mid-Summer 10, sometimes Mid-Summer 9<br />
*Empress' Birthday: Mid-Fall 8<br />
*Mid-Fall Day (Autumnal equinox) Usually Mid-Fall 11, sometimes Mid-Fall 12<br />
*Mid-Winter Day (Winter solstice) Usually Mid-Winter 13, sometimes Mid-Winter 12<br />
*Ruler's Birthday: The date of the local monarch in monarchical member-states. Non-monarchical states and the City-State of [[Ivets (city)|Ivets]] typically use the Lady [[Mayor of Ivets]]' birthday<br />
<br />
In addition, full moons are treated as semi-holidays in the Empire, taken as days off, like weekends. When a Full Moon falls on Worship, it is generally celebrated on Preparation, and when it calls on Rest, it is generally celebrated on Opening.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
=== Whole-Year Calender (965) ===<br />
All 12 months of the year 965 are shown below. [[#Weeks|Upper and lower weeks]] are distinguished by the numbers being written on the top or bottom of the squares. [[#Major holidays|Major holidays]] are marked with a red background and Full Moons by a green background.<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Spring<br />
! rowspan=18 | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Spring<br />
! rowspan=18 | &nbsp;<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Spring<br />
|-<br />
| style="background:red" | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=3 | <br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=5 | <br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| &nbsp;<br>12<br />
| &nbsp;<br>13<br />
| &nbsp;<br>14<br />
| &nbsp;<br>15<br />
| &nbsp;<br>16<br />
| &nbsp;<br>17<br />
| &nbsp;<br>18<br />
| &nbsp;<br>7<br />
| &nbsp;<br>8<br />
| &nbsp;<br>9<br />
| &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| style="background:red" | &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| &nbsp;<br>12<br />
| &nbsp;<br>13<br />
| &nbsp;<br>14<br />
| &nbsp;<br>15<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>5<br />
| &nbsp;<br>6<br />
| &nbsp;<br>7<br />
| &nbsp;<br>8<br />
| &nbsp;<br>9<br />
| &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| style="background:red" | &nbsp;<br>12<br />
| &nbsp;<br>13<br />
|-<br />
| 19<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 20<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 21<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=6 | <br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 19<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 20<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=4 | <br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=4 | <br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Summer<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Summer<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Summer<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=5 | <br />
| style="background:red" | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=5 | <br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=5 | <br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>5<br />
| &nbsp;<br>6<br />
| &nbsp;<br>7<br />
| &nbsp;<br>8<br />
| &nbsp;<br>9<br />
| &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| &nbsp;<br>12<br />
| &nbsp;<br>13<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>5<br />
| &nbsp;<br>6<br />
| &nbsp;<br>7<br />
| &nbsp;<br>8<br />
| &nbsp;<br>9<br />
| style="background:red" | &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| &nbsp;<br>12<br />
| &nbsp;<br>13<br />
| &nbsp;<br>5<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>6<br />
| &nbsp;<br>7<br />
| &nbsp;<br>8<br />
| &nbsp;<br>9<br />
| &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| &nbsp;<br>12<br />
| &nbsp;<br>13<br />
|-<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=4 | <br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=4 | <br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 19<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=3 | <br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Fall<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Fall<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Fall<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=6 | <br />
| style="background:red" | 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=7 | <br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| <br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>1<br />
| &nbsp;<br>2<br />
| &nbsp;<br>3<br />
| &nbsp;<br>4<br />
| &nbsp;<br>5<br />
| &nbsp;<br>6<br />
| &nbsp;<br>7<br />
| &nbsp;<br>8<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp;<br>4<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>5<br />
| &nbsp;<br>6<br />
| &nbsp;<br>7<br />
| &nbsp;<br>8<br />
| &nbsp;<br>9<br />
| &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| &nbsp;<br>12<br />
| &nbsp;<br>3<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>4<br />
| &nbsp;<br>5<br />
| &nbsp;<br>6<br />
| &nbsp;<br>7<br />
| style="background:red" | &nbsp;<br>8<br />
| &nbsp;<br>9<br />
| &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| style="background:red" | &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 19<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=2 | <br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 19<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 20<br>&nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br>18<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>19<br />
| &nbsp;<br>20<br />
| &nbsp;<br>21<br />
| &nbsp;<br>22<br />
| colspan=4 | <br />
|- <br />
| colspan=9 | <br />
| &nbsp;<br>21<br />
| colspan=8 | <br />
| colspan=9 | <br />
|-<br />
! colspan=9 | Early Winter<br />
! colspan=9 | Mid-Winter<br />
! colspan=9 | Late Winter<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=5 | <br />
| style="background:red" | &nbsp;<br>1<br />
| &nbsp;<br>2<br />
| &nbsp;<br>3<br />
| &nbsp;<br>4<br />
|<br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 4<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=6 | <br />
| 1<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 2<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 3<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 5<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 6<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 7<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 8<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 9<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 10<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 11<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 12<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| &nbsp;<br>9<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| &nbsp;<br>12<br />
| style="background:red" | &nbsp;<br>13<br />
| &nbsp;<br>14<br />
| &nbsp;<br>15<br />
| &nbsp;<br>16<br />
| &nbsp;<br>17<br />
| &nbsp;<br>4<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>5<br />
| &nbsp;<br>6<br />
| &nbsp;<br>7<br />
| &nbsp;<br>8<br />
| &nbsp;<br>9<br />
| &nbsp;<br>10<br />
| &nbsp;<br>11<br />
| &nbsp;<br>12<br />
|-<br />
| &nbsp;<br>14<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>15<br />
| &nbsp;<br>16<br />
| &nbsp;<br>17<br />
| &nbsp;<br>18<br />
| &nbsp;<br>19<br />
| &nbsp;<br>20<br />
| &nbsp;<br>21<br />
| &nbsp;<br>22<br />
| &nbsp;<br>18<br />
| &nbsp;<br>19<br />
| &nbsp;<br>20<br />
| &nbsp;<br>21<br />
| &nbsp;<br>22<br />
| &nbsp;<br>23<br />
| colspan=3 | <br />
| 13<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 14<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 15<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 16<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 17<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 18<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 19<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 20<br>&nbsp;<br />
| 21<br>&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 23<br>&nbsp;<br />
| colspan=8 | <br />
| colspan=9 | <br />
| &nbsp;<br>22<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | &nbsp;<br>23<br />
| colspan=7 | <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Summary Calendars ===<br />
To show how the months' lengths vary from year to year, the years 959-969 are shown here, with short months emphasized with blue backgrounds and long months with green backgrounds<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! 959<ref name="short">Short year</ref><br />
! 960<br />
! 961<br />
! 962<br />
! 963<br />
! 964<br />
! 965<br />
! 966<br />
! 967<ref name="short"/><br />
! 968<br />
! 969<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 21<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 22<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 22<br />
| 21<br />
|-<br />
| Mid Spring<br />
| 20<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 19<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| 20<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 19<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 19<br />
| 20<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 18<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 18<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 18<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 17<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 19<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 19<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 19<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 19<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
| 18<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 19<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 20<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 20<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 20<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| 19<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 20<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 20<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 20<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 20<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 20<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| 21<br />
| style="background:#0000FF" | 20<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 23<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 23<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 24<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
| 23<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 23<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 23<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 23<br />
| style="background:#00D000" | 23<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
| 22<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Several characteristics are apparent from this example. First is that some months vary more often than others. Indeed, during this decade, Early Summer and Early Winter are the same in all ten years, while on the other extreme, Early Fall is long in over half the years (in a larger sample, Early Fall would indeed show up long in less than half the years, 959-969 is exceptional). The most common pattern in a year is to have two long months and one short month, but there are exceptions, such as 963 with only 1 long month and the short year 967 with one short and one long month. Years tend to approximately repeat after 8 years, as can be seen with the pairs 960-968 and 961-969, but as the pair 959-967 show, that is only a tendency.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[History of the Kasshi calendar]]<br />
*[[Kasshi lunisolar calendar]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Calendars]]<br />
[[Category:Kasshi]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=International_Units_(Galhaf)&diff=148331International Units (Galhaf)2022-04-24T02:06:33Z<p>Christina: </p>
<hr />
<div>The standard international measurement system used on [[Galhaf]] evolved out of traditional units used in [[West Odirá]] and, unlike Earth's [[Wikipedia:SI|SI]] is not based on a decimal system. In this article, standard English translations will be used. There is no single naming system for the units, though standard symbols exist for each unit<br />
<br />
==Basic Units==<br />
===Time===<br />
The basic unit of time is the ''daythird'', historically defined as 1/216,000 of a day (25 hours, 26 minutes, and 55 seconds in Earth time), part of a sexagesimal system of dividing the day:<br />
*1 day = 60 daymins = 25 h, 26 m, 55 s<br />
*1 daymin = 60 daysecs = 25 m, 26.9 s (1/60 day)<br />
*1 daysec = 60 daythirds = 25.449 s (1/3600 day)<br />
*1 '''daythird''' = .42414 s (1/216,000 day)<br />
*1 dayfourth = <sup>1</sup>/<sub>60</sub> daythird = 7.0691 ms (1/12,960,000 day)<br />
<br />
Historically, further sexagesimal divisions were used. In modern times, however, small units of time are usually given in fractions of the daythird. The dayfourth retains some minor usage, particularly in timing races and the like<br />
<br />
===Length===<br />
The basic unit of length is the ''fathom'', historically defined as twice the distance that an object falls at sea level at 45 degrees north in a daythird, approximately 170 cm<br />
*1 League = 60 Furlongs = 12.2193 km<br />
*1 Furlong = 120 Fathoms = 203.656 m<br />
*1 '''Fathom''' = 4 Cubits = 169.713 cm<br />
*1 Cubit = 6 Hands = 42.4283 cm<br />
*1 Hand = 5 Grains = 7.07138 cm<br />
*1 Grain = 60 hairwidths = 1.41428 cm<br />
*1 Hairwidth = 235.713 μm<br />
<br />
===Area===<br />
In modern times, area is commonly measured by squared lengths, such as square league or square fathom, but a few traditional units were adopted:<br />
*Houseland: 4 square furlongs ({{frac|1|900}} square league; 16.5903 ha, 40.9955 acres)<br />
*Minuteland: {{frac|1|60}} houseland, thus {{frac|1|15}} square furlong or 960 square fathoms (2,765.05 m<sup>2</sup>, .683259 acres, 29,762.8 ft<sup>2</sup>) <br />
*Panel: 4 square cubits ({{frac|1|4}} square fathom, .720063 m<sup>2</sup>, 7.75069 ft<sup>2</sup>)<br />
<br />
Panels are commonly used to measure the area of buildings, while houseland and minuteland are commonly used to measure small land areas, especially real estate<br />
<br />
===Volume===<br />
*1 Octet = {{frac|1|8}} Cubit fathom = 8 Barrels = 611.022 L (cube 2 cubits on a side)<br />
*1 '''Barrel''' = 64 Sesters = 76.3778 L (cubic cubit)<br />
*1 Sester = 8 Gills = 1.19340 L<br />
*1 Gill = 27 Drams = 149.175 mL<br />
*1 Dram = 60 Minims = 5.52501 mL<br />
*1 Minim = 92.0835 μL<br />
<br />
Cubic measurements are also used, such as cubic fathom and so on.<br />
<br />
===Mass===<br />
The basic unit of mass is the ''talent'', historically defined as the mass of 1 barrel of water<br />
*1 '''Talent''' = 8 Octals = 76.3778 kg<br />
*1 Octal = 12 Pounds = 9.54723 kg<br />
*1 Pound = 12 Ounces = 795.602 g<br />
*1 Ounce = 3600 Grains = 66.3002 g<br />
*1 Grain = 18.4167 mg<br />
<br />
These units are also used for weight and force. In ambiguous contexts, the words "mass", "weight" or "force" can be affixed. When used as force, an acceleration of 1 fathom per daythird² is used, i.e., a pound-force is the force required to accelerate a mass of one pound at the rate of 1 fathom per daythird per daythird (7.5057 Newtons)<br />
<br />
===Temperature===<br />
As originally devised, the zero point was intended as the temperature achieved by a mixture of water, ice, and [[wikipedia:ammonium chloride|ammonium chloride]] and the boiling point was set at 60 (approximately 104 C in Galhaf's slightly-denser atmosphere). This set the freezing point of pure water at about 8.7 degrees. The scale was subsequently shifted to make the freezing point of water 10 degrees. For scientific purposes, a second temperature scale exists in which [[Wikipedia:absolute zero|absolute zero]] is set at 0. The [[Wikipedia:triple point|triple point]] of water is defined as 131.07 with the difference between Absolute and common being 121.07. The increment is thus about 2.084 Kelvin (273.16/131.07)<br />
<br />
===Angle===<br />
The most common way of measuring angles is by dividing a circle into 288 degrees. [[Wikipedia:radian|Radians]] are also used with the same definition as on Earth.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The International System was created at the [[First International Conference for Standardization]]. The Conference was held with the intent of reducing barriers to international trade and science caused by differing standards. At the time, there were different units in use in each nation, and even, quite frequently, in different parts of nations. Many were based on similar principles, such as the fathom of 4 cubits or 24 hands, but with differing values for the units. Several proposals were presented, including a [[Decimalized System of Measurements|completely decimalized system]]. The decimalized system was rejected as being too different from commonly-recognized units.<br />
<br />
Even after it was accepted that common units would be used, it took months of debate to settle on a consensus agreement. It was accepted that adopting a particular national value would unfairly benefit that nation over the others, and thus, a "natural" basis major debate centered on how the unit of length should be defined, as most accepted the idea of mass being defined in terms of a volume of water. The main proposals were:<br />
*The '''league''' set to 1/10 a [[#angle|degree]] along the equator (I.e., 1/2880 equatorial radius; 1 fathom = 185.346 cm = 1.09211 current fathoms)<br />
*The '''league''' set to 1/1000 the diameter of Galhaf (1 fathom = 169.913 cm = 1.00118 current fathoms)<br />
*The '''fathom''' set to 10 times the length of a pendulum with a half-period of 1 daythird (exactly 10/π<sup>2</sup><ref name="pen">By the [[Wikipedia:Pendulum#Period_of_oscillation|pendulum equation]], the length of a pendulum with a period T is T<sup>2</sup>g/(4π<sup>2</sup>), the current definition of the fathom sets g at exactly 1, thus a pendulum with a half-period of 1 daythird, i.e., a period of 2 daythirds, would be 1/π<sup>2</sup> fathoms</ref>, or 1.01321 current fathoms)<br />
*The '''cubit''' set to the length of one side of a cubic volume of water with a mass equal to 100 ''Trade pounds''. The trade pound was a weight historically defined as a particular volume of silver<ref>Specifically, a pound was equal to 12 Traders' Units, which was the weight of one ''cubic finger'' of silver, a finger being {{frac|1|4}} hand</ref> which had long been used in trade in [[East Odirá]] and had some familiarity in West Odirá as well. (1 fathom = 166.945 cm = .983690 current fathoms) - the only major proposal that used mass to define length<br />
*The '''fathom''' set to twice the distance an object falls at 45 degrees north at sea level in one daythird<br />
<br />
The last-listed was, of course, ultimately accepted. The pendulum was, however, used to measure the force of gravity. Namely, the standard fathom was measured by multiplying the length of a daythird-pendulum by π<sup>2</sup><ref name="pen"/><br />
<br />
==Use in science==<br />
For scientific purposes, a variant system is used which, similar to Earth's SI, uses decimal prefixes. In principle, the prefixes can be added to any of the units above, but in practice, only a few units are used:<br />
*Time<br />
**For short increments, the daythird is used. For longer increments, days can be used, but rarely with prefixes, and years for very long periods of time<br />
*Length<br />
**Typically, leagues are used for long distances, fathoms for middle distances, and hairwidths for small units, prefixes are rarely added to fathoms<br />
*Mass<br />
**Pounds and grains are the most commonly-used units in science. Talents are often used for engineering purposes<br />
<br />
==Derived units==<br />
There are several systems of derived units, depending on which base units are used to define larger units:<br />
*Daythird-fathom-pound: This has become the most commonly-accepted system<br />
*Daythird-hairwidth-grain: Historically common in laboratory use<br />
<br />
Due to the way that the fathom was defined, systems that use the fathom do not need to have distinct units for force and mass<br />
<br />
==Contemporary definitions==<br />
*The '''fathom''' is defined as the distance light travels in 1/74,922,857 daythird<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Measurement systems]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=International_Units_(Galhaf)&diff=148330International Units (Galhaf)2022-04-24T02:05:01Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The standard international measurement system used on Galhaf evolved out of traditional units used in West Odirá and, unlike Earth's SI is not based..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The standard international measurement system used on [[Galhaf]] evolved out of traditional units used in [[West Odirá]] and, unlike Earth's [[Wikipedia:SI|SI]] is not based on a decimal system. In this article, standard English translations will be used. There is no single naming system for the units, though standard symbols exist for each unit<br />
<br />
==Basic Units==<br />
===Time===<br />
The basic unit of time is the ''daythird'', historically defined as 1/216,000 of a day (25 hours, 26 minutes, and 55 seconds in Earth time), part of a sexagesimal system of dividing the day:<br />
*1 day = 60 daymins = 25 h, 26 m, 55 s<br />
*1 daymin = 60 daysecs = 25 m, 26.9 s (1/60 day)<br />
*1 daysec = 60 daythirds = 25.449 s (1/3600 day)<br />
*1 '''daythird''' = .42414 s (1/216,000 day)<br />
*1 dayfourth = {{frac|1|60}} daythird = 7.0691 ms (1/12,960,000 day)<br />
<br />
Historically, further sexagesimal divisions were used. In modern times, however, small units of time are usually given in fractions of the daythird. The dayfourth retains some minor usage, particularly in timing races and the like<br />
<br />
===Length===<br />
The basic unit of length is the ''fathom'', historically defined as twice the distance that an object falls at sea level at 45 degrees north in a daythird, approximately 170 cm<br />
*1 League = 60 Furlongs = 12.2193 km<br />
*1 Furlong = 120 Fathoms = 203.656 m<br />
*1 '''Fathom''' = 4 Cubits = 169.713 cm<br />
*1 Cubit = 6 Hands = 42.4283 cm<br />
*1 Hand = 5 Grains = 7.07138 cm<br />
*1 Grain = 60 hairwidths = 1.41428 cm<br />
*1 Hairwidth = 235.713 μm<br />
<br />
===Area===<br />
In modern times, area is commonly measured by squared lengths, such as square league or square fathom, but a few traditional units were adopted:<br />
*Houseland: 4 square furlongs ({{frac|1|900}} square league; 16.5903 ha, 40.9955 acres)<br />
*Minuteland: {{frac|1|60}} houseland, thus {{frac|1|15}} square furlong or 960 square fathoms (2,765.05 m<sup>2</sup>, .683259 acres, 29,762.8 ft<sup>2</sup>) <br />
*Panel: 4 square cubits ({{frac|1|4}} square fathom, .720063 m<sup>2</sup>, 7.75069 ft<sup>2</sup>)<br />
<br />
Panels are commonly used to measure the area of buildings, while houseland and minuteland are commonly used to measure small land areas, especially real estate<br />
<br />
===Volume===<br />
*1 Octet = {{frac|1|8}} Cubit fathom = 8 Barrels = 611.022 L (cube 2 cubits on a side)<br />
*1 '''Barrel''' = 64 Sesters = 76.3778 L (cubic cubit)<br />
*1 Sester = 8 Gills = 1.19340 L<br />
*1 Gill = 27 Drams = 149.175 mL<br />
*1 Dram = 60 Minims = 5.52501 mL<br />
*1 Minim = 92.0835 μL<br />
<br />
Cubic measurements are also used, such as cubic fathom and so on.<br />
<br />
===Mass===<br />
The basic unit of mass is the ''talent'', historically defined as the mass of 1 barrel of water<br />
*1 '''Talent''' = 8 Octals = 76.3778 kg<br />
*1 Octal = 12 Pounds = 9.54723 kg<br />
*1 Pound = 12 Ounces = 795.602 g<br />
*1 Ounce = 3600 Grains = 66.3002 g<br />
*1 Grain = 18.4167 mg<br />
<br />
These units are also used for weight and force. In ambiguous contexts, the words "mass", "weight" or "force" can be affixed. When used as force, an acceleration of 1 fathom per daythird² is used, i.e., a pound-force is the force required to accelerate a mass of one pound at the rate of 1 fathom per daythird per daythird (7.5057 Newtons)<br />
<br />
===Temperature===<br />
As originally devised, the zero point was intended as the temperature achieved by a mixture of water, ice, and [[wikipedia:ammonium chloride|ammonium chloride]] and the boiling point was set at 60 (approximately 104 C in Galhaf's slightly-denser atmosphere). This set the freezing point of pure water at about 8.7 degrees. The scale was subsequently shifted to make the freezing point of water 10 degrees. For scientific purposes, a second temperature scale exists in which [[Wikipedia:absolute zero|absolute zero]] is set at 0. The [[Wikipedia:triple point|triple point]] of water is defined as 131.07 with the difference between Absolute and common being 121.07. The increment is thus about 2.084 Kelvin (273.16/131.07)<br />
<br />
===Angle===<br />
The most common way of measuring angles is by dividing a circle into 288 degrees. [[Wikipedia:radian|Radians]] are also used with the same definition as on Earth.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The International System was created at the [[First International Conference for Standardization]]. The Conference was held with the intent of reducing barriers to international trade and science caused by differing standards. At the time, there were different units in use in each nation, and even, quite frequently, in different parts of nations. Many were based on similar principles, such as the fathom of 4 cubits or 24 hands, but with differing values for the units. Several proposals were presented, including a [[Decimalized System of Measurements|completely decimalized system]]. The decimalized system was rejected as being too different from commonly-recognized units.<br />
<br />
Even after it was accepted that common units would be used, it took months of debate to settle on a consensus agreement. It was accepted that adopting a particular national value would unfairly benefit that nation over the others, and thus, a "natural" basis major debate centered on how the unit of length should be defined, as most accepted the idea of mass being defined in terms of a volume of water. The main proposals were:<br />
*The '''league''' set to 1/10 a [[#angle|degree]] along the equator (I.e., 1/2880 equatorial radius; 1 fathom = 185.346 cm = 1.09211 current fathoms)<br />
*The '''league''' set to 1/1000 the diameter of Galhaf (1 fathom = 169.913 cm = 1.00118 current fathoms)<br />
*The '''fathom''' set to 10 times the length of a pendulum with a half-period of 1 daythird (exactly 10/π<sup>2</sup><ref name="pen">By the [[Wikipedia:Pendulum#Period_of_oscillation|pendulum equation]], the length of a pendulum with a period T is T<sup>2</sup>g/(4π<sup>2</sup>), the current definition of the fathom sets g at exactly 1, thus a pendulum with a half-period of 1 daythird, i.e., a period of 2 daythirds, would be 1/π<sup>2</sup> fathoms</ref>, or 1.01321 current fathoms)<br />
*The '''cubit''' set to the length of one side of a cubic volume of water with a mass equal to 100 ''Trade pounds''. The trade pound was a weight historically defined as a particular volume of silver<ref>Specifically, a pound was equal to 12 Traders' Units, which was the weight of one ''cubic finger'' of silver, a finger being {{frac|1|4}} hand</ref> which had long been used in trade in [[East Odirá]] and had some familiarity in West Odirá as well. (1 fathom = 166.945 cm = .983690 current fathoms) - the only major proposal that used mass to define length<br />
*The '''fathom''' set to twice the distance an object falls at 45 degrees north at sea level in one daythird<br />
<br />
The last-listed was, of course, ultimately accepted. The pendulum was, however, used to measure the force of gravity. Namely, the standard fathom was measured by multiplying the length of a daythird-pendulum by π<sup>2</sup><ref name="pen"/><br />
<br />
==Use in science==<br />
For scientific purposes, a variant system is used which, similar to Earth's SI, uses decimal prefixes. In principle, the prefixes can be added to any of the units above, but in practice, only a few units are used:<br />
*Time<br />
**For short increments, the daythird is used. For longer increments, days can be used, but rarely with prefixes, and years for very long periods of time<br />
*Length<br />
**Typically, leagues are used for long distances, fathoms for middle distances, and hairwidths for small units, prefixes are rarely added to fathoms<br />
*Mass<br />
**Pounds and grains are the most commonly-used units in science. Talents are often used for engineering purposes<br />
<br />
==Derived units==<br />
There are several systems of derived units, depending on which base units are used to define larger units:<br />
*Daythird-fathom-pound: This has become the most commonly-accepted system<br />
*Daythird-hairwidth-grain: Historically common in laboratory use<br />
<br />
Due to the way that the fathom was defined, systems that use the fathom do not need to have distinct units for force and mass<br />
<br />
==Contemporary definitions==<br />
*The '''fathom''' is defined as the distance light travels in 1/74,922,857 daythird<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Measurement systems]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=History_of_the_Kasshi_Calendar&diff=148329History of the Kasshi Calendar2022-04-24T02:03:46Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The '''Kasshi calendar''' is traditionally said to have been created by chiNrasta in 2969 BOE, the same year as the Revelation. It has since been modified multipl..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''[[Kasshi]] calendar''' is traditionally said to have been created by [[chiNrasta]] in 2969 [[BOE]], the same year as the Revelation. It has since been modified multiple times to produce both the [[Kasshi calendar|modern solar calendar]] and the [[Kasshi lunisolar calendar|lunar calendar]].<br />
<br />
==Pre-chiNrasta==<br />
Prior to chiNrasta's creation, the calendar was based purely on observations. A new month began with the first observation of the new moon. The naming of months was, as now, based on the seasons. The months were:<br />
*Spring<br />
**Walītra (Early Spring)<br />
**Wakunrī (Mid-Spring)<br />
**Walenkalel (Late Spring)<br />
**Wevvalī (Additional Spring)<br />
*Summer<br />
**Wamūtra (Early Summer)<br />
**Wakommū (Mid-Summer)<br />
**Wamūnalel (Late Summer)<br />
**Wevvamū (Additional Summer)<br />
*Fall<br />
**Watreshtra (Early Fall)<br />
**Wakontresh (Mid-Fall)<br />
**Watreshnalel (Late Fall)<br />
**Wevvatresh (Additional Fall)<br />
*Winter<br />
**Wadreftra (Early Winter)<br />
**Wakondref (Mid-Fall)<br />
**Wadrefnalel (Late Fall)<br />
**Wevvadref (Additional Winter)<br />
<br />
The fourth month in each season was only used in some years. A month was considered to be Early Spring/Summer/Fall/Winter if it was the first month after the [[Chihazh|Sun]] had passed the starting points of those seasons, and then the following months, until the next season, were named accordingly. Thus, some years would require four months in a particular season and other years would only require three.<br />
<br />
== ChiNrasta's Calendar ==<br />
ChiNrasta desired a calendar that would be predictable, rather than relying on observations, thereby allowing a single calendar to be used everywhere. The observation-based calendar could occasionally result in different cities being off by 1 day or even, in rare cases, a whole month. The basic principles were the same as the current calendar, but with far less precision.<br />
=== Half-seasons ===<br />
Segments were not yet measured out. At the time, reasonably accurate information was known only for eight points - the solstices, the equinoxes, and the midpoints of those. Measurement precision was only to the level of {{frac|1|20}} day (3 daymins). This established 8 ''half-seasons''<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Half-season<br />
! Days<br />
! Daymins<br />
|-<br />
| Spring I<br />
| 27<br />
| 30<br />
|-<br />
| Spring II<br />
| 26<br />
| 54<br />
|-<br />
| Summer I<br />
| 28<br />
| 15<br />
|-<br />
| Summer II<br />
| 31<br />
| 3<br />
|-<br />
| Fall I<br />
| 33<br />
| 51<br />
|-<br />
| Fall II<br />
| 34<br />
| 39<br />
|-<br />
| Winter I<br />
| 32<br />
| 51<br />
|-<br />
| Winter II<br />
| 29<br />
| 48<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that these lengths are quite different from the length they would take today, due to almost 4 millennia of precession. ChiNrasta divided each of these half-seasons into 9 segments, for a total of 72 segments. It was assumed that each segment took the same length of time. The segments were then grouped into 12 ''solar periods'' of 6 segments each, which gave a rough approximation of their length, but with a margin of error of up to about 21 daymins.<br />
<br />
The length of the sidereal month was known to somewhat greater precision, to the tenth of a daymin, as 18 days 10 daymins, 6 daysecs. It was established that [[Sasalh|the Moon]] traversed 3{{frac|26|27}} segments each day. Thus, as today, the position of the Sun and Moon would be computed for each day. If the Moon was 0-3 segments ahead of the Sun, it would be counted as New Moon, 4-7 segments as Upper Fasting, etc. Skipped days were more frequent at this time due to the relative coarseness of the segments, and consequent greater "rounding errors".<br />
<br />
Months were named according to the segment the Sun was in at the time of the New Moon. Consequently, it would be one month ahead of the modern calendar about half the time.<br />
<br />
==Early developments==<br />
ChiNrasta was aware that the information she based the calendar on was incomplete. As a result, she ordered the establishment of an [[Ivets Observatory|observatory]] to collect data on solar and lunar movements to refine the calendar. Careful solar observations were made to determine the length of each segment, beginning in the year 5 YF. By the year 125 YF (2845 BOE) sufficient data had been gathered to produce half-daymin-precision estimates of the length of each segment. The lunar movement was also redefined as time per segment rather than segments per day, and was defined as 15 daymins, 8 daysecs, 25 daythirds per segment, refined to 27 daythirds by 125 YF. At this time, precession was not yet known. As a result, there was no accommodation for precession and, in fact, the values that were produced were rather the average of 120 years. The values produced by these observations were used for the calendar for several centuries. The following values were produced:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 | Solar period lengths<br />
|-<br />
! Month<br />
! Days<br />
! Daymins<br />
|-<br />
| Early Spring<br />
| 18<br />
| 32<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Spring<br />
| 17<br />
| 56<br />
|-<br />
| Late Spring<br />
| 17<br />
| 57½<br />
|-<br />
| Early Summer<br />
| 18<br />
| 32½<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Summer<br />
| 19<br />
| 38½<br />
|-<br />
| Late Summer<br />
| 20<br />
| 59½<br />
|-<br />
| Early Fall<br />
| 22<br />
| 18½<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Fall<br />
| 23<br />
| 4½<br />
|-<br />
| Late Fall<br />
| 23<br />
| 3½<br />
|-<br />
| Early Winter<br />
| 22<br />
| 16½<br />
|-<br />
| Mid-Winter<br />
| 20<br />
| 57<br />
|-<br />
| Late Winter<br />
| 19<br />
| 35½<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In the year 267 YF (2703 BOE), the definition of months were changed from the solar period New Moon is located in to the solar period the Full Moon is located in.<br />
<br />
Precession gradually became more noticeable over the centuries, as the Ivets Observatory continued to keep careful records of the segments' starting times. By the time that the errors had accumulated to a noticeable size, however, the Empire had fallen, and there was no central authority to impose a new calendar. Several reforms were adopted in different areas, causing different states to have different calendars. The first solar variant was adopted by around 1500 BOE. By this time, the error had accumulated to almost 4 days in Fall and Winter.<br />
<br />
In 836 BOE, with the establishment of the Rata [[Incarnation (Kasshi history)|Incarnation]] of the Empire, the various alternate calendars were replaced by a Reformed Calendar. The Reformed Calendar was the first to incorporate precession. The distinction between the sidereal and tropical years was recognized. Each segment was split into quarters, creating a total of 288 segments, ensuring that no segment would last longer than a day. The segments were established with an accuracy down to the tenth of a daymin, based on the sidereal year, and the first precession rule was established, namely, the year was shifted by 1 segment every 75 years. Further observation and the discovery of the [[Wikipedia:Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Laws of Orbital Motion]] permitted calculation of greater precision. By the fourth century BOE, the solar calendar was becoming increasingly common, and the segments were doubled once more to 576 segments when it was noted that it would soon become possible that a future shift would cause a 243-day solar year with the size of the segments, as the longest segments were just slightly smaller than 1 day. A further halving created the modern calendar.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshi]]<br />
[[Category:Calendars]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Gitanilan&diff=148328Gitanilan2022-04-24T02:02:52Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Gitanilan''' (''Gitánilabraz'' from ''Gitánila'' + -''braz'' "language of") is a Kasshian language historically used around the city of Gitanila. This article de..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gitanilan''' (''Gitánilabraz'' from ''Gitánila'' + -''braz'' "language of") is a [[Kasshian language]] historically used around the city of [[Gitanila]]. This article describes the language in the classical period, contemporaneous to [[Classical Kasshian]]. It belonged to the North Kassan branch.<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
Gitanilan was originally overshadowed by the Lambetsian dialects that gave rise to Classical Kasshian. It had importance as a secondary standard, due to one of the major religious centers being in Gitanila. After the rise of [[Nrastaism]], Gitanila became the center of the Revivalist movement, and rose to prominence as the center of the standardization effort. After the Empress-on-Kassa moved her court from Lambets to Gitanila, Gitanilan became the ''de facto'' standard on Kassa. It is the ancestor of [[Hassan]] and related languages spoken on [[Has (island)|Has]] today.<br />
<br />
== Phonology and Orthography ==<br />
Gitanilan phonology is similar to Classical Kasshian, but there are several notable differences.<br />
<br />
=== Consonants ===<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveopalatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Glottal<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| rowspan=2 | '''Stops'''<br />
| '''Voiced'''<br />
| b<br />
|<br />
| d<br />
| <br />
| g<br />
| <br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''Voiceless'''<br />
| p<br />
|<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
| <br />
|- align="center"<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Nasals'''<br />
| m<br />
|<br />
| n<br />
|<br />
| ''g''<br />
| <br />
|- align="center"<br />
| rowspan=2 | '''Affricates'''<br />
| '''Voiced'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| dz<br />
| j<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''Voiceless'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ts<br />
| ch<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| rowspan=2 | '''Fricatives'''<br />
| '''Voiced'''<br />
| <br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| zh<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|- align="center"<br />
| '''Voiceless'''<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| s<br />
| sh<br />
|<br />
| h<br />
|- align="center"<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Liquids'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| l, ''r''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Geminate stops and affricates did not exist in Gitanilan.<br />
<br />
==== Allophones ====<br />
*G was pronounced as [ŋ] intervocalically and [g] elsewhere<br />
*V is sometimes pronounced /w/ when preceded by another consonant<br />
*R is used after consonants, l elsewhere<br />
<br />
Unlike Classical Kasshian, ti, di, ki, gi, si, and zi were all possible syllables<br />
<br />
==== Phonotactic restrictions ====<br />
*Permissible syllable onsets are any consonant, a stop followed by r, or sr-, zr-, vr-<br />
*Permissible codas are m, n, s, v, z, and h (syllable-final h is realized as a long vowel)<br />
*L may be geminated; -mm-, -nn-, -ss-, -vv-, -zz-, -ssh-, -zzh- can also occur, but are generally analyzed as sequences of identical phones rather than geminates, no other geminates occur (archaic forms of the language had some instances of -pp-, but those have since become degeminated)<br />
*Hl is not a possible sequence. Where this occurs in compounding or grammatical inflections, the standard dialect drops the h. Some dialects add an epenthetic ''i'' while others replace ''hl'' with ''sh''<br />
*[li] is not a possible sequence, the l becomes silent. [ri] is possible, however<br />
*Nasal-liquid sequences do not exist. Where they occur in compounding or inflection, an epenthetic voiced stop is added if intervocalic, otherwise the nasal becomes a stop. [gr] is written gr and [ŋgr] is written ngr<br />
*Nasals cannot be followed by voiceless obstruents. Voiceless obstruents preceded by a nasal become voiced, with h becoming v<br />
*Orthographically, word-final l may appear. This l becomes pronounced before suffixes beginning with a vowel or another l. When a suffix starting with a voiceless obstruent is added, that obstruent is voiced.<br />
<br />
=== Vowels ===<br />
Gitanilan had four vowel phonemes /i e a u/ and two diphongs, /aj/ and /aw/. Vowels and diphthongs could be long or short. Length can be marked several ways. In most cases, it is marked by a following h in the same syllable (that is, when the h is not followed by another vowel). Long vowels may also be marked by a macron (which can be replaced by doubled vowels if macrons are unavailable). When two identical vowels belonging to different morphemes occur in succession, they are written separately, but pronounced as a normal long vowel. /u/ was pronounced as [o] in closed syllables.<br />
<br />
=== Stress ===<br />
Stress assignment was variable in Gitanilan. It was typically on the first syllable of the root (after any inflectional prefixes). There were some exceptions, marked by an acute.<br />
<br />
== Nouns and adjectives ==<br />
Adjectives agreed with their head nouns in case, number, and gender<br />
=== Gender ===<br />
Like other Kasshian languages, Gitanilan was gendered. There were 8 genders, similar to those of Classical Kasshian, but lacking CK's genders VI and IX and adding instead VIII and X<br />
*Gender I: Female or epicene human and some supernatural beings<br />
*Gender II: Male human and some supernatural beings<br />
*Gender III: [[Androgyne (Kasshi)|Androgyne]] human and some supernatural beings<br />
*Gender IV: Animals, some spirits, water, wind<br />
*Gender V: Dangerous Things<br />
*Gender VII: Most inanimates<br />
*Gender VIII: Most body parts, human-made objects, language, abstractions, emotions, cultural institutions, groups of humans etc.<br />
*Gender X: Gods and many supernatural beings<br />
<br />
==== Gender Prefixes ====<br />
Each gender was marked by one of several prefixes indicating gender and number (singular or plural for IV-VIII and singular, dual, or plural for I-III and X). There were four basic inflectional paradigms, depending on whether the noun-root began with an consonant other than l or h, an l, an h, or a vowel.<br />
<br />
'''Consonant initial'''<br />
<br />
These prefixes were added to roots beginning with a consonant other than l or h. There was a subclass of consonant-initial nouns known as ''i-dropping'' nouns, consisting of all but a few stems beginning with a consonant followed by an ''unstressed'' i. In these, the ''i'' was dropped in the singular of all but gender VIII<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| ti-<br />
| ti-<ref group="c" name="v">Voiceless obstruents become voiced</ref><br />
| tih-<br />
|-<br />
| II<br />
| na-<br />
| na-<ref group="c" name="v"/><br />
| nah-<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| du-<br />
| du-<ref group="c" name="v"/><br />
| duh-<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| tsi-<br />
| colspan=2 | tsih-<br />
|-<br />
| V<br />
| Ø-<ref group="c">i- for i-dropping nouns</ref><br />
| colspan=2 | ih-<br />
|-<br />
| VI<br />
| pi-<br />
| colspan=2 | pih-<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| Ø-<ref group="c" name="v"/><br />
| colspan=2 | uh-<br />
|-<br />
| X<br />
| la-<br />
| la-<ref group="c" name="v"/><br />
| lah-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<references group="c"/><br />
<br />
'''L-initial'''<br />
<br />
These prefixes are given with the initial l (which becomes r or dropped in certain forms). There are two subclasses, those that begin with la-, le-, or lu- and those that begin with li-. Li-initial nouns drop the initial l in the stem form. In addition, the plural forms have three dialectal variations, which are all listed here<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Gender<br />
! colspan=5 | La/le/lu-initial<br />
! rowspan=10 | <br />
! colspan=5 | Li-initial<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! colspan=3 | Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! colspan=3 | Plural<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| tr-<br />
| till-<br />
| til-<br />
| tihil-<br />
| tish-<br />
| tr-<br />
| till-<br />
| ti-<br />
| tihi-<br />
| tish-<br />
|-<br />
| II<br />
| dr-<br />
| nall-<br />
| nal-<br />
| nahil-<br />
| nash-<br />
| dr-<br />
| nall-<br />
| na-<br />
| nahi-<br />
| nash-<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| dr-<br />
| doll-<br />
| dul-<br />
| duhil-<br />
| dush-<br />
| dr-<br />
| doll-<br />
| dw-<br />
| duhi-<br />
| dush-<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| kr-<br />
| rowspan=4 | <br />
| tsil-<br />
| tsihil-<br />
| tsish-<br />
| kr-<br />
| rowspan=4 | <br />
| tsi-<br />
| tsihi-<br />
| tsish-<br />
|-<br />
| V<br />
| l-<br />
| il-<br />
| hil-<br />
| sh-<br />
| Ø-<br />
| h-<br />
| hil-<br />
| sh-<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| pr-<br />
| pil-<br />
| pihil-<br />
| pish-<br />
| pr-<br />
| pi-<br />
| pihi-<br />
| pish-<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| dr-<br />
| l-<br />
| hil-<br />
| sh-<br />
| dr-<br />
| Ø-<br />
| hi-<br />
| sh-<br />
|-<br />
| X<br />
| lal-<br />
| lall-<br />
| lal-<br />
| lahil-<br />
| lash-<br />
| la-<br />
| lall-<br />
| la-<br />
| lahi-<br />
| lash-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''H-initial roots'''<br />
<br />
In roots beginning with an h, the h becomes v- or p- in certain forms. The prefixes are listed here with the initial h-/v-/p-<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| tih-<br />
| tiv-<br />
| tip-<br />
|-<br />
| II<br />
| nah-<br />
| nav-<br />
| nap-<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| duh-<br />
| duv-<br />
| dup-<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| tsih-<br />
| colspan=2 | tsip-<br />
|-<br />
| V<br />
| h-<br />
| colspan=2 | p-<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| pih-<br />
| colspan=2 | pip-<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| v-<br />
| colspan=2 | p-<br />
|-<br />
| X<br />
| lah-<br />
| lav-<br />
| lap-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Vowel-initial'''<br />
<br />
There are three subtypes of vowel-initial nouns depending on the initial vowel. Nouns starting with a or u are in one class, while nouns starting with i- or e- are divided between two subclasses<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Gender<br />
! colspan=3 | A- & u-initial<br />
! rowspan=10 | <br />
! colspan=3 | Type 1 i-/e-initial<br />
! rowspan=10 | <br />
! colspan=3 | Type 2 i-/e-initial<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| I<br />
| t-<br />
| tr-<br />
| tih-<br />
| t-<br />
| tr-<br />
| tih-<br />
| ch-<br />
| tr-<br />
| tih-<br />
|-<br />
| II<br />
| n-<br />
| dr-<br />
| nah-<br />
| n-<br />
| dr-<br />
| nah-<br />
| n-<br />
| dr-<br />
| nah-<br />
|-<br />
| III<br />
| d-<br />
| dr-<br />
| duh-<br />
| d-<br />
| dr-<br />
| duh-<br />
| j-<br />
| dr-<br />
| duh-<br />
|-<br />
| IV<br />
| k-<br />
| colspan=2 | tsih-<br />
| k-<br />
| colspan=2 | tsih-<br />
| ts-<br />
| colspan=2 | tsih-<br />
|-<br />
| V<br />
| l-<br />
| colspan=2 | h-<br />
| Ø-<br />
| colspan=2 | h-<br />
| Ø-<br />
| colspan=2 | h-<br />
|-<br />
| VII<br />
| p-<br />
| colspan=2 | pih-<br />
| p-<br />
| colspan=2 | pih-<br />
| p-<br />
| colspan=2 | pih-<br />
|-<br />
| VIII<br />
| n-<br />
| colspan=2 | h-<br />
| n-<br />
| colspan=2 | h-<br />
| n-<br />
| colspan=2 | h-<br />
|-<br />
| X<br />
| l-<br />
| lal-<br />
| lah-<br />
| Ø-<br />
| la-<br />
| lah-<br />
| Ø-<br />
| la-<br />
| lah-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Cases ===<br />
Gitanilan has 13 cases, fewer than the 19 of Classical Kasshian, some cases with similar uses to CK, but others with rather different meanings. In the Northern Kassan languages, the case system was significantly altered, with a number of cases changing meaning. Unlike Classical Kasshian, there has been some degree of fusion between the number suffixes and the case-suffixes, with slightly different forms depending on whether the noun ends in a consonant or a vowel. Cases can be divided into two main groups, four True Cases (absolutive, ergative, dative, and instrumental), and nine Pseudo-Cases, subdivided into three further subgroups, the Genitive Group, the Dative Group, and the Absolutive Cases. Pseudo-Cases are formed by clitics suffixed to the head noun. Adjectives thus can only occur in True Cases, agreement being determined by which subgroup the head noun's case is in (that is, if the head noun is in a pseudo-case of the partitive group, the adjective is in the partitive)<br />
<br />
There is an archaic dual form that was used with those genders that distinguish dual and plural, formed by suffixing -li (-i after vowel-final nouns; except -lev for inalienable possessive) to the noun and then adding the singular suffixes for vowel-final nouns.<br />
<br />
Nouns ending in -h are treated as regular consonant-final nouns, however, the -h becomes -p in the plural. Nouns ending in long vowels marked by doubling or macron shorten the vowel in closed syllables.<br />
<br />
==== True Cases ====<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|- align="center"<br />
!rowspan=2 | Case<br />
!colspan=2 | Vowel-final nouns<br />
!colspan=2 | Consonant-final nouns<br />
|-<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
!Singular<br />
!Plural<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''Absolutive'''<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -h<br />
| -Ø<br />
| -ih<br />
|-align="center"<br />
|'''Ergative'''<br />
| -i<br />
| -ha<br />
| colspan=2| -a<br />
|-align="center"<br />
|'''Dative'''<br />
| -z<br />
| -haz<br />
| colspan=2|-az<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''Genitive'''<br />
| -h<br />
| -hah<br />
|colspan=2|-ah<br />
|- align="center"<br />
|'''Instrumental'''<br />
| colspan=2| -i<br />
| colspan=2|-ri<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Pseudo-Cases ====<br />
*Absolutive Group<br />
**Property: -ka (-ga after voiced consonants)<br />
**Locative: -di (-ti after voiceless consonants, including -h)<br />
**Alienable possession: -lan (remember: hl -> l; also, when suffixed to plural consonant-final nouns, the /i/ in the -ih suffix is often dropped as well)<br />
**Inalienable possession: -(a)v<br />
***Note: -i becomes -e and -u becomes -a before this suffix, also, as with alienable possession, the -ih suffix of plural consonant-final nouns is often dropped before this suffix<br />
***Alienable and inalienable are often treated as True Cases.<br />
*Dative Group<br />
**Allative: -zi<br />
**Resultive: -ba<br />
*Genitive Group<br />
**Originative: -ta<br />
**Compositional: -tu<br />
**Ablative: -kos<br />
<br />
Archaically, the Instrumental case was considered a Pseudo-Case of the absolutive group, but it has since been reanalyzed as a True Case.<br />
<br />
==== Meaning of Cases ====<br />
Compared to Classical Kasshian, many of the cases have very different meanings from their CK cognates. In particular, many of the local cases of CK have come to be used for other purposes, collapsing all motion/location senses into the three cases of locative, ablative, and allative<br />
*Absolutive: Used for the subject of an intransitive verb, or the object of a transitive verb<br />
*Ergative: Used for the subject of a transitive verb<br />
*Dative: Used to indicate the recipient of an action, or the one for whom an action is performed<br />
*Genitive: By the classical period, the genitive was no longer used except as a base for the genitive-group pseudocases.<br />
*Instrumental: Used to indicate the means by which an action is performed, or in causative constructions for the one made to do something<br />
*Alienable possession: Indicates possession of an object which can be lost, for example, "the woman's book" ''nihka tita'''lan'''''<br />
*Inalienable possession: Indicates possession of something which cannot be taken away, without altering the nature of the object, e.g., "the woman's arm" ''tichiki tita'''v'''''. Note that ''tichiki tita'''lan''''' would imply that she was holding a disembodied arm! Used with body parts, family relations, and sometimes with things created by someone, especially art and the like (for many speakers, for example, ''dikas tita'''lan''''' for "the woman's art" would imply artwork purchased by her from someone else, while ''dikas tita'''v''''' would imply that it was her own creation)<br />
*Property: Used to indicate that something is a property of the possessor, e.g., ''nupra tinani'''ka''''' "the mother's love". Many speakers do not use this case, and instead use inalienable possession for that sense<br />
*Locative: Indicates the location in which an action occurs or an individual is.<br />
*Allative: Motion towards something<br />
*Resultive: Indicates the result of an action, particularly with verbs indicating change of state, such as "change" or "become", also used for the subject of intransitive verbs when another clause gives the cause.<br />
*Originative: Used to indicate the origin of a noun, e.g., "a woman '''from''' Gitanila" - ''tita Gitánila'''hta'''''. Originative is also used for the subject of a transitive verb in some ditransitive constructions (particularly when the object is an inanimate object) or some verbs where the object is not affected by the action (for example, "to read")<br />
*Compositional: Used to indicate the composition of an object, rarely used in the dual number due to its meaning<br />
*Ablative: Motion away from something<br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshian languages]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Galhaf&diff=148327Galhaf2022-04-24T02:01:39Z<p>Christina: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| border=0 align=right cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f8f8f8; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"<br />
|+ <big>'''Galhaf'''</big><br />
|-<br />
|'''Mean Distance from [[Chihazh|sun]]''': || 105,255,160 km<br>.70359 AU<br />
|-<br />
|Perhelion: || 98,341,249 km<br />
|-<br />
|Aphelion: || 112,169,071 km<br />
|-<br />
|'''Orbital Period''': || 259 d, 15 h, 36 m, 13.286 s (Earth)<br>244 d, 20 h, 53 m, 22.709 s (Galhafan)<br />
|-<br />
|'''[[Mean Tropical Year]]''': || 259 d, 15 h, 18 m, 52.130 s (Earth)<br>244 d, 20 h, 37 m, 0.818 s (Galhafan)<br />
|-<br />
|'''Eccentricity''': || .065687<br />
|-<br />
|'''Sidereal day''': || 25 h, 20 m, 40.747 s<br />
|-<br />
|'''Solar day''': || 25 h, 26 m, 54.88 s<br />
|-<br />
|'''Mean Radius''': || 6,106.60 km<br />
|-<br />
|'''Equatorial Radius''': || 6,116.85 km<br />
|-<br />
|'''Polar Radius''': || 6,096.34 km<br />
|-<br />
|'''Equatorial circumference''': || 38,433.3 km<br />
|-<br />
|'''Polar circumference''': || 38,304.4 km<br />
|-<br />
|'''Surface area''': || 469,130,000 km²<br />
|-<br />
|'''Axial tilt''': || 24.2º<br />
|-<br />
|'''Mass''': || 5.28962×10<sup>24</sup> kg<br>(.88541 Earth-masses)<br />
|-<br />
|'''Gravity''': || 9.43389 m/s²<br>.961989 g<br />
|-<br />
|'''Number of moons''': || 2 ([[Sasalh]] and [[Lhásta]])<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Galhaf''' is the [[Planets of Chihazh|fourth planet]] orbiting [[Chihazh]], home to two sapient species, [[human]]s and [[pteranthropan]]s, and a rich diversity of other life forms. The name is derived from the [[Classical Kasshian]] ''wagallapa'', from ''wagalla'' "world" and ''-pa'' "our". ''Wagalla'' in turn was derived from the verb ''gli'' "to make, to create", and originally meant "creation". The [[Nrastaism|Nrastaists]] believed that there were many worlds, different creations of Goddess via various groups of [[Divinity (Nrastaism)|Divinities]]. The word for "creation" came to be used for these worlds, and thus, their own world was referred to as simply "our world". ''Galh'' on its own still means "world" in [[Ivetsian]], although the meaning of the -af has been lost<br />
<br />
==Physical structure==<br />
Overall, Galhaf is similar to Earth. It is slightly less massive with a similar composition, resulting in a slightly weaker surface gravity. Its rotation is slower than Earth's, resulting in a day somewhat longer than our own. Like Earth, Galhaf's surface is divided into several tectonic plates, and thus, phenomena such as earthquakes and volcanoes occur in much the same way as on Earth.<br />
<br />
==Geology==<br />
The planet's landmasses are more spread-out than Earth, broken up into a dozen or so mini-continents and two major continents.<br />
<br />
Major continents are:<br />
*[[Odirá]]<br />
*[[Kraya]]<br />
<br />
==Atmosphere and climate==<br />
Galhaf's atmosphere is similar to Earth's, but is slightly thicker with a stronger greenhouse effect. Galhaf's surface temperature averages a little higher than Earth's.<br />
<br />
===Seasons===<br />
Galhaf's axial tilt is slightly larger than Earth's, resulting in greater seasonal variation due to axial tilt. The seasonal variation is complicated by the moderate degree of eccentricity<br />
<br />
[[Category:Conworlds]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=First_Kasshi_Empire&diff=148326First Kasshi Empire2022-04-24T02:00:35Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The '''First Kasshi Empire''' existed in West Odirá in ancient times, the first time the Kasshi people were united in a single political entity under their own rule...."</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''First Kasshi Empire''' existed in [[West Odirá]] in ancient times, the first time the [[Kasshi]] people were united in a single political entity under their own rule. Its existence is conventionally dated from 3507-2677 BOE<br />
==Organization==<br />
The First Empire was less centralized than most of the later [[Incarnation (Kasshi history)|Incarnations]] of the Empire. It consisted of the [[Realm]] of [[Kassa]], which was made up of most of [[Has (island)|Has]] (called Kassa at the time), and a large number of other Realms which were subordinated to Kassa. Most of the other Realms existed on the mainland, but there were a few on Has and other islands. The relationship between the lesser realms and Kassa were a subject of debate. The official view of the imperial court was that the relationship existed between the lands themselves and the Crown, a permanent union. Others, however, viewed the relationship as a personal one between the Queen of Kassa and her vassals. The dispute arose from the way in which the Empire was formed. Upon military defeat of a formerly-independent realm, its ruler swore fealty to the Imperial Crown. Upon the succession of a new Empress, the rulers of all the subordinate Realms traveled to the imperial capital in [[Lambets]] to swear fealty to the new Empress. Likewise, upon the succession of a new queen of a subordinate Realm, the new Queen traveled to Lambets to receive formal recognition and swear fealty. In the imperial view, this was a reenactment of the original bond and a renewal of the same, but was not required. In the alternate view, this was the creation of a new bond with each succession. In that view, the Empire was dissolved every time an Empress died, and reformed each time the other queens swore fealty to the new Empress, and likewise, the bond was broken by the death of a subordinate queen and reformed when her successor swore fealty.<br />
<br />
==Pre-Imperial history==<br />
The origins of the First Empire date back to the withdrawal of [[Sanle]] forces from Has in 3736 BOE during a period of Sanle decline. At the time, the island had been ruled as a province of the Sanle Empire. Prior to the Sanle conquest, the island had been divided into many city-states and smaller villages, in an ever-shifting pattern of rule. After the withdrawal of Sanle forces, the island fell once again into disunion. The Sanle had not formally renounced ownership of the island, and there was even a nominal governor-in-exile. Memories of former political union remained, and as fighting between city-states grew, nostalgia for the days of unity grew as well.<br />
<br />
In 3586 BOE, the ''[[Glajezh]]'' of Lambets declared herself Governor of Kassa. At the time, Lambets was one of several city-states to dominate large areas of the island. This was the first time that a formal claim to governorship had been made since the Sanle withdrawal, and the first time an ethnic Kasshi had claimed that title. Initially, the Sanle Empire opposed her declaration, but in 3583, the Empress recognized her position as Governor in exchange for a promise to restore the island to full membership in the Empire. Sanle provided aid to Lambets to reunite the island. By 3542 BOE, the island was fully unified once more. If the Empire expected to have a loyal province in Kassa, they were soon disillusioned.<br />
<br />
==Empire==<br />
In 3507, the Governor declared herself Queen of Kassa and renounced Sanle rule. Sanle was still struggling to assert their control in more central regions and was in no position to assert their control over Has. They refused to acknowledge the island as a [[Realm]], but also made no effort to reconquer it. A nominal governor-in-exile was once again appointed. Kassa slowly began to control neighboring islands. By 3380, the Sanle Empire had retreated to its core territory, and former peripheral provinces were now small independent states. Kassa took advantage of this situation and invaded the mainland. Between 3380 and 3150, the First Empire grew to its greatest extent, with one realm after another falling into vassalage to Kassa. It was belatedly recognized as an independent entity by the Sanle Empire in 3210. A rift was beginning to develop between the homeland and the mainland portions of the Empire. Initially, anyone descended from a Kasshi was seen as Kasshi, but as the mainlanders began to assimilate more and more with the local population, a split began to be seen between the so-called Old Kasshi who were ethnically "pure" Kasshi in the homeland and the New Kasshi who were ethnically-mixed. A racial hierarchy was developed with the Old Kasshi on top, the New Kasshi in the middle, and non-Kasshi at the bottom. In the views of the Old Kasshi, all non-Kasshi were equally low, but most New Kasshi divided the non-Kasshi into further hierarchical divisions. Resentment grew among the New Kasshi. This was reinvigorated with the rise of [[Nrastaism]], which quickly gained popularity on the mainland, while having little success on Kassa.<br />
<br />
==Splitting of the Crown==<br />
Through the 2950s, the mainland Empire began to assert greater autonomy from the central government, and demanded a reform of the Empire. The Imperial crown refused and threatened to use force to assert control if needed. Tensions rose, and armies were raised. In 2953, Queen Ptarak III of [[Yaven]] died. Her successor, Ptarak IV, refused to swear fealty to the Empress. Under the Imperial view, this made her simply a rebellious vassal, while in the opposing view, this maintained her independence as a sovereign queen. War nearly broke out over this dispute, but was averted by the Yaven Agreement in which Ptarak made no overt moves in opposition to Imperial rule, and used carefully ambiguous language in official documents to avoid asserting actual independence, while also avoiding any direct acknowledgement of vassalage. Likewise, the Imperial government avoided any direct assertions of control over Yaven. This was an inherently unstable situation, and both sides recognized it as a merely temporary truce, hoping to come to some form of agreement to avoid war. This was not to be. Two other realms followed suit in 2951 and 2950. The mainland realms formed a loose confederation, centered around [[Ivets (realm)|Ivets]], and in 2950, Queen [[Chalanya]] of Ivets was recognized as High Queen of the Mainland Realms by the members of this confederation, which title was completely rejected by the Imperial Crown. Finally, in 2948, the Empress died. The mainland realms refused to swear fealty to the new Empress. This was taken by the imperial government as an act of rebellion, and civil war broke out. The mainland realms swore fealty to Queen Chalanya, recognizing her as Empress rather than the new Kassan empress. This war lasted until 2941. Both the Kassan empress and the mainland Empress recognized each other as Empresses, distinguished by the titles Empress-on-Kassa and Empress-on-the-Mainland. Today, the Empire-on-the-Mainland is referred to as the [[Second Kasshi Empire]]<br />
<br />
==Reunification of the Crowns==<br />
For several centuries, the two Empires existed side by side, with only a few skirmishes over certain islands in the Kassan Channel between the mainland and Kassa itself. In 2680, Empress [[Chila]] sought to reunite the two portions of the former Empire and invaded Kassa. After [[Kassan Reconquest|a brief war]], the Empress-on-Kassa surrendered to the Empress-on-the-mainland and a reunited Empire was formed. The Empress-on-Kassa became Duchess of Kassa, which title survives to the present day as the [[Has (duchy)|Duchy of Has]]. The reunited Empire is known today as the [[Third Empire]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshi Empire|*]]<br />
[[Category:Historical nations of Galhaf|Kasshi Empire, First]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Declarations_(Kasshi)&diff=148325Declarations (Kasshi)2022-04-24T01:59:44Z<p>Christina: Created page with "The '''Declarations''' (''wafPazgalai'' in Classical Kasshian, singular ''waPazgala'') were part of the rite of passage in classical Kasshi..."</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Declarations''' (''wafPazgalai'' in [[Classical Kasshian]], singular ''waPazgala'') were part of the [[Wikipedia:rite of passage|rite of passage]] in classical [[Kasshi]]an society, associated closely with [[Kasshi Paganism]]. The Declarations marked ones transition from childhood to adulthood or, less commonly, from one role in adulthood to another role.<br />
<br />
Typically beginning at around the age of 17 [[year]]s<ref>About 12 in Earth years</ref>, a child would be taken under the guidance of the local priestess to be taught the ways of adulthood, and would be encouraged to ask older adults about their roles in society. The priestess would guide them in rituals involving meditation and [[Wikipedia:entheogen|entheogens]] to discover their True Self, and find their ''[[Kasshi Paganism#Gods and spirits|tonçimili]]'', a sort of guardian spirit or patron deity. Upon reaching the age of 20<ref>About 14 Earth years</ref>, they would be encouraged to formally declare the role they intended to take in society, the [[Gender in Kasshi culture|gender]] they would take, and to choose a new name. It was expected that the Declaration would be made some time before the 21st birthday, though it was permitted to wait longer. Though, if one waited more than two or three years, there would tend to be a great deal of pressure to choose something. Once a role was accepted, it was difficult, though not impossible, to change that role. It was considered especially understandable if the role initially chosen was the same as one's parents and the new role was significantly different, as it was understood that it could be hard to break away from one's childhood experiences. The term Declaration was used for any such declaration of a new role. In the case of a later change in adulthood, they were distinguished simply as "First Declaration" and "Later Declaration"<br />
<br />
Once one had made their Declaration, the new role was formally marked through a number of symbols. Clothing changed from childhood styles to styles associated with the new adult role, or from styles associated with the old role to styles associated with the new role in the case of a later-life change, and the old name was no longer used<ref>Accidentally using the old name was considered an embarrassing faux pas, and intentionally using the old name was considered an extreme insult</ref>.<br />
<br />
In the case of a First Declaration, it would also be followed by [[Kasshi tattoos|tattooing]]. There were certain tattoo patterns associated with every societal role, with two exceptions: [[Slavery#Kasshi|slaves]] and priestesses were not tattooed. Slaves did not undergo the Declaration ritual. In the event of a slave gaining or being granted their freedom, they would then make a Declaration within a few years of being freed. Immediately after being freed, their new status would be marked with a specific tattoo, and their clothing would change. In a Later Declaration, there would be further tattooing to indicate the change of status. Certain other life events were marked by tattoos. A basic summary of one's life history could be seen by tattoos.<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Kasshi]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Category:Kasshi&diff=148324Category:Kasshi2022-04-24T01:59:06Z<p>Christina: Created page with "Category:Concultures"</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Concultures]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Kasshi&diff=148323Kasshi2022-04-24T01:58:52Z<p>Christina: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Kasshi''' are a civilization in [[West Odirá]] which originated on the island of [[Has]], whose original name, ''Kassa'', was the source of the name ''Kasshi''. After the rise of the [[First Kasshi Empire]], the Kasshi were divided into two groups, the Old Kasshi who remained on Has, and the New Kasshi, on the mainland. The New Kasshi arose from the mixing of the Old Kasshi with continental groups. Relations between the Old Kasshi and the New Kasshi have historically risen and fallen. In the late First Empire, a racial hierarchy developed between the two, with the Old Kasshi being placed above the New Kasshi. At that time, membership in the two groups was based on different criteria (though the distinction was not absolute, and some people did fall into a gray zone, attempts were made to systemize the distinction). The Old Kasshi were seen as "pure" Kasshi, and any non-Kasshi ancestry was usually enough to exclude one from that class, whereas the New Kasshi, on the other hand, were considered to be those with ''any'' Kasshi ancestry (though some did require a blood quantum.) This racial division lead to the breakup of the First Empire. At times, the Old Kasshi have even refused to recognize the New Kasshi as being Kasshi, referring to them instead as Half-Kasshi or halfbloods, while, conversely, the New Kasshi have often considered themselves to be the true Kasshi, referring to the Old Kasshi as "Kassans". In modern times, the distinction has significantly weakened, and many people don't even know which category they'd be placed into. Indeed, there are very few "pure" Old Kasshi left.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Concultures]]<br />
[[Category:Kasshi|*]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Kasshi&diff=148322Kasshi2022-04-24T01:58:40Z<p>Christina: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Kasshi''' are a civilization in [[West Odirá]] which originated on the island of [[Has]], whose original name, ''Kassa'', was the source of the name ''Kasshi''. After the rise of the [[First Kasshi Empire]], the Kasshi were divided into two groups, the Old Kasshi who remained on Has, and the New Kasshi, on the mainland. The New Kasshi arose from the mixing of the Old Kasshi with continental groups. Relations between the Old Kasshi and the New Kasshi have historically risen and fallen. In the late First Empire, a racial hierarchy developed between the two, with the Old Kasshi being placed above the New Kasshi. At that time, membership in the two groups was based on different criteria (though the distinction was not absolute, and some people did fall into a gray zone, attempts were made to systemize the distinction). The Old Kasshi were seen as "pure" Kasshi, and any non-Kasshi ancestry was usually enough to exclude one from that class, whereas the New Kasshi, on the other hand, were considered to be those with ''any'' Kasshi ancestry (though some did require a blood quantum.) This racial division lead to the breakup of the First Empire. At times, the Old Kasshi have even refused to recognize the New Kasshi as being Kasshi, referring to them instead as Half-Kasshi or halfbloods, while, conversely, the New Kasshi have often considered themselves to be the true Kasshi, referring to the Old Kasshi as "Kassans". In modern times, the distinction has significantly weakened, and many people don't even know which category they'd be placed into. Indeed, there are very few "pure" Old Kasshi left.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cultures]]<br />
[[Category:Kasshi|*]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Sanle&diff=148321Classical Sanle2022-04-24T01:57:40Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Classical Sanle''' was the language of the Sanle Empire during its first great expansion. It had significant influence on neighboring languages, including Classical..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Classical Sanle''' was the language of the [[Sanle Empire]] during its first great expansion. It had significant influence on neighboring languages, including [[Classical Kasshian]].<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveolar<br />
! Alveopalatal<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
! Uvular<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | '''Stops'''<br />
| '''Voiced'''<br />
| b<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| d<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| g<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Voiceless'''<br />
| p<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
| q<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Nasal'''<br />
| m<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Lateral affricates'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| tlh<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | '''Fricative'''<br />
| '''Voiced'''<br />
| <br />
| v<br />
| dh<br />
| z<br />
| zh<br />
|<br />
| gh<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Voiceless'''<br />
|<br />
| f<br />
| th<br />
| s<br />
| sh<br />
| <br />
| kh<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| colspan=2 | '''Glides'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| y<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan=2 | '''Liquids'''<br />
| '''Lateral'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| l<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Rhotic'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| r<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There were five vowels /i e a o u/ which could be long or short. Long vowels are marked by an acute, á é í ó ú. Some dialects pronounced short /a/ as a schwa.<br />
<br />
===Stress===<br />
Stress is regularly on the first syllable of a word, exceptions are marked by a grave (à è ì ò ù) for short vowels, circumflex (â ê î ô û) for long vowels.<br />
<br />
===Syllables===<br />
Classical Sanle tended towards monosyllabic words, with a fair number of disyllabic words. Moderately complex consonant clusters were permitted, but no vowel sequences existed. Legal onsets were:<br />
*No consonant (only on the first syllable of a word)<br />
*Any consonant<br />
*A stop followed by any other consonant (including another stop)<br />
*A nasal followed by anything except another nasal<br />
*A fricative followed by any other consonant<br />
*L followed by r or y<br />
Sequences of stops and fricatives were required to have the same voicing<br><br />
Legal codas were:<br />
*No consonant<br />
*Any consonant<br />
*A nasal followed by a stop or fricative with the same place of articulation<br />
*A fricative followed by a stop (same voicing)<br />
*An l or r followed by a stop, fricative, or nasal<br />
*rl<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Sanle was mostly isolating, with only a few inflections.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Sanle had three genders: sapient (human, gods, spirits, pteranthropans), other animates, and inanimates, two numbers (singular, plural), and two cases (common and genitive-dative). Suffixes varied according to gender. Adjectives used the same suffixes, except that common singular had -r for sapient and -kh for inanimate. If the suffixes would violate phonotactic restrictions, an epenthetic vowel is added between the noun root and the suffix, determined by the last vowel in the noun. For example, the common-plural for ''divb'' (ally) is ''divbit'', while for ''daq'' (angry), when referring to a human, it's ''daqat''<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Case<br />
! colspan=2 | Sapient<br />
! colspan=2 | Animate<br />
! colspan=2 | Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Common<br />
| Ø<br />
| -t<br />
| Ø<br />
| -p<br />
| Ø<br />
| -ln<br />
|-<br />
! Gen-Dat<br />
| -ren<br />
| -ten<br />
| -n<br />
| -mp<br />
| -khi<br />
| -lakh<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs were inflected for aspect, mood, and gender and number of subject, by means of an inflected auxiliary placed before the verb<br />
<br />
The perfective was marked by the auxiliary ''arl''<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Subject<br />
! Realis<br />
! Irrealis<br />
|-<br />
! Human singular<br />
| arl<br />
| ari<br />
|-<br />
! Human plural<br />
| arlar<br />
| arra<br />
|-<br />
! Animate singular<br />
| ark<br />
| arkh<br />
|-<br />
! Animate plural<br />
| arkar<br />
| arkra<br />
|-<br />
! Inanimate<br />
| arp<br />
| arf<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The imperfective was marked with the auxiliary ''ger''<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Subject<br />
! Realis<br />
! Irrealis<br />
|-<br />
! Human singular<br />
| ger<br />
| gels<br />
|-<br />
! Human plural<br />
| gelar<br />
| gelra<br />
|-<br />
! Animate singular<br />
| gelk<br />
| gelkh<br />
|-<br />
! Animate plural<br />
| gelkar<br />
| gelkra<br />
|-<br />
! Inanimate<br />
| gelp<br />
| gelf<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Habitual was marked by use of ''ger'' plus reduplication of the main verb (e.g., ''ger kner'', eat human-singular imperfective vs. ''ger kner-kner'', eat human-singular habitual)<br />
<br />
Stative is marked with the auxiliary ''korm''<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Subject<br />
! Realis<br />
! Irrealis<br />
|-<br />
! Human singular<br />
| korm<br />
| kons<br />
|-<br />
! Human plural<br />
| kar<br />
| konra<br />
|-<br />
! Animate singular<br />
| konk<br />
| konkh<br />
|-<br />
! Animate plural<br />
| konkar<br />
| konkra<br />
|-<br />
! Inanimate<br />
| komp<br />
| komf<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In addition, a third mood, the ''desiderative'' ("want to") was formed by suffixing -(y)iC to the verb, and using irrealis forms of the auxiliaries (where C represents the last consonant of the verb, and y is used if the verb ends in a vowel), e.g., ''gels knerir'' would be the desiderative human-singular imperfective of "eat") while the imperative was formed with the bare verb.<br />
<br />
== Syntax ==<br />
Sanle used SOV as the normal word order with adjectives preceding nouns and postpositions.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Sanle]]<br />
[[Category:Sanle language|*]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Kasshian_phonology&diff=148320Classical Kasshian phonology2022-04-24T01:57:09Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Classical Kasshian phonology''' was fairly simple, with 19 consonant phonemes, 3 vowel phonemes, and fairly simple syllable structure. == Consonants == {| class=wikita..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''[[Classical Kasshian]] phonology''' was fairly simple, with 19 consonant phonemes, 3 vowel phonemes, and fairly simple syllable structure.<br />
<br />
== Consonants ==<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
! Bilabial<br />
! Labiodental<br />
! Dental<br />
! Alveopalatal<br />
! Palatal<br />
! Velar<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Stops<br />
! Voiced<br />
| b<br />
|<br />
| d<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| g<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless<br />
| p<br />
|<br />
| t<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| k<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | Nasals<br />
| m<br />
|<br />
| n<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| ng'<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Affricates<br />
! Voiced<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| j<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| ch<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Fricatives<br />
! Voiced<br />
| <br />
| v<br />
| z<br />
| ''zh''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Voiceless<br />
|<br />
| f<br />
| s<br />
| ''sh''<br />
| ç<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | Liquids<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| l<br>''r''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | Glides<br />
| w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| y<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
''Italics'' represent allophones.<br />
<br />
===Consonant classes===<br />
Consonants are traditionally divided into three classes:<br />
*Soft consonants: L, w, and y<br />
*Hard consonants: The remainder, further subdivided into:<br />
**Simple hard consonants: Everything that doesn't fall into the other two classes<br />
**Complex consonants: ch, j, ç, ng'<br />
<br />
These classes have certain grammatical and phonological consequences, as described below.<br />
<br />
== Vowels ==<br />
There are only three vowel phonemes - /i a u/, which may be long or short. Long vowels are indicated in romanization by either doubling or the use of a macron (e.g., both ii and ī are used). Macron cannot be used if the two vowels belong to different morphemes, e.g., the plural suffix -i added to a noun ending in -i will be written -ii and never -ī. There are two diphthongs, /aj/ and /aw/.<br />
<br />
== Allophones ==<br />
L is pronounced [r] after dental consonants, while /s/ and /z/ are pronounced [ʃ] and [ʒ] before /i/ or /j/ (with the /j/ being absorbed into the preceding consonant). The vowels /i/ and /u/ are pronounced [e] and [o] in closed syllables. The standard romanization indicates these allophones.<br />
<br />
In addition, /a/ has several allophones which are not indicated by the orthography. In open syllables, it is pronounced [a] after coronal consonants and [ɑ] after other consonants, frequently [ɒ] after labials. In closed syllables, it is typically pronounced [ɛ] before coronal consonants, otherwise [ʌ] or sometimes [ɔ] if preceded or followed by a labial<br />
<br />
== Syllables ==<br />
Legal onsets in Kasshian are null, consonant, and consonant followed by a glide or liquid. Legal codas are fricative, N (assimilates in place), L, or gemination of the following consonant. Glides may not be geminated, and geminate stops may not be followed by /l/ or glides. Where inflectional morphology would otherwise create a geminated stop followed by l, y, or w, no gemination occurs.<br />
<br />
The complex consonants must be followed by vowels while ''ng''' can only occur ungeminated between vowels, and is always treated as a coda, while the other complex consonants can only be geminated if an /i/ follows. W and Y must be followed by vowels, and may not be geminated.<br />
<br />
Ç is an odd phoneme in Kasshian. Historically, it was derived from /kj/ and /ki/ (although later sound-changes have created new /kj/ and /ki/). In the classical language, /çi/, when unstressed, preceded by a vowel, and either word-final or followed by a voiceless consonant, becomes /ç/, which is pronounced as a single mora, treated as a coda. When word-initial and followed by a voiceless consonant, it also often simply /ç/. Thus, ''çitauçi'' may be pronounced /çtawç/<br />
<br />
== Stress ==<br />
Stress is regularly on the penultimate mora. Long vowels count as two morae, and, as mentioned above, word-final ç counts as a single mora.<br />
<br />
== Phonetic alternations ==<br />
In addition to the [[#Allophones|allophones]] above, there are several other alternations found in inflections and compounding, mostly based on earlier sound changes.<br />
*Obligatory alternations<br />
**S and Z become sh and zh before i/e/y (y is then dropped)<br />
**Fw, vw, pw, bw, and mw drop the w<br />
**-sç- and -sch- become -ssh-<br />
**-lç- becomes -lsh-<br />
**-nç- becomes -nsh-<br />
**-zç- and -zj- become -zzh-<br />
**-tch- and -dj- become -cch- and -jj-<br />
**A fricative or stop preceded by a fricative assimilates to the voicing of the preceding consonant, the exception being that inflectional prefixes always assimilate to the root (e.g., laf- becomes lav- before voiced obstruents)<br />
**W is dropped before u/o<br />
**Y is dropped before i/e<br />
**Kw is written ''qu''<br />
**U and I become W and Y before other vowels<br />
**Long vowels do not exist in closed syllables. If, in compounding or inflection, a long vowel ends up in a closed syllable, it becomes short<br />
*Common alternations<br />
**Tw, dw, and nw usually become p, b, and m<br />
**T, D, and K usually become ch, j, and ç before i/e/y (y is then dropped)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Classical Kasshian|phonology]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Kasshian_paradigms/verbs&diff=148319Classical Kasshian paradigms/verbs2022-04-24T01:56:28Z<p>Christina: Created page with "Complete person-aspect paradigms for all regular classes of verbs in Classical Kasshian, along with their stem forms (the forms auxiliaries ar..."</p>
<hr />
<div>Complete person-aspect paradigms for all regular classes of [[Classical Kasshian verbs|verbs]] in [[Classical Kasshian]], along with their stem forms (the forms auxiliaries are attached to).<br />
<br />
== Vowel-final ==<br />
=== -A verbs ===<br />
Example verb: gwachaneç (fall)<br />
<br>Stem: gwacha<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| gwachau<br />
| gwachauç<br />
| gwachauv<br />
| gwachaunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| gwachauf<br />
| gwachaufçi<br />
| gwachauffa<br />
| gwachaufnu<br />
| gwachāsa<br />
| gwachalassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| gwachatai<br />
| gwachataiç<br />
| gwachataiv<br />
| gwachatainu<br />
| gwachanka<br />
| gwachalanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| gwachani<br />
| gwachaneç<br />
| gwachanev<br />
| gwachaninu<br />
| gwachāchi<br />
| gwachalacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| gwachafen<br />
| gwachafenshi<br />
| gwachafenva<br />
| gwachafennu<br />
| gwachā<br />
| gwachalal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| gwachafni<br />
| gwachafneç<br />
| gwachafnev<br />
| gwachafninu<br />
| gwachādri<br />
| gwachaladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| gwachafna<br />
| gwachafnaç<br />
| gwachafnav<br />
| gwachafnanu<br />
| gwachaçina<br />
| gwachalaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| gwachatas<br />
| gwachatasshi<br />
| gwachatasfa<br />
| gwachatasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| gwachachi<br />
| gwachacheç<br />
| gwachachev<br />
| gwachachinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| gwachatan<br />
| gwachatanshi<br />
| gwachatanva<br />
| gwachatannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| gwachal<br />
| gwachalshi<br />
| gwachalva<br>gwachalav<br />
| gwachannu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| gwachai<br />
| gwachaiç<br />
| gwachaiv<br />
| gwachainu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| gwachan<br />
| gwachanshi<br />
| gwachanva<br>gwachanav<br />
| gwachannu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== -Ā verbs ===<br />
Example verb: kapāneç (hit)<br />
<br>Stem: kapā<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| kapau<br />
| kapauç<br />
| kapauv<br />
| kapaunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kapauf<br />
| kapaufçi<br />
| kapauffa<br />
| kapaufnu<br />
| kapāsa<br />
| kapālassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| kapātai<br />
| kapātaiç<br />
| kapātaiv<br />
| kapātainu<br />
| kapanka<br />
| kapālanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kapāni<br />
| kapāneç<br />
| kapānev<br />
| kapāninu<br />
| kapāchi<br />
| kapālacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| kapāfen<br />
| kapāfenshi<br />
| kapāfenva<br />
| kapāfennu<br />
| kapā<br />
| kapālal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kapafni<br />
| kapafneç<br />
| kapafnev<br />
| kapafninu<br />
| kapādri<br />
| kapāladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kapafna<br />
| kapafnaç<br />
| kapafnav<br />
| kapafnanu<br />
| kapāçina<br />
| kapālaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kapātas<br />
| kapātasshi<br />
| kapātasfa<br />
| kapātasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kapāchi<br />
| kapācheç<br />
| kapāchev<br />
| kapāchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kapātan<br />
| kapātanshi<br />
| kapātanva<br />
| kapātannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kapal<br />
| kapalshi<br />
| kapalva<br>kapālav<br />
| kapannu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kapai<br />
| kapaiç<br />
| kapaiv<br />
| kapainu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kapan<br />
| kapanshi<br />
| kapanva<br>kapānav<br />
| kapannu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== A-dropping verbs ===<br />
Example verb: vastaneç (to lie)<br />
<br>Stem: vasta<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| vastu<br />
| vastoç<br />
| vastov<br />
| vastunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| vastrof<br />
| vastrofçi<br />
| vastroffa<br />
| vastrofnu<br />
| vastāsa<br />
| vastrassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| vastatai<br />
| vastataiç<br />
| vastataiv<br />
| vastatainu<br />
| vastanka<br />
| vastranna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| vastani<br />
| vastaneç<br />
| vastanev<br />
| vastaninu<br />
| vastāchi<br />
| vastracchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| vastafen<br />
| vastafenshi<br />
| vastafenva<br />
| vastafennu<br />
| vastā<br />
| vastral<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| vastafni<br />
| vastafneç<br />
| vastafnev<br />
| vastafninu<br />
| vastādri<br />
| vastradri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| vastafna<br />
| vastafnaç<br />
| vastafnav<br />
| vastafnanu<br />
| vastaçina<br />
| vastraina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| vastatas<br />
| vastatasshi<br />
| vastatasfa<br />
| vastatasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| vastachi<br />
| vastacheç<br />
| vastachev<br />
| vastachinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| vastatan<br />
| vastatanshi<br />
| vastatanva<br />
| vastatannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| vastra<br />
| vastraç<br />
| vastrav<br />
| vastranu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| vastri<br />
| vastreç<br />
| vastrev<br />
| vastrinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| vastan<br />
| vastanshi<br />
| vastanva<br>vastanav<br />
| vastannu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== -I verbs ===<br />
Example verb: Labineç (give)<br />
<br>Stem: Labi<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| labyu<br />
| labyoç<br />
| labyov<br />
| labyunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| labyof<br />
| labyofçi<br />
| labyoffa<br />
| labyofnu<br />
| labīsa<br />
| labilal<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| labitai<br />
| labitaiç<br />
| labitaiv<br />
| labitainu<br />
| labenka<br />
| labilanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| labini<br />
| labineç<br />
| labinev<br />
| labininu<br />
| labīchi<br />
| labilacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| labifen<br />
| labifenshi<br />
| labifenva<br />
| labifennu<br />
| labī<br />
| labilal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| labefni<br />
| labefneç<br />
| labefnev<br />
| labefninu<br />
| labīdri<br />
| labiladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| labefna<br />
| labefnaç<br />
| labefnav<br />
| labefnanu<br />
| labiçina<br />
| labilaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| labitas<br />
| labitasshi<br />
| labitasfa<br />
| labitasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| labichi<br />
| labicheç<br />
| labichev<br />
| labichinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| labitan<br />
| labitanshi<br />
| labitanva<br />
| labitannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| label<br />
| labelshi<br />
| labelva<br>labilav<br />
| labennu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| labii<br />
| labeç<br />
| labev<br />
| labiinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| laben<br />
| labenshi<br />
| labenva<br>labinav<br />
| labennu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== -Cli verbs ====<br />
Example verb: Nyassaglineç (prepare)<br />
<br>Stem: Nyassagli<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| nyassagilyu<br />
| nyassagilyoç<br />
| nyassagilyov<br />
| nyassagilyunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| nyassagilyof<br />
| nyassagilyofçi<br />
| nyassagilyoffa<br />
| nyassagilyofnu<br />
| nyassaglīsa<br />
| nyassaglilassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| nyassaglitai<br />
| nyassaglitaiç<br />
| nyassaglitaiv<br />
| nyassaglitainu<br />
| nyassaglenka<br />
| nyassaglilanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| nyassaglini<br />
| nyassaglineç<br />
| nyassaglinev<br />
| nyassaglininu<br />
| nyassaglīchi<br />
| nyassaglilacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| nyassaglifen<br />
| nyassaglifenshi<br />
| nyassaglifenva<br />
| nyassaglifennu<br />
| nyassaglī<br />
| nyassaglilal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| nyassaglefni<br />
| nyassaglefneç<br />
| nyassaglefnev<br />
| nyassaglefninu<br />
| nyassaglīdri<br />
| nyassagliladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| nyassaglefna<br />
| nyassaglefnaç<br />
| nyassaglefnav<br />
| nyassaglefnanu<br />
| nyassagliçina<br />
| nyassaglilaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| nyassaglitas<br />
| nyassaglitasshi<br />
| nyassaglitasfa<br />
| nyassaglitasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| nyassaglichi<br />
| nyassaglicheç<br />
| nyassaglichev<br />
| nyassaglichinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| nyassaglitan<br />
| nyassaglitanshi<br />
| nyassaglitanva<br />
| nyassaglitannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| nyassaglel<br />
| nyassaglelshi<br />
| nyassaglelva<br>nyassaglilav<br />
| nyassaglennu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| nyassaglii<br />
| nyassagleç<br />
| nyassaglev<br />
| nyassagliinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| nyassaglen<br />
| nyassaglenshi<br />
| nyassaglenva<br>nyassaglinav<br />
| nyassaglennu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== -Ī verbs ===<br />
Example verb: anīneç (swallow)<br />
<br>Stem: anī<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| anyu<br />
| anyoç<br />
| anyov<br />
| anyunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| anyof<br />
| anyofçi<br />
| anyoffa<br />
| anyofnu<br />
| anīsa<br />
| anīlassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| anītai<br />
| anītaiç<br />
| anītaiv<br />
| anītainu<br />
| anenka<br />
| anīlanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| anīni<br />
| anīneç<br />
| anīnev<br />
| anīninu<br />
| anīchi<br />
| anīlacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| anīfen<br />
| anīfenshi<br />
| anīfenva<br />
| anīfennu<br />
| anī<br />
| anīlal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| anefni<br />
| anefneç<br />
| anefnev<br />
| anefninu<br />
| anīdri<br />
| anīladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| anefna<br />
| anefnaç<br />
| anefnav<br />
| anefnanu<br />
| anīçina<br />
| anīlaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| anītas<br />
| anītasshi<br />
| anītasfa<br />
| anītasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| anīchi<br />
| anīcheç<br />
| anīchev<br />
| anīchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| anītan<br />
| anītanshi<br />
| anītanva<br />
| anītannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| anel<br />
| anelshi<br />
| anelva<br>anīlav<br />
| anennu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| anii<br />
| aneç<br />
| anev<br />
| aniinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| anen<br />
| anenshi<br />
| anenva<br>anīnav<br />
| anennu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== -U verbs ===<br />
Example verb: patuneç (heal)<br />
<br>Stem: patu<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| patuu<br />
| patoç<br />
| patov<br />
| patuunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| patof<br />
| patofçi<br />
| patoffa<br />
| patofnu<br />
| patūsa<br />
| patulassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| patutai<br />
| patutaiç<br />
| patutaiv<br />
| patutainu<br />
| patonka<br />
| patulanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| patuni<br />
| patuneç<br />
| patunev<br />
| patuninu<br />
| patūchi<br />
| patulacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| patufen<br />
| patufenshi<br />
| patufenva<br />
| patufennu<br />
| patū<br />
| patulal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| patofni<br />
| patofneç<br />
| patofnev<br />
| patofninu<br />
| patūdri<br />
| patuladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| patofna<br />
| patofnaç<br />
| patofnav<br />
| patofnanu<br />
| patuçina<br />
| patulaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| patutas<br />
| patutasshi<br />
| patutasfa<br />
| patutasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| patuchi<br />
| patucheç<br />
| patuchev<br />
| patuchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| patutan<br />
| patutanshi<br />
| patutanva<br />
| patutannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| patol<br />
| patolshi<br />
| patolva<br>patulav<br />
| patonnu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| patwi<br />
| patweç<br />
| patwev<br />
| patwinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| paton<br />
| patonshi<br />
| patonva<br>patunav<br />
| patonnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note: Some verbs whose stem ends in -nu, -tu, or -du change nw, tw, and dw to m, p, and b. For example, ''kastolshi'' "mock" is kaspeç/kaspi/kaspev/kaspinu.<br />
<br />
==== -Clu verbs ====<br />
Example verb: nitruneç (paint)<br />
<br>Stem: nitru<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| nitruu<br />
| nitroç<br />
| nitrov<br />
| nitruunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| nitrof<br />
| nitrofshi<br />
| nitroffa<br />
| nitrofnu<br />
| nitrūsa<br />
| nitrulassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| nitrutai<br />
| nitrutaiç<br />
| nitrutaiv<br />
| nitrutainu<br />
| nitronka<br />
| nitrulanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| nitruni<br />
| nitruneç<br />
| nitrunev<br />
| nitruninu<br />
| nitrūchi<br />
| nitrulacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| nitrufen<br />
| nitrufenshi<br />
| nitrufenva<br />
| nitrufennu<br />
| nitrū<br />
| nitrulal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| nitrofni<br />
| nitrofneç<br />
| nitrofnev<br />
| nitrofninu<br />
| nitrūdri<br />
| nitruladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| nitrofna<br />
| nitrofnaç<br />
| nitrofnav<br />
| nitrofnanu<br />
| nitruçina<br />
| nitrulaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| nitrutas<br />
| nitrutasshi<br />
| nitrutasfa<br />
| nitrutasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| nitruchi<br />
| nitrucheç<br />
| nitruchev<br />
| nitruchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| nitrutan<br />
| nitrutanshi<br />
| nitrutanva<br />
| nitrutannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| nitrol<br />
| nitrolshi<br />
| nitrolva<br>nitrulav<br />
| nitronnu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| nitulwi<br />
| nitulweç<br />
| nitulwev<br />
| nitulwinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| nitron<br />
| nitronshi<br />
| nitronva<br>nitrunav<br />
| nitronnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== -Ū verbs ===<br />
Example verb: mettūneç (pull)<br />
<br>Stem: mettū<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| mettuu<br />
| mettoç<br />
| mettov<br />
| mettuunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| mettof<br />
| mettofçi<br />
| mettoffa<br />
| mettofnu<br />
| mettūsa<br />
| mattūlassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| mettūtai<br />
| mettūtaiç<br />
| mettūtaiv<br />
| mettūtainu<br />
| mettonka<br />
| mettūlanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| mettūni<br />
| mettūneç<br />
| mettūnev<br />
| mettūninu<br />
| mettūchi<br />
| mettūlacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| mettūfan<br />
| mettūfanshi<br />
| mettūfanva<br />
| mettūfannu<br />
| mettū<br />
| mettūlal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| mettofni<br />
| mettofneç<br />
| mettofnev<br />
| mettofninu<br />
| mettūdri<br />
| mettūladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| mettofna<br />
| mettofnaç<br />
| mettofnav<br />
| mettofnanu<br />
| mettūçina<br />
| mettūlaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| mettūtas<br />
| mettūtasshi<br />
| mettūtasfa<br />
| mettūtasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| mettūchi<br />
| mettūcheç<br />
| mettūchev<br />
| mettūchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| mettūtan<br />
| mettūtanshi<br />
| mettūtanva<br />
| mettūtannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| mettol<br />
| mettolshi<br />
| mettolva<br>mettūlav<br />
| mettonnu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| mitwi<ref>ū -> wi, followed by degemination of the -t- since geminate stops can only be intervocalic</ref><br />
| mitweç<br />
| mitwev<br />
| mitwinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| metton<br />
| mettonshi<br />
| mettonva<br />
| mettonnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== -Ai verbs ===<br />
Example verb: kutaineç (respect)<br />
<br>Stem: kutai<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| kutai<br>kutyu<br />
| kutaiç<br>kutyoç<br />
| kutaiv<br>kutyov<br />
| kutainu<br>kutyunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kutaif<br>kutyof<br />
| kutaifçi<br>kutyofçi<br />
| kutaiffa<br>kutyoffa<br />
| kutaifnu<br>kutyofnu<br />
| kutaisa<br />
| kutailassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| kutaitai<br />
| kutaitaiç<br />
| kutaitaiv<br />
| kutaitainu<br />
| kutainka<br />
| kutailanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kutaini<br />
| kutaineç<br />
| kutainev<br />
| kutaininu<br />
| kutaichi<br />
| kutailacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| kutaifen<br />
| kutaifenshi<br />
| kutaifenva<br />
| kutaifennu<br />
| kutai<br />
| kutailal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kutaifni<br />
| kutaifneç<br />
| kutaifnev<br />
| kutaifnu<br />
| kutaidri<br />
| kutailadri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kutaifna<br />
| kutaifnaç<br />
| kutaifnav<br />
| kutaifnanu<br />
| kutaiçina<br />
| kutailaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kutaitas<br />
| kutaitasshi<br />
| kutaitasfa<br />
| kutaitasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kutaichi<br />
| kutaicheç<br />
| kutaichev<br />
| kutaichinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kutaitan<br />
| kutaitanshi<br />
| kutaitanva<br />
| kutaitannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kutail<br />
| kutailshi<br />
| kutailva<br>kutailav<br />
| kutainnu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kutai<br />
| kutaiç<br />
| kutaiv<br />
| kutainu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kutain<br />
| kutainshi<br />
| kutainva<br>kutainav<br />
| kutainnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== -Au verbs ===<br />
Example verb: kantavauneç (bathe)<br />
<br>Stem: kantavau<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| kantavau<br />
| kantavauç<br />
| kantavauv<br />
| kantavaunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kantavauf<br />
| kantavaufçi<br />
| kantavauffa<br />
| kantavaufnu<br />
| kantavausa<br />
| kantavaulassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| kantavautai<br />
| kantavautaiç<br />
| kantavautaiv<br />
| kantavautainu<br />
| kantavaunka<br />
| kantavaulanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kantavauni<br />
| kantavauneç<br />
| kantavaunev<br />
| kantavauninu<br />
| kantavauchi<br />
| kantavaulacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| kantavaufen<br />
| kantavaufenshi<br />
| kantavaufenva<br />
| kantavaufennu<br />
| kantavau<br />
| kantavaulal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kantavaufni<br />
| kantavaufneç<br />
| kantavaufnev<br />
| kantavaufninu<br />
| kantavaudri<br />
| kantavauladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kantavaufna<br />
| kantavaufnaç<br />
| kantavaufnav<br />
| kantavaufnanu<br />
| kantavauçina<br />
| kantavaulaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kantavautas<br />
| kantavautasshi<br />
| kantavautasfa<br />
| kantavautasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kantavauchi<br />
| kantavaucheç<br />
| kantavauchev<br />
| kantavauchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kantavautan<br />
| kantavautanshi<br />
| kantavautanva<br />
| kantavautannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kantavaul<br />
| kantavaulshi<br />
| kantavaulva<br>kantavaulav<br />
| kantavaunnu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kantavau<br>kantavi<ref>vwi -> vi</ref><br />
| kantavauç<br>kantaveç<br />
| kantavauv<br>kantavev<br />
| kantavaunu<br>kantavinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kantavaun<br />
| kantavaunshi<br />
| kantavaunva<br>kantavaunav<br />
| kantavaunnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Fricative-final verbs ==<br />
=== F-final ===<br />
Example verb: falafneç (drown)<br />
<br>Stem: falaf<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| falafu<br />
| falafoç<br />
| falafov<br />
| falafunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| falaffof<br />
| falaffofçi<br />
| falaffoffa<br />
| falaffofnu<br />
| falafkasa<br />
| falaflassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| falaftai<br />
| falaftaiç<br />
| falaftaiv<br />
| falaftainu<br />
| falafkana<br />
| falaflanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| falafni<br />
| falafneç<br />
| falafnev<br />
| falafninu<br />
| falafkachi<br />
| falaflacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| falaffen<br />
| falaffenshi<br />
| falaffenva<br />
| falaffennu<br />
| falaf<br />
| falaflal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| falaffini<br />
| falaffineç<br />
| falaffinev<br />
| falaffininu<br />
| falafkadri<br />
| falafladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| falaffina<br />
| falaffinaç<br />
| falaffinav<br />
| falaffinanu<br />
| falafçina<br />
| falaflaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| falaftas<br />
| falaftasshi<br />
| falaftasfa<br />
| falaftasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| falafchi<br />
| falafcheç<br />
| falafchev<br />
| falafchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| falaftan<br />
| falaftanshi<br />
| falaftanva<br />
| falaftannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| falaffa<br />
| falaffaç<br />
| falaffav<br />
| falaffanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| falaffi<br />
| falaffeç<br />
| falaffev<br />
| falaffinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| falafna<br />
| falafnaç<br />
| falafnav<br />
| falafnanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== S-final ===<br />
Example verb: mitasneç (run)<br />
<br>Stem: mitas<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| mitasu<br />
| mitasoç<br />
| mitasov<br />
| mitasunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| mitassof<br />
| mitassofçi<br />
| mitassoffa<br />
| mitassofnu<br />
| mitaskasa<br />
| mitasrassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| mitastai<br />
| mitastaiç<br />
| mitastaiv<br />
| mitastainu<br />
| mitaskana<br />
| mitasranna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| mitasni<br />
| mitasneç<br />
| mitasnev<br />
| mitasninu<br />
| mitaskachi<br />
| mitasracchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| mitasfen<br />
| mitasfenshi<br />
| mitasfenva<br />
| mitasfennu<br />
| mitas<br />
| mitasral<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| mitasfini<br />
| mitasfineç<br />
| mitasfinev<br />
| mitasfininu<br />
| mitaskadri<br />
| mitasradri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| mitasfina<br />
| mitasfinaç<br />
| mitasfinav<br />
| mitasfinanu<br />
| mitasshina<br />
| mitasraina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| mitastas<br />
| mitastasshi<br />
| mitastasfa<br />
| mitastasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| mitasshi<br />
| mitassheç<br />
| mitasshev<br />
| mitasshinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| mitastan<br />
| mitastanshi<br />
| mitastanva<br />
| mitastannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| mitassa<br />
| mitassaç<br />
| mitassav<br />
| mitassanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| mitasshi<br />
| mitassheç<br />
| mitasshev<br />
| mitasshinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| mitasna<br />
| mitasnaç<br />
| mitasnav<br />
| mitasnanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== V-final ===<br />
Example verb: latovneç (command)<br />
<br>Stem: latuv<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| latuvu<br />
| latuvoç<br />
| latuvov<br />
| latuvunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| latuvlof<br />
| latuvlofçi<br />
| latuvloffa<br />
| latuvlofnu<br />
| latovgasa<br />
| latuvlassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| latovdai<br />
| latovdaiç<br />
| latovdaiv<br />
| latovdainu<br />
| latovgana<br />
| latuvlanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| latovni<br />
| latovneç<br />
| latovnev<br />
| latovninu<br />
| latovgachi<br />
| latuvlacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| latovven<br />
| latovvenshi<br />
| latovvenva<br />
| latovvennu<br />
| latov<br />
| latuvlal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| latovvini<br />
| latovvineç<br />
| latovvinev<br />
| latovvininu<br />
| latovgadri<br />
| latuvladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| latovvina<br />
| latovvinaç<br />
| latovvinav<br />
| latovvinanu<br />
| latovzhina<br />
| latuvlaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| latovdas<br />
| latovdasshi<br />
| latovdasfa<br />
| latovdasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| latovji<br />
| latovjeç<br />
| latovjev<br />
| latovjinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| latovdan<br />
| latovdanshi<br />
| latovdanva<br />
| latovdannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| latuvla<br />
| latuvlaç<br />
| latuvlav<br />
| latuvlanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| latuvli<br />
| latuvleç<br />
| latuvlev<br />
| latuvlinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| latovna<br />
| latovnaç<br />
| latovnav<br />
| latovnanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Z-final ===<br />
Example verb: fenkazhezneç (adapt, fit in, adjust to)<br />
<br>Stem: fenkazhez<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| fenkazhizu<br />
| fenkazhizoç<br />
| fenkazhizov<br />
| fenkazhizunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| fenkazhizrof<br />
| fenkazhizrofçi<br />
| fenkazhizroffa<br />
| fenkazhizrofnu<br />
| fenkazhezgasa<br />
| fenkazhizrassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| fenkazhezdai<br />
| fenkazhezdaiç<br />
| fenkazhezdaiv<br />
| fenkazhezdainu<br />
| fenkazhezgana<br />
| fenkazhizranna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| fenkazhezni<br />
| fenkazhezneç<br />
| fenkazheznev<br />
| fenkazhezninu<br />
| fenkazhezgachi<br />
| fenkazhizracchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| fenkazhezven<br />
| fenkazhezvenshi<br />
| fenkazhezvenva<br />
| fenkazhezvennu<br />
| fenkazhez<br />
| fenkazhizral<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| fenkazhezvini<br />
| fenkazhezvineç<br />
| fenkazhezvinev<br />
| fenkazhezvininu<br />
| fenkazhezgadri<br />
| fenkazhizradri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| fenkazhezvina<br />
| fenkazhezvinaç<br />
| fenkazhezvinav<br />
| fenkazhezvinanu<br />
| fenkazhezzhinu<br />
| fenkezhizrainu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| fenkazhezdas<br />
| fenkazhezdasshi<br />
| fenkazhezdasfa<br />
| fenkazhezdasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| fenkazhezzhi<br />
| fenkazhezzheç<br />
| fenkazhezzhev<br />
| fenkazhezzhinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| fenkazhezdan<br />
| fenkazhezdanshi<br />
| fenkazhezdanva<br />
| fenkazhezdannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| fenkazhizra<br />
| fenkazhizraç<br />
| fenkazhizrav<br />
| fenkazhizranu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| fenkazhizri<br />
| fenkazhizreç<br />
| fenkazhizrev<br />
| fenkazhizrinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| fenkazhezna<br />
| fenkazheznaç<br />
| fenkazheznav<br />
| fenkazheznanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== N-final verbs ==<br />
=== Type 1 ===<br />
Example verb: balenneç (avoid)<br />
<br>Stem: Balen<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| balinu<br>baling'u<ref name="arch">Archaic</ref><br />
| balinoç<br>baling'oç<ref name="arch"/><br />
| balinov<br>baling'ov<ref name="arch"/><br />
| balinunu<br>baling'unu<ref name="arch"/><br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| balinrof<br />
| balinrofçi<br />
| balinroffa<br />
| balinrofnu<br />
| balenkasa<br />
| balinrassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| balentai<br />
| balentaiç<br />
| balentaiv<br />
| balentainu<br />
| balenkana<br />
| balinranna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| balenni<br />
| balenneç<br />
| balennev<br />
| balenninu<br />
| balenkachi<br />
| balinracchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| balenfen<br />
| balenfenshi<br />
| balenfenva<br />
| balenfennu<br />
| balen<br />
| balinral<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| balenfini<br />
| balenfineç<br />
| balenfinev<br />
| balenfininu<br />
| balenkadri<br />
| balinradri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| balenfina<br />
| balenfinaç<br />
| balenfinav<br />
| balenfinanu<br />
| balençina<br />
| balinraina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| balentas<br />
| balentasshi<br />
| balentasfa<br />
| balentasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| balenchi<br />
| balencheç<br />
| balenchev<br />
| balenchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| balentan<br />
| balentanshi<br />
| balentanva<br />
| balentannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| balinra<br />
| balinraç<br />
| balinrav<br />
| balinranu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| balinri<br />
| balinreç<br />
| balinrev<br />
| balinrinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| balenna<br />
| balennaç<br />
| balennav<br />
| balennanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Type 2 ===<br />
Example verb: alanneç (count)<br />
<br>Stem: alan<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| alanu<br>alang'u<ref name="arch"/><br />
| alanoç<br>alang'oç<ref name="arch"/><br />
| alanov<br>alang'ov<ref name="arch"/><br />
| alanunu<br>alang'unu<ref name="arch"/><br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| alannof<br />
| alannofçi<br />
| alannoffa<br />
| alannofnu<br />
| alankasa<br />
| alanrassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| alantai<br />
| alantaiç<br />
| alantaiv<br />
| alantainu<br />
| alankana<br />
| alanranna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| alanni<br />
| alanneç<br />
| alannev<br />
| alanninu<br />
| alankachi<br />
| alanracchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| alanfen<br />
| alanfenshi<br />
| alanfenva<br />
| alanfennu<br />
| alan<br />
| alanral<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| alanfini<br />
| alanfineç<br />
| alanfinev<br />
| alanfininu<br />
| alankadri<br />
| alanradri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| alanfina<br />
| alanfinaç<br />
| alanfinav<br />
| alanfinanu<br />
| alanshina<br />
| alanraina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| alantas<br />
| alantasshi<br />
| alantasfa<br />
| alantasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| alanchi<br />
| alancheç<br />
| alanchev<br />
| alanchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| alantan<br />
| alantanshi<br />
| alantanva<br />
| alantannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| alanna<br />
| alannaç<br />
| alannav<br />
| alannanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| alanni<br />
| alanneç<br />
| alannev<br />
| alanninu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| alanna<br />
| alannaç<br />
| alannav<br />
| alannanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== L-final verbs ==<br />
Example: kabanneç (discover)<br />
<br>Stem: kabal<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| kabalu<br />
| kabaloç<br />
| kabalov<br />
| kabalunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kaballof<br />
| kaballofçi<br />
| kaballoffa<br />
| kaballofnu<br />
| kabalkasa<br />
| kaballassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| kabaltai<br />
| kabaltaiç<br />
| kabaltaiv<br />
| kabaltainu<br />
| kabalkana<br />
| kaballanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kabanni<br />
| kabanneç<br />
| kabannev<br />
| kabanninu<br />
| kabalkachi<br />
| kaballacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| kabalfen<br />
| kabalfenshi<br />
| kabalfenva<br />
| kabalfennu<br />
| kabal<br />
| kaballal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kabalfini<br />
| kabalfineç<br />
| kabalfinev<br />
| kabalfininu<br />
| kabalkadri<br />
| kaballadri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kabalfina<br />
| kabalfinaç<br />
| kabalfinav<br />
| kabalfinanu<br />
| kabalshina<br />
| kaballaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kabaltas<br />
| kabaltasshi<br />
| kabaltasfa<br />
| kabaltasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kabalchi<br />
| kabalcheç<br />
| kabalchev<br />
| kabalchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kabaltan<br />
| kabaltanshi<br />
| kabaltanva<br />
| kabaltannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kaballa<br />
| kaballaç<br />
| kaballav<br />
| kaballanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kaballi<br />
| kaballeç<br />
| kaballev<br />
| kaballinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kabanna<br />
| kabannaç<br />
| kabannav<br />
| kabannanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Geminating verbs ==<br />
Example: katanneç (fall asleep)<br />
<br>Stem: kata, kata*-<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| katau<br>katakku<br />
| katauç<br>katakkoç<br />
| katauv<br>katakkov<br />
| kataunu<br>katakkunu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| katallof<br />
| katallofçi<br />
| katalloffa<br />
| katallofnu<br />
| katakkasa<br />
| katallassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| katattai<br />
| katattaiç<br />
| katattaiv<br />
| katattainu<br />
| katakkana<br />
| katallanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| katanni<br />
| katanneç<br />
| katannev<br />
| katanninu<br />
| katakkachi<br />
| katallacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| kataffen<br />
| kataffenshi<br />
| kataffenva<br />
| kataffennu<br />
| katal<br>katakka<ref name="arch"/><br />
| katallal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kataffini<br />
| kataffineç<br />
| kataffinev<br />
| kataffininu<br />
| katakkadri<br />
| katalladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kataffina<br />
| kataffinaç<br />
| kataffinav<br />
| kataffinanu<br />
| kataççina<br />
| katallaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| katattas<br />
| katattasshi<br />
| katattasfa<br />
| katattasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| katacchi<br />
| kataccheç<br />
| katacchev<br />
| katacchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| katattan<br />
| katattanshi<br />
| katattanva<br />
| katattannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| katalla<br />
| katallaç<br />
| katallav<br />
| katallanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| katalli<br />
| katalleç<br />
| katallev<br />
| katallinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| katanna<br />
| katannaç<br />
| katannav<br />
| katannanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Stop-final verbs ==<br />
=== P-final ===<br />
Example verb: kūnempeç (break)<br />
<br>Stem: kūnef, kūnip-<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| kūnipu<br>kūnifu<ref name="arch"/><br />
| kūnipoç<br>kūnifoç<ref name="arch"/><br />
| kūnipov<br>kūnifov<ref name="arch"/><br />
| kūnipunu<br>kūnifunu<ref name="arch"/><br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kūniplof<br />
| kūniplofçi<br />
| kūniploffa<br />
| kūniplofnu<br />
| kūnefkasa<br />
| kūniplassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| kūneftai<br />
| kūneftaiç<br />
| kūneftaiv<br />
| kūneftainu<br />
| kūnefkana<br />
| kūniplanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kūnempi<br />
| kūnempeç<br />
| kūnempev<br />
| kūnempinu<br />
| kūnefkachi<br />
| kūniplacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| kūneffen<br />
| kūneffenshi<br />
| kūneffenva<br />
| kūneffennu<br />
| kūnef<br />
| kūniplal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kūneffini<br />
| kūneffineç<br />
| kūneffinev<br />
| kūneffininu<br />
| kūnefkadri<br />
| kūnipladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kūneffina<br />
| kūneffinaç<br />
| kūneffinav<br />
| kūneffinanu<br />
| kūnefçina<br />
| kūniplaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kūneftas<br />
| kūneftasshi<br />
| kūneftasfa<br />
| kūneftasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kūnefchi<br />
| kūnefcheç<br />
| kūnefchev<br />
| kūnefchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kūneftan<br />
| kūneftanshi<br />
| kūneftanva<br />
| kūneftannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kūnipla<br />
| kūniplaç<br />
| kūniplav<br />
| kūniplanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kūnipli<br />
| kūnipleç<br />
| kūniplev<br />
| kūniplinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kūnempa<br />
| kūnempaç<br />
| kūnempav<br />
| kūnempanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== B-final ===<br />
Example verb: kalambeç (take false credit)<br />
<br>Stem: kalav, kalab-<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| kalabu<br>kalavu<ref name="arch"/><br />
| kalaboç<br>kalavoç<ref name="arch"/><br />
| kalabov<br>kalavov<ref name="arch"/><br />
| kalabunu<br>kalavunu<ref name="arch"/><br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kalablof<br />
| kalablofçi<br />
| kalabloffa<br />
| kalablofnu<br />
| kalavgasa<br />
| kalablassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| kalavdai<br />
| kalavdaiç<br />
| kalavdaiv<br />
| kalavdainu<br />
| kalavgana<br />
| kalablanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kalambi<br />
| kalambeç<br />
| kalambev<br />
| kalambinu<br />
| kalavgachi<br />
| kalablacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| kalavven<br />
| kalavvenshi<br />
| kalavvenva<br />
| kalavvennu<br />
| kalav<br />
| kalablal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kalavvini<br />
| kalavvineç<br />
| kalavvinev<br />
| kalavvininu<br />
| kalavgadri<br />
| kalabladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kalavvina<br />
| kalavvinaç<br />
| kalavvinav<br />
| kalavvinanu<br />
| kalavzhina<br />
| kalablaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kalavdas<br />
| kalavdasshi<br />
| kalavdasfa<br />
| kalavdasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kalavji<br />
| kalavjeç<br />
| kalavjev<br />
| kalavjinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kalavdan<br />
| kalavdanshi<br />
| kalavdanva<br />
| kalavdannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| kalabla<br />
| kalablaç<br />
| kalablav<br />
| kalablanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| kalabli<br />
| kalableç<br />
| kalablev<br />
| kalablinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| kalamba<br />
| kalambaç<br />
| kalambav<br />
| kalambanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== T-final ===<br />
Example verb: fatancheç (bite)<br />
<br>Stem: fatas, fatat-<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| fatatu<br>fatasu<ref name="arch"/><br />
| fatatoç<br>fatasoç<ref name="arch"/><br />
| fatatov<br>fatasov<ref name="arch"/><br />
| fatatunu<br>fatasunu<ref name="arch"/><br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| fatatrof<br />
| fatatrofçi<br />
| fatatroffa<br />
| fatatrofnu<br />
| fataskasa<br />
| fatatrassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| fatattai<br />
| fatattaiç<br />
| fatattaiv<br />
| fatattainu<br />
| fataskana<br />
| fatatranna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| fatanchi<br />
| fatancheç<br />
| fatanchev<br />
| fatanchinu<br />
| fataskachi<br />
| fatatracchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| fatasfen<br />
| fatasfenshi<br />
| fatasfenva<br />
| fatasfennu<br />
| fatas<br />
| fatatral<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| fatasfini<br />
| fatasfineç<br />
| fatasfinev<br />
| fatasfininu<br />
| fataskadri<br />
| fatatradri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| fatasfina<br />
| fatasfinaç<br />
| fatasfinav<br />
| fatasfinanu<br />
| fatasshina<br />
| fatatraina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| fatattas<br />
| fatattasshi<br />
| fatattasfa<br />
| fatattasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| fatacchi<br />
| fataccheç<br />
| fatacchev<br />
| fatacchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| fatattan<br />
| fatattanshi<br />
| fatattanva<br />
| fatattannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| fatatra<br />
| fatatraç<br />
| fatatrav<br />
| fatatranu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| fatatri<br />
| fatatreç<br />
| fatatrev<br />
| fatatrinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| fatanta<br />
| fatantaç<br />
| fatantav<br />
| fatantanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== D-final ===<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== K-final ===<br />
Example verb: vulensheç (go)<br />
<br>Stem: vulī, vulik-<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| vuliku<br>vulekku<ref name="arch"/><br />
| vulikoç<br>vulekkoç<ref name="arch"/><br />
| vulikov<br>vulekkov<ref name="arch"/><br />
| vulikunu<br>vulekkunu<ref name="arch"/><br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| vuliklof<br />
| vuliklofçi<br />
| vulikloffa<br />
| vuliklofnu<br />
| vulekkasa<br />
| vuliklassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| vulītai<br />
| vulītaiç<br />
| vulītaiv<br />
| vulītainu<br />
| vulekkana<br />
| vuliklanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| vulenshi<br />
| vulensheç<br />
| vulenshev<br />
| vulenshinu<br />
| vulekkachi<br />
| vuliklacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| vulīfen<br />
| vulīfenshi<br />
| vulīfenva<br />
| vulīfennu<br />
| vulī<br />
| vuliklal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| vulīfini<br />
| vulīfineç<br />
| vulīfinev<br />
| vulīfininu<br />
| vulekkadri<br />
| vulikladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| vulīfina<br />
| vulīfinaç<br />
| vulīfinav<br />
| vulīfinanu<br />
| vuleççina<br />
| vuliklaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| vulītas<br />
| vulītasshi<br />
| vulītasfa<br />
| vulītasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| vulīchi<br />
| vulīcheç<br />
| vulīchev<br />
| vulīchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| vulītan<br />
| vulītanshi<br />
| vulītanva<br />
| vulītannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| vulikla<br />
| vuliklaç<br />
| vuliklav<br />
| vuliklanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| vulikli<br />
| vulikleç<br />
| vuliklev<br />
| vuliklinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| vulenka<br />
| vulenkaç<br />
| vulenkav<br />
| vulenkanu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== G-final ===<br />
Example verb: gazhing'eç (renounce, abdicate)<br />
<br>Stem: gazhī, gazig-<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! colspan=4 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
! Imperfective<br />
! Habitual<br />
! Retrospective<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| gazhigu<br>gazheggu<ref name="arch"/><br />
| gazhigoç<br>gazheggoç<ref name="arch"/><br />
| gazhigov<br>gazheggov<ref name="arch"/><br />
| gazhigunu<br>gazheggunu<ref name="arch"/><br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| gazhiglof<br />
| gazhiglofçi<br />
| gazhigloffa<br />
| gazhiglofnu<br />
| gazheggasa<br />
| gazhiglassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| gazhītai<br />
| gazhītaiç<br />
| gazhītaiv<br />
| gazhītainu<br />
| gazheggana<br />
| gazhiglanna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| gazhing'i<br />
| gazhing'eç<br />
| gazhing'ev<br />
| gazhing'inu<br />
| gazheggachi<br />
| gazhiglacchi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| gazhīfen<br />
| gazhīfenshi<br />
| gazhīfenva<br />
| gazhīfennu<br />
| gazhī<br />
| gazhiglal<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| gazhīfini<br />
| gazhīfineç<br />
| gazhīfinev<br />
| gazhīfininu<br />
| gazheggadri<br />
| gazhigladri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| gazhīfina<br />
| gazhīfinaç<br />
| gazhīfinav<br />
| gazhīfinanu<br />
| gazhezzhina<br />
| gazhiglaina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| gazhītas<br />
| gazhītasshi<br />
| gazhītasfa<br />
| gazhītasnu<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| gazhīchi<br />
| gazhīcheç<br />
| gazhīchev<br />
| gazhīchinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| gazhītan<br />
| gazhītanshi<br />
| gazhītanva<br />
| gazhītannu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| gazhigla<br />
| gazhiglaç<br />
| gazhiglav<br />
| gazhiglanu<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| gazhigli<br />
| gazhigleç<br />
| gazhiglev<br />
| gazhiglinu<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| glazhenga<br />
| glazhengaç<br />
| glazhengav<br />
| glazhenganu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Irregular verbs ==<br />
=== Defective verbs ===<br />
''Defective verbs'' are verbs that do not take all possible forms. Some verbs, due to their meaning, do not take certain aspects (for example, stative verbs can never occur in the resultive), but these are not classified as defective.<br />
<br />
'''Lakantū''' (there is/are) takes no aspectual affixes and occurs only in the 3rd person. Some speakers furthermore used only the singular forms.<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Person<br />
! Number<br />
! Present<br />
! Past<br />
! Future<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| Taskantū<br />
| Fataskantū<br />
| Naitaskantū<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| Chikantū<br />
| Fachikantū<br />
| Naichikantū<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| Tankantū<br />
| Fatankantū<br />
| Naitankantū<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| Lakantū<br />
| Fakkantū<br />
| Naikkantū<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| Likantū<br />
| Faikantū<br />
| Naikantū<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| Nakantū<br />
| Fankantū<br>Fannakantū<ref name="arch"/><br />
| Nainkantū<br>Nainnakantū<ref name="arch"/><br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Nasni''' (to be) likewise took no aspect suffixes, but did take all persons. For some speakers, the imperative forms were not used, instead, the prefix nas-/nat- was used<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! rowspan=2 | Number<br />
! rowspan=2 | Declarative<br />
! colspan=2 | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Positive<br />
! Negative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| Yansu<br />
! colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| Yansof<br />
| Naskassa<br />
| Nasrassa<br />
|-<br />
! Paucal<br />
| Nastai<br />
| Naskanna<br />
| Nasranna<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| Nasni<br />
| Naskachi<br />
| Nasrachi<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| Nasfen<br />
| Yanas<br />
| Nasral<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| Nasfini<br>Nafni<br />
| Naskadri<br />
| Nasradri<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| Nasfina<br>Nafna<br />
| Nasshina<br />
| Nasraina<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| Nastas<br />
! rowspan=6 colspan=2 | <br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| Nasshi<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| Nastan<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| Yansa<br />
|-<br />
! Dual<br />
| Yanshi<br />
|-<br />
! Plural<br />
| Nasna<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Non-defective verbs ===<br />
These are verbs which are mostly regular, with only a few irregularities, and generally take all aspects.<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Classical Kasshian|Verb paradigms]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Kasshian_verbs&diff=148318Classical Kasshian verbs2022-04-24T01:56:00Z<p>Christina: Created page with "'''Classical Kasshian verbs''' can take up to two prefixes and two suffixes. All verbs must have a personal suffix and an aspect suffix, except for the imperative forms,..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''[[Classical Kasshian]] verbs''' can take up to two prefixes and two suffixes. All verbs must have a personal suffix and an aspect suffix, except for the imperative forms, which do not take aspect suffixes.<br />
<br />
Verbs are listed in dictionaries in the present active 1st person plural imperfective (ending in -neç, -mpeç, -ncheç, -nsheç, -mbeç, -njeç, or -ng'eç).<br />
<br />
== Stem changes ==<br />
Some verbs undergo various changes to the beginning or end of the verb with certain affixes. Changes to the end merge with the suffixes themselves, and are thus best described as inflectional paradigms below. Changes to the beginning are far simpler.<br />
*Some verbs whose dictionary forms begin with a single consonant followed by an a will drop the /a/ after vowel-final prefixes, sometimes with further sound changes. These verbs will be listed in the dictionary with the past-tense form after the usual present-tense form<br />
*Some verbs that begin with l will drop the l after vowel-final prefixes and merge with the final consonant of consonant-final prefixes as gemination<br />
<br />
== Voice ==<br />
There are four voices in Classical Kasshian<br />
*Anti-Passive: S- before l, w, or y, su- or so- before consonants, sw- before vowels<br />
**Anti-passive is used to promote an ergative noun to absolutive. The absolutive is either dropped, changed to instrumental, or incorporated, and any instrumental noun becomes perlative<br />
*Reflexive: K- before l or w, Ç- before y (with the y "absorbed" into ç), Ku- or Ko- before consonants, and Qu- before vowels<br />
*Dative-Object: P- before vowels, l, y, or w (w dropped), Pa- elsewhere<br />
**Dative-object is used to promote a ''dative'' noun to absolutive. Absolutive and instrumental make the same changes as in anti-passive<br />
<br />
Active is marked with no prefix<br />
<br />
== Tense ==<br />
*Past F- before vowels, l, y, or w (w becomes silent) or after a voice prefix, fa- elsewhere<br />
*Future Ny- before vowels, n- before before y, nai- elsewhere<br />
<br />
== Personal Suffixes ==<br />
Verbs take personal suffixes agreeing with the [[Classical Kasshian nouns#case|absolutive noun]]. There are four numbers: Singular, dual (2), paucal (small number), and plural. Paucal and plural are only distinguished in the 1st person. 3rd person distinguishes between ''sapient'' and ''non-sapient''. Sapient refers to humans, [[pteranthropan]]s, and supernatural beings. In addition, there were affirmative and negative imperative forms ("do X", "do not X") in the 1st and 2nd persons (1st person imperative is a hortative sense, e.g., "let's X", and thus only occurs in non-singular). Negative affirmative was occasionally replaced by the affirmative imperative with the particle '''fel''' (not)<br />
<br />
The dictionary form is the 1st person plural imperfective, marked by -neç, -mpeç, -mbeç, -ncheç, -njeç, -nsheç, or -ng'eç.<br />
<br />
There are two basic sets of suffixes, one for vowel-final verbs and the other for consonant-final verbs, with certain allomorphic variations<br />
<br />
The basic forms of the suffixes are:<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | Person<br />
! colspan=4 | Vowel-final<br />
! rowspan=10 | <br />
! colspan=4 | Consonant-final<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Paucal<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Paucal<br />
! Plural<br />
|-align=center<br />
! colspan=2 | 1st<br />
| -u<br />
| -uf<br>-of<br />
| -tai<br />
| -ni<br />
| -u<br />
| -lof<br>-*of<br />
| -tai<br />
| -ni<br />
|-align=center<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd<br />
| -fen<br />
| -fni<br />
| colspan=2 | -fna<br />
| -fen<br />
| -fini<br />
| colspan=2 | -fina<br />
|-align=center<br />
! colspan=2 | 3rd sapient<br />
| -tas<br />
| -chi<br />
| colspan=2 | -tan<br />
| -tas<br />
| -chi<br />
| colspan=2 | -tan<br />
|-align=center<br />
! colspan=2 | 3rd nonsapient<br />
| -l<br />
| -i<br />
| colspan=2 | -n<br />
| -la<br>-*a<br />
| -li<br>-*i<br />
| colspan=2 | -na<br />
|-align=center<br />
! rowspan=2 | Positive<br>Imperative<br />
! 1st<br />
| <br />
| -sa<ref name="long">Verb-final vowel lengthened</ref><br />
| -nka<br />
| -chi<ref name="long"/><br />
| <br />
| -kasa<br />
| -kana<br />
| -kachi<br />
|-align=center<br />
! 2nd<br />
| -Ø<ref name="long"/><br />
| -dri<ref name="long"/><br />
| colspan=2 | -çina<br />
| -Ø<br>-ka<ref>Archaic</ref><br />
| -kadri<br />
| colspan=2 | -çina<br />
|-align=center<br />
! rowspan=2 | Negative<br>Imperative<br />
! 1st<br />
| <br />
| -lassa<br />
| -lacchi<br />
| -lanna<br />
| <br />
| -lassa<br />
| -lacchi<br />
| -lanna<br />
|-align=center<br />
! 2nd<br />
| -lal<br />
| -ladri<br />
| colspan=2 | -laina<br />
| -lal<br />
| -ladri<br />
| colspan=2 | -laina<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Some verbs with a final -a in most forms drops that a in the 1st person singular and dual and the 3rd person nonsapient singular and dual, in which cases it acts as a consonant-final verb<br />
<br />
*Vowel-final verbs<br />
**Final -i becomes -y- before the 1st person singular and dual suffixes<br />
**Final -u becomes -w- before the 3rd person nonsapient dual suffix and is dropped before the 1st person dual suffix<br />
**The 1st person dual is -uf after -a and -of after -i and -u<br />
**-i and -u become -e and -o in closed syllables (2nd person dual and plural, 3rd person nonsapient singular and plural)<br />
**Long vowels become short in closed syllables<br />
**Some speakers change -ai to -y before -u and -of, other speakers keep -ai and replace -u and -of with -Ø and -f<br />
**Some speakers change -au to -w before -i, others keep -au and drop -i; in addition, -u and -of become -Ø and -f<br />
*Consonant-final verbs<br />
**Some verbs are "geminating" verbs, verbs that take the consonant-final suffixes with the final consonant of the verb being the same as the first consonant of the stem (e.g., -f- before -fen, -t- before -tas, etc.)<br />
***1st person singular is either -u or -kku<br />
***2nd person singular positive imperative usually has final -l, but archaically -kka<br />
**-l- becomes -r- after t, d, n, s, or z<br />
**1st person dual and 3rd person nonsapient singular and dual uses gemination after all verbs ending in -s or -f and most verbs ending in -n (except a-dropping)<br />
**Suffixes beginning with obstruents (t, ch, f, k, ç) voice those obstruents after voiced obstruents, with ç becoming zh<br />
**-sç- and -sch- become -ssh-<br />
**-zç- and -zch- become -zzh-<br />
**Verbs whose stem ends in a stop have additional complications:<br />
***-p, -b, -t, and -d become -f, -v, -s and -z before consonants other than -l- and -n- (except -t and -d do not change before -t- or -ch-)<br />
***-k and -g are dropped with the preceding vowel made long in the same environment, '''except''' before -k- (becoming -kk- and -gg-) and -ç- (becoming -çç- and -zzh- respectively)<br />
***Archaically, before -p, -b, -t, -d, -k, and -g become -fu, -vu, -su, -zu, -kku, and -ggu before -u<br />
***Before -ni and -na:<br />
****-p -> -mpi, -mpa<br />
****-b -> -mbi, -mba<br />
****-t -> -nchi, -nta<br />
****-d -> -nji, -nda<br />
****-k -> -nçi, -nka<br />
****-g -> -ng'i, -nga<br />
<br />
== Aspect ==<br />
*Imperfective -çi (after consonants other than n, s, or l), -ç (after vowels), -shi (after n, s, or l)<br />
**Imperfective indicates an action viewed as a process<br />
*Perfective (no suffix)<br />
**Perfective indicates that an action takes place in an instant, or in a brief period of time viewed as an instant. Combined with the present tense, it indicates that an action has just happened<br />
*Habitual -va (after consonants other than s or f), -v (after vowels), -fa (after s or f)<br />
**Habitual indicates that an action is done frequently and with some regularity, but not necessarily at the reference moment<br />
**Note: For some speakers, -av after 3rd person non-sapient singular and plural in vowel-final verbs, and 3rd person plural in a-dropping verbs (that is, -lav and -nav instead of -lva and -nva)<br />
*Retrospective -nu<br />
**Retrospective focuses on the consequences of an action, and is often roughly equivalent to the English perfect<br />
<br />
== Auxiliaries ==<br />
Auxiliary verbs are suffixed to verbs in the stem forms, with the following changes:<br />
*Auxiliary verbs that begin with a soft consonant (l, w, y) or a vowel:<br />
**Stop-final verbs retain the stop<br />
**Cluster verbs drop the -a<br />
*Geminate verbs geminate the initial consonant of the auxiliary if possible<br />
*Both types of l-final verbs replace -l with -n before auxiliaries beginning with n<br />
<br />
== Verb Types ==<br />
There are 9 main categories of verbs, determined by the cases their arguments take<br />
*Standard Verbs<br />
**Intransitive<br />
**Transitive<br />
**Ditransitive<br />
*Experiential Verbs (emotions, senses)<br />
**Experiencer-Subject<br />
***Experiencer is in the '''ergative''', source of experience is in the '''absolutive'''<br />
**Experiencer-Object<br />
***Experiencer is in the '''dative''', source of experience is in the '''absolutive'''<br />
**Experiencer-Equal<br />
***Experiencer is in the '''inessive''', source of experience is in the '''absolutive'''<br />
**Some verbs can call into differing experiential categories, with different connotations; experiencer-subject tends to connote a degree of control, while experiencer-object tends to indicate lack of control. Experiencer-equal tends to connote a state<br />
*Verbs of Mental Action<br />
**Mental Action I<br />
***Person performing the action is in the '''ergative''', recpient of action is in the '''absolutive''' (e.g., ''dakas'' "to ignore", person doing the ignoring is ergative, person being ignored is absolutive)<br />
**Mental Action II<br />
***Agent in the '''dative''', patient in the '''absolutive'''<br />
**Like Experiential verbs, but less common, some verbs of mental action may switch categories. Mental Action II tends to imply that the agent is affected by his or her action<br />
*Others<br />
**Dative-Object<br />
***Agent is absolutive, affected noun is in the dative.<br />
<br />
== Copulas ==<br />
Classical Kasshian had several ways to indicate "to be".<br />
*S(a)- The prefix s(a)- could be added to the root form of a noun or adjective to make a verb meaning "to be X". For adjectives, this was the common way of indicating "be X". For nouns, using this prefix connoted that the relation between two nouns was one of a fundamental property, or integral part of identity.<br />
*Nasni - ''nasni'' is the "token copula". It indicates that the first noun is a member of a set defined by the second noun. It is moderately irregular<br />
*Klafni - ''klafni'' is the "equative copula". It indicates that two nouns refer to the same entity. For example, "He is her son" if the person in question only had one son, whereas the token copula would be used if there were two or more sons. Or "He is her eldest son", since, again, only one person can be described by the phrase "her eldest son"<br />
<br />
''Nasni'' and ''klafni'' did not take aspect affixes.<br />
<br />
== Irregular verbs ==<br />
There were a small number of verbs that took somewhat irregular inflections. This is not a complete list. Aspect suffixes were regular. Perfective aspect is given in this table.<br />
<br />
The irregular verbs listed here are ''nasni'' (be, see [[#copulas|copulas]] above), nyazneç (destroy), pesneç (know how to, auxiliary), and yunasneç (smile). Irregular forms are bolded for emphasis. Lakazneç (deceive) was inflected like nyazneç<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! Person<br />
! Number<br />
! Nasni<br />
! Nyazneç<br />
! Pesneç<br />
! Yunasneç<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=6 | Declarative<br />
|- align=center<br />
! rowspan=4 | 1st<br />
! Singular<br />
| '''yansu'''<br />
| '''nyāzu'''<br />
| pisu<br />
| '''yonsu'''<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Dual<br />
| '''yansof'''<br />
| '''nyāzrof'''<br />
| '''pisrof'''<br />
| yunassof<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Paucal<br />
| nastai<br />
| nyazdai<br />
| pestai<br />
| yunastai<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Plural<br />
| nasni<br />
| nyazni<br />
| pesni<br />
| yunasni<br />
|- align=center<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| nasfen<br />
| nyazven<br />
| pesfen<br />
| yunasfen<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Dual<br />
| nasfini<br>'''nafni'''<br />
| nyazvini<br />
| pesfini<br />
| yunasfini<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Plural<br />
| nasfina<br>'''nafna'''<br />
| nyazvina<br />
| pesfina<br />
| yunasfina<br />
|- align=center<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| nastas<br />
| nyazdas<br />
| pestas<br />
| yunastas<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Dual<br />
| nasshi<br />
| nyazzhi<br />
| pesshi<br />
| yunasshi<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Plural<br />
| nastan<br />
| nyazdan<br />
| pestan<br />
| yunastan<br />
|- align=center<br />
! rowspan=3 | 3rd non-sapient<br />
! Singular<br />
| '''yansa'''<br />
| '''nyāzra'''<br />
| '''pisra'''<br />
| yunassa<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Dual<br />
| '''yanshi'''<br />
| '''nyāzri'''<br />
| '''pisri'''<br />
| yunasshi<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Plural<br />
| nasna<br />
| nyazna<br />
| pesna<br />
| yunasna<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=6 | Positive Imperatives<br />
|- align=center<br />
! rowspan=3 | 1st<br />
! Dual<br />
| naskassa<br />
| nyazgassa<br />
| peskassa<br />
| yunaskassa<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Paucal<br />
| naskana<br />
| nyazgana<br />
| peskana<br />
| yunaskana<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Plural<br />
| naskachi<br />
| nyazgachi<br />
| peskachi<br />
| yunaskachi<br />
|- align=center<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| '''yanas'''<br />
| '''nyāz'''<br />
| pes<br />
| yunas<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Dual<br />
| naskadri<br />
| nyazgadri<br />
| peskadri<br />
| yunaskadri<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Plural<br />
| nasshina<br />
| nyazzhina<br />
| pesshina<br />
| yunasshina<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=6 | Negative Imperatives<br />
|- align=center<br />
! rowspan=3 | 1st<br />
! Dual<br />
| nasrassa<br />
| '''nyāzrassa'''<br />
| pisrassa<br />
| '''yonsrassa'''<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Paucal<br />
| nasranna<br />
| '''nyāzranna'''<br />
| pisranna<br />
| '''yonsranna'''<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Plural<br />
| nasracchi<br />
| '''nyāzracchi'''<br />
| pisracchi<br />
| '''yonsracchi'''<br />
|- align=center<br />
! rowspan=3 | 2nd<br />
! Singular<br />
| nasral<br />
| '''nyāzral'''<br />
| pisral<br />
| '''yonsral'''<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Dual<br />
| nasradri<br />
| '''nyāzradri'''<br />
| pisradri<br />
| '''yonsradri'''<br />
|- align=center<br />
! Plural<br />
| nasraina<br />
| '''nyāzraina'''<br />
| pisraina<br />
| '''yonsraina'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
*[[Classical Kasshian paradigms/verbs|Sample paradigms]]<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Classical Kasshian|verbs]]</div>Christinahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Classical_Kasshian_paradigms/nouns&diff=148317Classical Kasshian paradigms/nouns2022-04-24T01:55:30Z<p>Christina: Created page with "Inflection paradigms for nouns and adjectives in Classical Kasshian. == Gender prefix paradigms == All paradigms will be given with adjective..."</p>
<hr />
<div>Inflection paradigms for [[Classical Kasshian nouns|nouns and adjectives]] in [[Classical Kasshian]].<br />
<br />
== Gender prefix paradigms ==<br />
All paradigms will be given with adjectives in the absolutive case.<br />
<br />
=== Hard consonant ===<br />
Example adjective: nesni (tall, high)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| chinesni<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | chennesnii<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nanesni<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | nannesnii<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| sunesni<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sonnesnii<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| çinesni<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çefnesnii<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lanesni<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | lafnesnii<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| wanesni<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | wafnesnii<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| pinesni<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | pefnesnii<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tonnesni<br />
| tonninesnii<br />
| tonnanesnii<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== A-dropping ===<br />
Example adjective: tanama (serene)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| chentama<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | chettanamai<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nantama<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | nattanamai<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| sontama<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sottanamai<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| çentama<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çeftanamai<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lantama<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | laftanamai<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| wantama<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | waftanamai<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| pentama<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | peftanamai<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tontanama<br />
| tonnentamai<br />
| tonnantamai<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Ka-subtype====<br />
Example adjective: katūsanta (nameless)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| chītūsanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | chekkatūsantai<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nātūsanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | nakkatūsantai<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| sūtūsanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sokkatūsantai<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| çītūsanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çefkatūsantai<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lātūsanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | lafkatūsantai<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| wātūsanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | wafkatūsantai<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| pītūsanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | pefkatūsantai<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tonkatūsanta<br />
| tonnītūsantai<br />
| tonnātūsantai<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Ga-subtype====<br />
Example adjective: gazhinu (red)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| chīzhinu<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | cheggazhimi<ref name="nwm">nwi -> mi</ref><br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nāzhinu<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | naggazhimi<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| sūzhinu<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | soggazhimi<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| çīzhinu<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çevgazhimi<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lāzhinu<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | lavgazhimi<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| wāzhinu<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | wavgazhimi<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| pīzhinu<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | pevgazhimi<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tongazhinu<br />
| tonnīzhimi<br />
| tonnāzhimi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Vowel-initial ===<br />
Example adjective: anashi (silent)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| chanashi<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | tranashii<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nanashi<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | nranashii<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| swanashi<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sranashii<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| çanashi<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çifanashii<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lanashi<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | lafanashii<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| wanashi<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | wafanashii<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| pyanashi<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | pifanashii<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tonkanashi<br />
| tunyanashii<br />
| tonnanashii<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== L-initial ===<br />
<br />
==== Type 1 ====<br />
Example adjective: lācha (other)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| trācha<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | chellāchasshi<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nrācha<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | nallāchasshi<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| srācha<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sollāchasshi<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| klācha<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çiflachasshi<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lalācha<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | laflāchasshi<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| walācha<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | waflāchasshi<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| plācha<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | piflāchasshi<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tunrācha<br />
| tonnilāchasshi<br />
| tonnalāchasshi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Ly-/Lw-initial'''<br />
<br />
''Lwa'' (much/many) is the only known example of a type 1 l-initial adjective with initial lw-, and there are no known type 1 ly-initial adjective. Due to its meaning, ''lwa'' can only occur in the plural or in the singular of genders VI and VII<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| rowspan=5 |<br />
| chellwai<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nallwai<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| sollwai<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| çeflwai<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| laflwai<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| walwa<br />
| waflwai<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| pilwa<br />
| peflwai<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| <br />
| tonnalwai<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Type 2 ====<br />
Example adjective: lakon (lakom- before vowels) (acceptable)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| trakon<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | chellakommi<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nrakon<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | nallakommi<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| srakon<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sollakommi<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| klakon<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çeffakommi<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lalakon<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | laffakommi<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| walakon<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | waffakommi<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| plakon<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | peffakommi<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tonnakon<br />
| tonnilakommi<br />
| tonnalakommi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Ly-/Lw-initial'''<br />
<br />
Example adjective: lyonglev (ill-advised)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| chilyonglev<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | chellyonglevvi<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nalyonglev<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | nallyonglevvi<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| sulyonglev<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sollyonglevvi<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| çilyonglev<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çeffyonglevvi<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lalyonglev<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | laffyonglevvi<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| walyonglev<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | waffyonglevvi<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| pilyonglev<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | peffyonglevvi<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tonnyonglev<br />
| tonnilyonglevvi<br />
| tonnalyonglevvi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Y-initial ===<br />
Example adjective: yanta (cute)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| chanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | chilyantai<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| nyanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | nalyantai<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| shanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sulyantai<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| çanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çifyantai<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lyanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | lafyantai<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| uyanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | wafyantai<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| pyanta<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | pifyantai<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tonçanta<br />
| tonnyantai<br />
| tonnaintai<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== W-initial ===<br />
Example adjective: waka (tired)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Gender<br />
! Singular<br />
! Dual<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! I<br />
| paka<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | chilwakai<br />
|-<br />
! II<br />
| maka<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | nalwakai<br />
|-<br />
! III<br />
| swaka<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sulwakai<br />
|-<br />
! IV<br />
| quaka<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | çifakai<br />
|-<br />
! V<br />
| lwaka<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | lafakai<br />
|-<br />
! VI<br />
| waka<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | wafakai<br />
|-<br />
! VII<br />
| paka<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | pifakai<br />
|-<br />
! IX<br />
| tonquaka<br />
| tumakai<br />
| tonnaukai<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Case-number paradigms ==<br />
=== Vowel-final ===<br />
==== Simple ====<br />
Example nouns: çimyala (cat), sukasshi (Kasshi), lasossu (snake), wavassai (fingernail), navau (adj. "clean", gender I used)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Case<br />
! colspan=2 | çimyala<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | sukasshi<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | lasossu<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | wavassai<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | chinavau<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural <br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| çimyala<br />
| çevmyalai<br />
| sukasshi<br />
| sokkasshii<br />
| lasossu<br />
| lafsosswi<br />
| wavassai<br />
| wavvassai<br />
| chinavau<br />
| chennavau<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| çimyalal<br />
| çevmyalail<br />
| sukasshel<br />
| sokkasshel<br />
| lasossol<br />
| lafsosswel<br />
| wavassail<br />
| wavvassail<br />
| chinavaul<br />
| chennavaul<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| çimyalaf<br />
| çevmyalaif<br />
| sukasshef<br />
| sokkasshef<br />
| lasossof<br />
| lafsosswef<br />
| wavassaif<br />
| wavvassaif<br />
| chinavauf<br />
| chennavauf<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| çimyalaz<br />
| çevyalaiz<br />
| sukasshez<br />
| sokkasshez<br />
| lasossoz<br />
| lafsosswez<br />
| wavvassaiz<br />
| wavvassaiz<br />
| chinavauz<br />
| chennavauz<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| çimyalani<br />
| çevmyalaini<br />
| sukasshini<br />
| sokkasshiini<br />
| lasossuni<br />
| lafsosswini<br />
| wavassaini<br />
| wavvassaini<br />
| chinavauni<br />
| chennavauni<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| çimyalan<br />
| çevmyalain<br />
| sukasshen<br />
| sokkasshen<br />
| lasosson<br />
| lafsosswen<br />
| wavassain<br />
| wavvassain<br />
| chinavaun<br />
| chennavaun<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| çimyalanan<br />
| çevmyalainan<br />
| sukasshinan<br />
| sokkasshiinan<br />
| lasossunan<br />
| lafsosswinan<br />
| wavassainan<br />
| wavvassainan<br />
| chinavaunan<br />
| chennavaunan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Note that, since nouns ending in -i, -ai, and -au distinguish number only in the gender-prefix for most cases, genders I-III nouns ending in those sounds and starting with consonant clusters fail to distinguish number in many cases, for example, sublagi (fool):<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Case<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| sublagi<br />
| sublagii<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sublagel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sublagef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sublagez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| sublagini<br />
| sublagiini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| colspan=2 align=center | sublagen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| sublaginan<br />
| sublagiinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== With sound-changes ====<br />
Types of sound-change with example nouns or adjective:<br />
*tu/du/nu -> pi/bi/mi (pyunu, "line")<br />
*pu/bu/mu/fu/vu -> pi/bi/mi/fi/vi (piplafu "noise")<br />
*-yu -> -iwi (vazhu, "black", given here in gender VI)<br />
*-yu -> -i (wagashu, "night")<br />
*-ç being underlying -çi (wacheç, "arm")<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Case<br />
! colspan=2 | pyunu<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | piplafu<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | wavazhu<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | wagashu<br />
! rowspan=9 |<br />
! colspan=2 | wacheç<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| pyunu<br />
| pifyumi<br />
| piplafu<br />
| pefplafi<br />
| wavazhu<br />
| wavvazhiwi<br />
| wagashu<br />
| wavgashi<br />
| wacheç<br />
| wafchiçii<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| pyunol<br />
| pifyumel<br />
| piplafol<br />
| pefplafel<br />
| wavazhol<br />
| wavvazhiwel<br />
| wagashol<br />
| wavgashel<br />
| wachiçel<br />
| wafchiçel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| pyunof<br />
| pifyumef<br />
| piplafof<br />
| pefplafef<br />
| wavazhof<br />
| wavvazhiwef<br />
| wagashof<br />
| wavgashef<br />
| wachiçef<br />
| wafchiçef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| pyunoz<br />
| pifyumez<br />
| piplafoz<br />
| pefplafez<br />
| wavazhoz<br />
| wavvazhiwez<br />
| wagashoz<br />
| wavgazhez<br />
| wachiçez<br />
| wafchiçez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| pyununi<br />
| pifyumini<br />
| piplafuni<br />
| pefplafini<br />
| wavazhuni<br />
| wavvazhiwini<br />
| wagashuni<br />
| wavgashini<br />
| wachiçini<br />
| wafchiçiini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| pyunon<br />
| pifyumen<br />
| piplafon<br />
| pefplafen<br />
| wavazhon<br />
| wavvazhiwen<br />
| wagashon<br />
| wavgashen<br />
| wachiçen<br />
| wafchiçen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| pyununan<br />
| pifyuminan<br />
| piplafunan<br />
| pefplafinan<br />
| wavazhunan<br />
| wavvazhiwinan<br />
| wagashunan<br />
| wavgashinan<br />
| wachiçinan<br />
| wafchiçiinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=== Consonant-final ===<br />
==== Non-geminating ====<br />
Example noun: chiglajez (leader of a city)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Case<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| chiglajez<br />
| chiglajizhi<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| chiglajizal<br />
| chiglajizhel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| chiglajizaf<br />
| chiglajizhef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| chiglajizaz<br />
| chiglajizhez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| chiglajezni<br />
| chiglajizhini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| chiglajezna<br />
| chiglajizhen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| chiglajeznan<br />
| chiglajizhinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Geminating ====<br />
Example noun: nrakos (man)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Case<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| nrakos<br />
| nallakosshi<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| nrakusal<br />
| nallakosshel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| nrakusaf<br />
| nallakosshef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| nrakusaz<br />
| nallakosshez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| nrakosni<br />
| nallakosshini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| nrakosna<br />
| nallakosshen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| nrakosnan<br />
| nallakosshinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== L-dropping ====<br />
Example adjective: magel (complicated), in gender VI<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Case<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| rowspan=2 valign=center| wamagel<br />
| wafmagelli<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| wafmagellel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| wamagef<br />
| wafmagellef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| wamagez<br />
| wafmagellez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| wamagenni<br />
| wafmagellini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| wamagenna<br />
| wafmagellen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| wamagennan<br />
| wafmagellinan<br />
|} <br />
<br />
=== Stem-changing ===<br />
<br />
==== Hidden consonant ====<br />
Example noun: trāna (friend)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Case<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| trāna(s)<ref>Dialectal variation</ref><br />
| chellānasshi<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| trānasal<br />
| chellānasshel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| trānasaf<br />
| chellānassef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| trānasaz<br />
| chellānassez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| trānasni<br />
| chellānasshini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| trānasna<br />
| chellānasshen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| trānasnan<br />
| chellānasshinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== A-dropping ====<br />
Example noun: klasta (bird)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! Case<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| klasta<br />
| çiflasshi<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| klastal<br />
| çiflasshel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| klastaf<br />
| çiflasshef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| klastaz<br />
| çiflasshez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| klastani<br />
| çiflasshini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| klastan<br />
| çiflasshen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| klastanan<br />
| çiflasshinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Alternating ====<br />
Example nouns: pyalef (path), wiflav (theme), wapikas (wing), wainisaz (revelation)<ref>Irregular y-initial noun</ref><br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Case<br />
! colspan=2 | pyalef<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | wiflav<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | wapikas<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | wainisaz<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| pyalef<br />
| pifyalipi<br />
| wiflav<br />
| wafiflabi<br />
| wapikas<br />
| wafpikachi<br />
| wainisaz<br />
| wafyanisaji<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| pyalipal<br />
| pifyalipel<br />
| wiflabal<br />
| wafiflabel<br />
| wapikatal<br />
| wafpikachel<br />
| wainisadal<br />
| wafyanisajel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| pyalipaf<br />
| pifyalipef<br />
| wiflabaf<br />
| wafiflabef<br />
| wapikataf<br />
| wafpikachef<br />
| wainisadaf<br />
| wafyanisajef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| pyalipaz<br />
| pifyalipez<br />
| wiflabaz<br />
| wafiflabez<br />
| wapikataz<br />
| wafpikachez<br />
| wainisadaz<br />
| wafyanisajez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| pyalempi<br />
| pifyalipini<br />
| wiflambi<br />
| wafiflabini<br />
| wapikanchi<br />
| wafpikachini<br />
| wainisanji<br />
| wafyanisajini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| pyalempa<br />
| pifyalipan<br />
| wiflamba<br />
| wafiflaben<br />
| wapikanta<br />
| wafpikachen<br />
| wainisanda<br />
| wafyanisajen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| pyalempan<br />
| pifyalipinan<br />
| wiflamban<br />
| wafiflabinan<br />
| wapikantan<br />
| wafpikachinan<br />
| wainisandan<br />
| wafyanisajinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==== Long vowels ====<br />
<br />
===== Long vowel I =====<br />
Example nouns: piflā (machine), winī (time), sunestū (relative)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Case<br />
! colspan=2 | piflā<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | winī<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | sunestū<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| piflā<br />
| pefflaç<br />
| winī<br />
| wafineç<br />
| sunestū<br />
| sonnestoç<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| piflakal<br />
| pefflaçel<br />
| winikal<br />
| wafiniçel<br />
| sunestukal<br />
| sonnestuçel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| piflakaf<br />
| pefflaçef<br />
| winikaf<br />
| wafiniçef<br />
| sunestukaf<br />
| sonnestuçef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| piflakaz<br />
| pefflaçez<br />
| winikaz<br />
| wafiniçez<br />
| sunestukaz<br />
| sonnestuçez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| piflançi<br />
| pefflaçini<br />
| winençi<br />
| wafiniçini<br />
| sunestonçi<br />
| sonnestuçini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| piflanka<br />
| pefflaçen<br />
| winenka<br />
| wafiniçen<br />
| sunestonka<br />
| sonnestuçen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| piflankan<br />
| pefflaçinan<br />
| winenkan<br />
| wafiniçinan<br />
| sunestonkan<br />
| sonnestuçinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Long vowel II =====<br />
Example nouns: chimitā (father's sister), sutrunī (hand), chimanū (grandmother's sister)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Case<br />
! colspan=2 | chimitā<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | sutrunī<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | chimanū<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| chimitā<br />
| chemmitai<br />
| sutrunī<br />
| sutrunii<br />
| chimanū<br />
| chemmami<ref>ū -> wi, nw -> m</ref><br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| chimitagal<br />
| chemmitail<br />
| sutrunigal<br />
| sutrunel<br />
| chimanugal<br />
| chemmamel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| chimitagaf<br />
| chemmitaif<br />
| sutrunigaf<br />
| sutrunef<br />
| chimanugaf<br />
| chemmamef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| chimitagaz<br />
| chemmitaiz<br />
| sutrunigaz<br />
| sutrunez<br />
| chimanugaz<br />
| chemmamez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| chimitang'i<br />
| chemmitaini<br />
| sutruning'i<br />
| sutruniini<br />
| chimanung'i<br />
| chemmamini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| chimitanga<br />
| chemmitain<br />
| sutrunenga<br />
| sutrunen<br />
| chimanonga<br />
| chemmamina<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| chimitangan<br />
| chemmitainan<br />
| sutrunengan<br />
| sutruniinan<br />
| chimanongan<br />
| chemmaminan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Long vowel III =====<br />
Example noun: chivā (that one), tanī (adj., "public", given in gender VI) chikalū (niece)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Case<br />
! colspan=2 | chivā<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | watanī<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | chikalū<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| chivā<br />
| chevvai<br />
| watanī<br />
| waftanii<br />
| chikalū<br />
| chekkalwi<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| chival<br />
| chevvail<br />
| watanel<br />
| waftanel<br />
| chikalol<br />
| chekkalwel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| chivaf<br />
| chevvaif<br />
| watanef<br />
| waftanef<br />
| chikalof<br />
| chekkalwef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| chivaz<br />
| chevvaiz<br />
| watanez<br />
| waftanez<br />
| chikaloz<br />
| chekkalwez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| chivāni<br />
| chevvaini<br />
| watanīni<br />
| waftaniini<br />
| chikalūni<br />
| chekkalwini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| chivan<br />
| chevvaini<br />
| watanen<br />
| waftanen<br />
| chikalon<br />
| chekkalwen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| chivānan<br />
| chevvainan<br />
| watanīnan<br />
| waftaniinan<br />
| chekalūnan<br />
| chekkalwinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===== Long vowel IV =====<br />
Example nouns: plalā (piece), walchī (boat), wātū (name)<br />
<br />
{| class=wikitable<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | Case<br />
! colspan=2 | plalā<br />
! rowspan=9 |<br />
! colspan=2 | walchī<br />
! rowspan=9 | <br />
! colspan=2 | wātū<br />
|-<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Absolutive<br />
| plalā<br />
| piflalai<br />
| walchī<br />
| wafalchii<br />
| wātū<br />
| wafkatwi<br />
|-<br />
! Ergative<br />
| plalal<br />
| piflalail<br />
| walchal<br />
| wafalchel<br />
| wātwal<br />
| wafkatwel<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive<br />
| plalaf<br />
| piflalaif<br />
| walchaf<br />
| wafalchef<br />
| wātwaf<br />
| wafkatwef<br />
|-<br />
! Dative<br />
| plalaz<br />
| piflalaiz<br />
| walchaz<br />
| wafalchez<br />
| wātwaz<br />
| wafkatwez<br />
|-<br />
! Instrumental<br />
| plalang'i<br />
| piflalaini<br />
| walching'i<br />
| wafalchiini<br />
| wātung'i<br />
| wafkatwini<br />
|-<br />
! Benefactive<br />
| plalang'a<br />
| piflalain<br />
| walching'a<br />
| wafalchen<br />
| wātung'a<br />
| wafkatwen<br />
|-<br />
! Commitative<br />
| plalang'an<br />
| piflalainan<br />
| walching'an<br />
| wafalchiinan<br />
| wātung'an<br />
| wafkatwinan<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In some dialects, -ng'- is replaced by -ng- or by -n-. Note that in dialects that replace -ng'- with -n-, type IV nouns ending in -ā only differ in the absolutive and benefactive singular from nouns ending in -a.<br />
<br />
== Notes ==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:Classical Kasshian|Noun paradigms]]</div>Christina