http://www.frathwiki.com/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Caedes&feedformat=atomFrathWiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T04:53:16ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.24.4http://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Niciane_Gramm%C3%A0ziche&diff=46013Niciane Grammàziche2009-06-12T23:08:21Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox<br />
|name=Nician<br />
|pronounce=nitʃ'ã<br />
|tu=Alternate Earth, modern era|species=Humans<br />
|in=La Nice/Il Regn Da Nice - Nice/The kingdom of Nice <br />
|no=~930.000|script=Roman<br />
|tree=<br />
[[Indo European]] <br><br />
&nbsp;Italic<br><br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;Romance<br><br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Nician]]<br><br />
|morph=Inflecting<br />
|ms=Fusional<br />
|wo=SVO<br />
|creator=[[Caedes]]<br />
|date=2008}}<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
===Gender===<br />
There are two different gender, masculine and feminine: <br><br />
'''Masculine Nouns'''<br><br />
Masculine nouns usually end in a '''consonant''' or in a '''voiced vowel''':<br />
*'''l'argen''' ''the money''<br />
*'''l'òmin''' ''the man''<br />
*'''l'ingleis''' ''The Englishman''<br />
*'''il doitò''' ''The doctor''<br />
Of course, there are some irregularities:<br />
*'''il fìli''' ''the son'' <br />
*'''il poete''' ''the poet''<br />
<br />
'''Feminine Nouns'''<br><br />
Feminine nouns usually end in a '''-e''':<br />
*'''la signòe''' ''the woman''</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=German&diff=46004German2009-06-12T18:35:07Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>German is the language mainly spoken in Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Liechtenstein. It is has had several different stages and different dialects.<br />
<br />
German and its variations and offshoots are all [[West Germanic]] languages, in the larger group of [[Germanic]].<br />
There are many dialects of German, and often the location of an individual in and around Germany can determine how far the dialect is from the standard of [[High German]]. In the North, a large dialect is often acknowledged as a separate West Germanic language known as [[Low German]]. Low German and its close relative [[Dutch]] are known for only going through the fourth stage of the [[High German Consonant Shift]], which separates High German from most other West Germanic languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==List of German Dialects, Forms, and Offshots==<br />
*Standard German<br />
**[[Old High German]] '''†''' <br />
**[[Middle High German]] '''†''' <br />
**[[Early New High German]] '''†''' <br />
**[[New High German]]<br />
*German dialect groups<br />
*'''High German'''<br />
**''[[Upper German]]''<br />
***[[Alemannic]]<br />
***[[Bavarian]]<br />
***South Franconian<br />
***East Franconian<br />
**''Central German''<br />
***West Central German<br />
****Central Franconian<br />
*****Ripuarian<br />
*****Moselle Franconian<br />
******Luxembourgish (official language of Luxembourg, standardized)<br />
****Rhine Franconian<br />
*****Lorraine Franconian<br />
*****Palatinate German<br />
*****Hessian<br />
****East Central German<br />
*****Berlin-Brandenburgish<br />
*****Thuringian<br />
*****Upper Saxon<br />
*****Silesian<br />
*****High Prussian<br />
**'''Low German'''<br />
***''[[Low Saxon]]''<br />
****[[Old Saxon]] (Old Low German) '''†''' <br />
****[[Middle Low German]] '''†'''<br />
****Schleswigisch<br />
****Holsteinisch<br />
****Northern Low Saxon<br />
****East Frisian Low Saxon<br />
****Westphalian<br />
****Eastphalian<br />
***''East Low German''<br />
****Mecklenbugisch-Vorpommersch<br />
****Brandenburgisch<br />
***''Low Franconian''<br />
****Southern Low Franconian<br />
****Ostbergisch<br />
****(Old Dutch) '''†''' <br />
****(Middle Dutch) '''†''' <br />
****([[Dutch|Standart Dutch]])<br />
****(South Guelderish)<br />
****(Limburgish)<br />
****(Brabantian)<br />
****(East Flemish)<br />
****(Zeelandic)<br />
****(West Flemish)<br />
****([[Afrikaans]])<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Caedes&diff=45979User:Caedes2009-06-12T13:35:28Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"<br />
|+<big>'''Caedes'''</big><br />
|-<br />
|colspan="2" valign=top| <br />
[[Image:Conflag_med.png]]<br />
|-<br />
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''<br />
|| March 16, 1993 - Bad Friedrichshall, Germany<br />
|-<br />
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''<br />
|| student<br />
|-<br />
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''<br />
|| German, southern South Franconian, English, Latin, Italian, a bit Spanish, Romontsch Sursilvan, Turkish, Middle / Old High German, Dutch, minimal (!) pieces of Hungarian, Finnish, Eastern Mari, Danish, Lithuanian, Chinese, Japanese, Navajo, Kalaallisut, Lakhota, Hindi, Gothic, Old English, Old Norse and more ... <br />
|-<br />
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''<br />
|| <br />
*[[Nician]] - Romance language between Italian and French and Catalan. Unfortunately I lost all the GMP, grammar and lexicon. Hmpft.<br />
*[[Imstian Dialects]] - Group of Upper German Dialects in Germany, Austrian and Italy. Still in progress.<br />
* And many more wanting to be shown here. Some day. Maybe when those dialects are finished. <br />
|-<br />
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''<br />
|| Islysian, Wenedyk, Brithenig, Old Jermench, Itëłan, all that a posteriori stuff ... and Kazujisha =)<br />
|-<br />
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''<br />
|| Linguistics, politics, religious philosophy, all that nerdy stuff, except programming. And collecting language guides of the German Kauderwelsch series. Currently more than 90, including Northern Sami, Cornish, Low and Upper Sorbian, Maya, Nahuatl, Guaraní, Quechua (both Ayacuchano and Cuzqueño), New Egyptian, Xhosa, Chichewa, Dari, Tunisian Arabian and Tamasheq. =) <br />
|-<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Upper_Imstian_Phonology&diff=45889Upper Imstian Phonology2009-06-08T22:14:36Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>This site describes the phonology of Upper Imstian tending to the local idiom of Imst ('''Iisch''', ''adj.'' ''' iischlorisch'''). As mentioned in the main article, there is no official orthography used for the language. Nevertheless here it is tried to establish one based partly on German.<br />
<br />
==Consonants==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || '''{{IPA|m}}''' || || || || '''{{IPA|n}}''' || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || '''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|ḅ}}''' (b) || || || '''{{IPA|t}} '''|| '''{{IPA|ḍ}}''' (d) || || || || || '''{{IPA|k}}''' || '''{{IPA|ġ}}''' (g) || '''q''' (g, k)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || '''{{IPA|f}}''' || '''{{IPA|v}}''' (w) || '''{{IPA|s}}''' || || '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' (sch) || || || || || || '''{{IPA|χ}}''' (ch)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || '''pf''' || || '''{{IPA|ʦ}}''' (tz) || || '''{{IPA|ʧ}}''' (tsch) |||| || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || '''{{IPA|j}}'''<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || '''{{IPA|r}} '''|| || || || '''{{IPA|ʀ}}''' (rr)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || '''{{IPA|l}}'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[q] is an allophone of [k] and [ġ] and only appears in front of [ʀ]: '''krromo''' ['qʀɔmʌ] ''come'' (participle).<br />
*[ʀ] <rr> developed from Germanic '''*kw''' > Old Upper Imstian '''[χw] <chw>'''. It is not an allophone of original [r]: '''krroit''' ['qʀɔɪt] ''had'' (participle) vs. '''krottzo''' ['krɔʦ:ʌ] ''to scratch''.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front ||colspan="2"|Front Central || colspan="2"|Back-to-mid || colspan="2"|Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || '''i''' (i) || || || || || || || '''u''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Near-close || || || '''ɪ''' (i) || || || '''ʊ''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Open-mid || '''ɛ''' (e) || || || || || || '''ʌ''' (o) || '''ɔ''' (o)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[ɪ] and [ʌ] are allophones of [i] and [ɔ] in unstressed syllables: '''progrom''' [prʌ'ġrɔm] ''program'' vs '''progromiero''' [prʌġrʌ'miɪ̯rʌ] ''to program''<br />
*[ɛ] becomes [ɪ] if unstressed: '''telfo''' ['tɛlfʌ] ''phone'' vs. '''tilfoniero''' [tɪlfʌn'iɪrʌ] ''to phone''<br />
*[i], [u] and [ɔ] can also appear as long vowels in stressed syllables: '''meer''' ['mɛːr] ''more''.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
<br />
Diphthongs only appear in stressed position. <br><br />
'''uo''' [uɔ]: '''luo''' ['luɔ] ''to watch'' <br><br />
'''ou''' [ɔʊ]: '''lou''' ['lɔʊ] ''lamb'' <br><br />
'''eu''' [ɛʊ]: '''leubi''' ['lɛʊḅɪ] ''lambs'' <br><br />
'''ie''' [iɪ]: '''koschtriero''' ['kʌ'ʃtriɪrʌ] ''to castrate'' <br><br />
'''oi''' [ɔɪ]: '''goi''' [ġɔɪ] ''to go''<br />
<br />
==Gemination==<br />
Unlike Standart German, Upper Imstian shows consonant gemination within words. This is marked with a double letter: <br><br />
'''wello''' ['vɛlːʌ] ''to want'' <br><br />
'''schpittzo''' ['ʃpiʦ:ʌ] ''pike;top''<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
<br />
As in German, the stress is usually on the first Syllable of the stem, even in foreign loanwords, especially those from French ('''trotwo''' ['trɔtvʌ] ''pavement'' by French ''trottoir'', '''biiro''' ['ḅi:rʌ] ''bureau''). Exceptions are some verbal prefixes of motion: '''loufo''' ['lɔʊfʌ] ''to walk'' vs. '''uufoloufo''' ['u:fʌˌlɔʊfʌ] ''to walk up''.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Upper_Imstian_Phonology&diff=45888Upper Imstian Phonology2009-06-08T22:11:17Z<p>Caedes: /* Gemination */</p>
<hr />
<div>This site describes the phonology of Upper Imstian tending to the local idiom of Imst ('''Iisch''', ''adj.'' ''' iischlorisch'''). As mentioned in the main article, there is no official orthography used for the language. Nevertheless here it is tried to establish one based partly on German.<br />
<br />
==Consonants==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || '''{{IPA|m}}''' || || || || '''{{IPA|n}}''' || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || '''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|ḅ}}''' (b) || || || '''{{IPA|t}} '''|| '''{{IPA|ḍ}}''' (d) || || || || || '''{{IPA|k}}''' || '''{{IPA|ġ}}''' (g) || '''q''' (g, k)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || '''{{IPA|f}}''' || '''{{IPA|v}}''' (w) || '''{{IPA|s}}''' || || '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' (sch) || || || || || || '''{{IPA|χ}}''' (ch)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || '''pf''' || || '''{{IPA|ʦ}}''' (tz) || || '''{{IPA|ʧ}}''' (tsch) |||| || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || '''{{IPA|j}}'''<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || '''{{IPA|r}} '''|| || || || '''{{IPA|ʀ}}''' (rr)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || '''{{IPA|l}}'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[q] is an allophone of [k] and [ġ] and only appears in front of [ʀ]: '''krromo''' ['qʀɔmʌ] ''come'' (participle).<br />
*[ʀ] <rr> developed from Germanic '''*kw''' > Old Upper Imstian '''[χw] <chw>'''. It is not an allophone of original [r]: '''krroit''' ['qʀɔɪt] ''had'' (participle) vs. '''krottzo''' ['krɔʦ:ʌ] ''to scratch''.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front ||colspan="2"|Front Central || colspan="2"|Back-to-mid || colspan="2"|Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || '''i''' (i) || || || || || || || '''u''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Near-close || || || '''ɪ''' (i) || || || '''ʊ''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Open-mid || '''ɛ''' (e) || || || || || || '''ʌ''' (o) || '''ɔ''' (o)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[ɪ] and [ʌ] are allophones of [i] and [ɔ] in unstressed syllables: '''progrom''' [prʌ'ġrɔm] ''program'' vs '''progromiero''' [prʌġrʌ'miɪ̯rʌ] ''to program''<br />
*[ɛ] becomes [ɪ] if unstressed: '''telfo''' ['tɛlfʌ] ''phone'' vs. '''tilfoniero''' [tɪlfʌn'iɪrʌ] ''to phone''<br />
*[i], [u] and [ɔ] can also appear as long vowels in stressed syllables: '''meer''' ['mɛːr] ''more''.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
<br />
Diphthongs only appear in stressed position. <br><br />
'''uo''' [uɔ]: '''luo''' ['luɔ] ''to watch'' <br><br />
'''ou''' [ɔʊ]: '''lou''' ['lɔʊ] ''lamb'' <br><br />
'''eu''' [ɛʊ]: '''leubi''' ['lɛʊḅɪ] ''lambs'' <br><br />
'''ie''' [iɪ]: '''kostriero''' ['kʌ'ʃtriɪrʌ] ''to castrate'' <br><br />
'''oi''' [ɔɪ]: '''goi''' [ġɔɪ] ''to go''<br />
<br />
==Gemination==<br />
Unlike Standart German, Upper Imstian shows consonant gemination within words. This is marked with a double letter: <br><br />
'''wello''' ['vɛlːʌ] ''to want'' <br><br />
'''schpittzo''' ['ʃpiʦ:ʌ] ''pike;top''<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
<br />
As in German, the stress is usually on the first Syllable of the stem, even in foreign loanwords, especially those from French ('''trotwo''' ['trɔtvʌ] ''pavement'' by French ''trottoir'', '''biiro''' ['ḅi:rʌ] ''bureau''). Exceptions are some verbal prefixes of motion: '''loufo''' ['lɔʊfʌ] ''to walk'' vs. '''uufoloufo''' ['u:fʌˌlɔʊfʌ] ''to walk up''.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Upper_Imstian_Phonology&diff=45887Upper Imstian Phonology2009-06-08T21:43:54Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>This site describes the phonology of Upper Imstian tending to the local idiom of Imst ('''Iisch''', ''adj.'' ''' iischlorisch'''). As mentioned in the main article, there is no official orthography used for the language. Nevertheless here it is tried to establish one based partly on German.<br />
<br />
==Consonants==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || '''{{IPA|m}}''' || || || || '''{{IPA|n}}''' || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || '''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|ḅ}}''' (b) || || || '''{{IPA|t}} '''|| '''{{IPA|ḍ}}''' (d) || || || || || '''{{IPA|k}}''' || '''{{IPA|ġ}}''' (g) || '''q''' (g, k)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || '''{{IPA|f}}''' || '''{{IPA|v}}''' (w) || '''{{IPA|s}}''' || || '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' (sch) || || || || || || '''{{IPA|χ}}''' (ch)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || '''pf''' || || '''{{IPA|ʦ}}''' (tz) || || '''{{IPA|ʧ}}''' (tsch) |||| || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || '''{{IPA|j}}'''<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || '''{{IPA|r}} '''|| || || || '''{{IPA|ʀ}}''' (rr)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || '''{{IPA|l}}'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[q] is an allophone of [k] and [ġ] and only appears in front of [ʀ]: '''krromo''' ['qʀɔmʌ] ''come'' (participle).<br />
*[ʀ] <rr> developed from Germanic '''*kw''' > Old Upper Imstian '''[χw] <chw>'''. It is not an allophone of original [r]: '''krroit''' ['qʀɔɪt] ''had'' (participle) vs. '''krottzo''' ['krɔʦ:ʌ] ''to scratch''.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front ||colspan="2"|Front Central || colspan="2"|Back-to-mid || colspan="2"|Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || '''i''' (i) || || || || || || || '''u''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Near-close || || || '''ɪ''' (i) || || || '''ʊ''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Open-mid || '''ɛ''' (e) || || || || || || '''ʌ''' (o) || '''ɔ''' (o)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[ɪ] and [ʌ] are allophones of [i] and [ɔ] in unstressed syllables: '''progrom''' [prʌ'ġrɔm] ''program'' vs '''progromiero''' [prʌġrʌ'miɪ̯rʌ] ''to program''<br />
*[ɛ] becomes [ɪ] if unstressed: '''telfo''' ['tɛlfʌ] ''phone'' vs. '''tilfoniero''' [tɪlfʌn'iɪrʌ] ''to phone''<br />
*[i], [u] and [ɔ] can also appear as long vowels in stressed syllables: '''meer''' ['mɛːr] ''more''.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
<br />
Diphthongs only appear in stressed position. <br><br />
'''uo''' [uɔ]: '''luo''' ['luɔ] ''to watch'' <br><br />
'''ou''' [ɔʊ]: '''lou''' ['lɔʊ] ''lamb'' <br><br />
'''eu''' [ɛʊ]: '''leubi''' ['lɛʊḅɪ] ''lambs'' <br><br />
'''ie''' [iɪ]: '''kostriero''' ['kʌ'ʃtriɪrʌ] ''to castrate'' <br><br />
'''oi''' [ɔɪ]: '''goi''' [ġɔɪ] ''to go''<br />
<br />
==Gemination==<br />
Unlike Standart German, Upper Imstian shows consonant gemination within words. This is marked with a double letter: <br><br />
'''wello''' ['vɛlːʌ] ''wo want'' <br><br />
'''schpittzo''' ['ʃpiʦ:ʌ] ''pike;top''<br />
<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
<br />
As in German, the stress is usually on the first Syllable of the stem, even in foreign loanwords, especially those from French ('''trotwo''' ['trɔtvʌ] ''pavement'' by French ''trottoir'', '''biiro''' ['ḅi:rʌ] ''bureau''). Exceptions are some verbal prefixes of motion: '''loufo''' ['lɔʊfʌ] ''to walk'' vs. '''uufoloufo''' ['u:fʌˌlɔʊfʌ] ''to walk up''.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Upper_Imstian_Phonology&diff=45886Upper Imstian Phonology2009-06-08T21:19:30Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>This site describes the phonology of Upper Imstian tending to the local idiom of Imst ('''Iisch''', ''adj.'' ''' iischlorisch'''). As mentioned in the main article, there is no official orthography used for the language. Nevertheless here it is tried to establish one based partly on German.<br />
<br />
==Consonants==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || '''{{IPA|m}}''' || || || || '''{{IPA|n}}''' || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || '''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|ḅ}}''' (b) || || || '''{{IPA|t}} '''|| '''{{IPA|ḍ}}''' (d) || || || || || '''{{IPA|k}}''' || '''{{IPA|ġ}}''' (g) || '''q''' (g, k)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || '''{{IPA|f}}''' || '''{{IPA|v}}''' (w) || '''{{IPA|s}}''' || || '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' (sch) || || || || || || '''{{IPA|χ}}''' (ch)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || '''pf''' || || '''{{IPA|ʦ}}''' (tz) || || '''{{IPA|ʧ}}''' (tsch) |||| || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || '''{{IPA|j}}'''<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || '''{{IPA|r}} '''|| || || || '''{{IPA|ʀ}}''' (rr)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || '''{{IPA|l}}'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[q] is an allophone of [k] and [ġ] and only appears in front of [ʀ]: '''krromo''' ['qʀɔmʌ] ''come'' (participle).<br />
*[ʀ] <rr> developed from Germanic '''*kw''' > Old Upper Imstian '''[χw] <chw>'''. It is not an allophone of original [r]: '''krroit''' ['qʀoɪt] ''had'' (participle) vs. '''krottzo''' ['krɔʦ:ʌ] ''to scratch''.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front ||colspan="2"|Front Central || colspan="2"|Back-to-mid || colspan="2"|Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || '''i''' (i) || || || || || || || '''u''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Near-close || || || '''ɪ''' (i) || || || '''ʊ''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Open-mid || '''ɛ''' (e) || || || || || || '''ʌ''' (o) || '''ɔ''' (o)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[ɪ] and [ʌ] are allophones of [i] and [ɔ] in unstressed syllables: '''progrom''' [prʌ'ġrɔm] ''program'' vs '''progromiero''' [prʌġrʌ'miɪ̯rʌ] ''to program''<br />
*[ɛ] becomes [ɪ] if unstressed: '''telfo''' ['tɛlfʌ] ''phone'' vs. '''tilfoniero''' [tɪlfʌn'iɪrʌ] ''to phone''<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
<br />
Diphthongs only appear in stressed position. <br><br />
'''uo''' [uɔ]: '''luo''' ['luɔ] ''to watch'' <br><br />
'''ou''' [ɔʊ]: '''lou''' ['lɔʊ] ''lamb'' <br><br />
'''eu''' [ɛʊ]: '''leubi''' ['lɛʊḅɪ] ''lambs'' <br><br />
'''ie''' [iɪ]: '''kostriero''' ['kʌ'ʃtriɪrʌ] ''to castrate''<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
<br />
As in German, the stress is usually on the first Syllable of the stem, even in foreign loanwords, especially those from French ('''trotwo''' ['trɔtvʌ] ''pavement'' by French ''trottoir'', '''biiro''' ['ḅi:rʌ] ''bureau''). Exceptions are some verbal prefixes of motion: '''loufo''' ['lɔʊfʌ] ''to walk'' vs. '''uufoloufo''' ['u:fʌˌlɔʊfʌ] ''to walk up''.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Upper_Imstian_Phonology&diff=45882Upper Imstian Phonology2009-06-08T20:15:33Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>This site describes the phonology of Upper Imstian tending to the local idiom of Imst ('''Iisch''', ''adj.'' ''' iischlorisch'''). As mentioned in the main article, there is no official orthography used for the language. Nevertheless here it is tried to establish one based partly on German.<br />
<br />
==Consonants==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || '''{{IPA|m}}''' || || || || '''{{IPA|n}}''' || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || '''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|ḅ}}''' (b) || || || '''{{IPA|t}} '''|| '''{{IPA|ḍ}}''' (d) || || || || || '''{{IPA|k}}''' || '''{{IPA|ġ}}''' (g) || '''q''' (g, k)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || '''{{IPA|f}}''' || '''{{IPA|v}}''' (w) || '''{{IPA|s}}''' || || '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' (sch) || || || || || || '''{{IPA|χ}}''' (ch)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || '''pf''' || || '''{{IPA|ʦ}}''' (tz) || || '''{{IPA|ʧ}}''' (tsch) |||| || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || '''{{IPA|j}}'''<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || '''{{IPA|r}} '''|| || || || '''{{IPA|ʀ}}''' (rr)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || '''{{IPA|l}}'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[q] is an allophone of [k] and [ġ] and only appears in front of [ʀ]: '''krromo''' ['qʀɔmʌ] ''come'' (participle).<br />
*[ʀ] <rr> developed from Germanic '''*kw''' > Old Upper Imstian '''[χw] <chw>'''. It is not an allophone of original [r]: '''krroit''' ['qʀoɪt] ''had'' (participle) vs. '''krottzo''' ['krɔʦ:ʌ] ''to scratch''.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front ||colspan="2"|Front Central || colspan="2"|Back-to-mid || colspan="2"|Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || '''i''' (i) || || || || || || || '''u''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Near-close || || || '''ɪ''' (i) || || || '''ʊ''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Open-mid || '''ɛ''' (e) || || || || || || '''ʌ''' (o) || '''ɔ''' (o)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[ɪ] and [ʌ] are allophones of [i] and [ɔ] in unstressed syllables: '''progrom''' [prʌ'ġrɔm] ''program'' vs '''progromiero''' [prʌġrʌ'miɪ̯rʌ] ''to program''<br />
*[ɛ] becomes [ɪ] if unstressed: '''telfo''' ['tɛlfʌ] ''phone'' vs. '''tilfoniero''' [tɪlfʌn'iɪrʌ] ''to phone''<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
<br />
Diphthongs only appear in stressed position. <br><br />
'''uo''' [uɔ]: '''luo''' ['luɔ] ''wo watch'' <br><br />
'''ou''' [ɔʊ]: '''lou''' ['lɔʊ] ''lamb'' <br><br />
'''eu''' [ɛʊ]: '''leubi''' ['lɛʊḅɪ] ''lambs'' <br><br />
'''ie''' [iɪ]: '''kostriero''' ['kʌ'ʃtriɪrʌ] ''to castrate''</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Upper_Imstian_Phonology&diff=45881Upper Imstian Phonology2009-06-08T19:44:31Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>This site describes the phonology of Upper Imstian tending to the local idiom of Imst ('''Iisch''', ''adj.'' ''' iischlorisch'''). As mentioned in the main article, there is no official orthography used for the language. Nevertheless here it is tried to establish one based partly on German.<br />
<br />
=Consonants=<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || '''{{IPA|m}}''' || || || || '''{{IPA|n}}''' || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || '''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|ḅ}}''' (b) || || || '''{{IPA|t}} '''|| '''{{IPA|ḍ}}''' (d) || || || || || '''{{IPA|k}}''' || '''{{IPA|ġ}}''' (g) || '''q''' (g, k)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || '''{{IPA|f}}''' || '''{{IPA|v}}''' (w) || '''{{IPA|s}}''' || || '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' (sch) || || || || || || '''{{IPA|χ}}''' (ch)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || '''pf''' || || '''{{IPA|ʦ}}''' (tz) || || '''{{IPA|ʧ}}''' (tsch) |||| || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || '''{{IPA|j}}'''<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || '''{{IPA|r}} '''|| || || || '''{{IPA|ʀ}}''' (rr)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || '''{{IPA|l}}'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[q] is an allophone of [k] and [ġ] and only appears in front of [ʀ]: '''krromo''' ['qʀɔmʌ] ''come'' (participle).<br />
*[ʀ] <rr> developed from Germanic '''*kw''' > Old Upper Imstian '''[χw] <chw>'''. It is not an allophone of original [r]: '''krroit''' ['qʀoɪt] ''had'' (participle) vs. '''krottzo''' ['krɔʦ:ʌ] ''to scratch''.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front ||colspan="2"|Front Central || colspan="2"|Back-to-mid || colspan="2"|Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || '''i''' (i) || || || || || || || '''u''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Near-close || || || '''ɪ''' (i) || || || '''ʊ''' (u)<br />
|-<br />
| Open-mid || '''ɛ''' (e) || || || || || || '''ʌ''' (o) || '''ɔ''' (o)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[ɪ] and [ʌ] are allophones of [i] and [ɔ] in unstressed syllables: '''progrom''' [prʌ'ġrɔm] ''program'' vs '''progromiero''' [prʌġrʌ'miɪ̯rʌ] ''to program''<br />
*[ɛ] becomes [ɪ] if unstressed: '''telfo''' ['tɛlfʌ] ''phone'' vs. '''tilfoniero''' [tɪlfʌn'iɪ̯rʌ] ''to phone''<br />
<br />
</div></div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=High_German&diff=45855High German2009-06-06T20:03:21Z<p>Caedes: /* Imperfect */</p>
<hr />
<div>High German, or Hochdeutsch, (the stage is called '''New High German''') is the name of the standard form of Modern German. It is a [[West Germanic]] and is related to [[Low German]], [[Dutch]], and [[Anglo-Saxon]]/[[Modern English]]. Today it is the official language of Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Liechtenstein.<br />
<br />
{{Language|<br />
| English = High German<br />
| native = HochDeutsch<br />
| dialect english = <br />
| country = Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein<br />
| nativecountry = Deutschland, Schweiz, Österreich, Liechtenstein<br />
| universe = Real world<br />
| speakers = 105 million<br />
| family = [[Indo-European]]<br />
| branch = [[Germanic]]<br />
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]] <br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[German ]]<br />
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V<sub>2</sub><br />
| type = inflecting<br />
| alignment = nominative-accusative<br />
| author = unknown<br />
| date = 1800-Present C.E.<br />
| background = white<br />
| headingbg = coral<br />
| width = 33%<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=Outline of the History of High German=<br />
High German has 4 primary written stages, similar to [[English]]. The four stages are as follows:<br />
* '''[[Old High German]]'''<br />
* '''[[Middle High German]]'''<br />
* '''[[Early New High German]]'''<br />
* '''New High German'''<br />
<br />
The last stage is the Modern German of today.<br />
<br />
=Difference between High and [[Low German]]=<br />
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where; <br />
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],<br />
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],<br />
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally<br />
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. <br><br />
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].<br />
<br />
All of these stages occur in the Highest of High German dialects, but Standard High German does not have all of them. The shift of /k/>/kx/ in stage 2 did not occur in the standard, although it did in [[Upper German]] dialects, such as [[Bavarian|Southern Bavarian]]. Also the only part of stage 3 which actually became part of standard '''High German''' was /d/>/t/. The other two happened only in the '''Highest of High German''' or '''Upper German''' dialects<br />
<br />
=Orthography=<br />
High German is written with the Latin alphabet. It has extra letters which represent some of the sounds of the German language, which are not otherwise found in the [[Roman alphabet|Latin alphabet]]. These include '''Ö ö, Ü ü, Ä ä, ß'''.<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
==Consonants==<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || (ʒ) || || ç || {{IPA|x}} || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || pf || || {{IPA|ʦ}} || || {{IPA|ʧ}} || (ʤ) || || || (kx)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
* The diagraph '''ch''' is /x/ after a back vowel, and /ç/ elsewhere.<br />
* '''v''' and '''f''' are (usually) both pronounced /f/, and '''w''' is pronounced /v/.<br />
* /ŋ/ occurs as '''ng''' and /ŋk/ is '''nk'''.<br />
* '''sch''' is pronounced /ʃ/. '''tsch''' is pronounced /ʧ/.<br />
* Initially '''s''' is pronounced /z/ before vowels, and /ʃ/ before a consonant (such as '''st''' and '''sp''').<br />
* '''j''' is pronounced /j/.<br />
* The spellings '''tz''' and '''z''' are pronounced /ʦ/.<br />
* '''ß''' and '''ss''' are pronounced /s/.<br />
* German has [[Final Devoicing|final devoicing]]. This means that all voiced consonants with voiceless forms become those voiceless forms, at the end of the word.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || iː - ɪ || yː - ʏ || || uː - ʊ<br />
|- <br />
| Mid || eː - ɛ || øː - œ || ə || oː - ɔ<br />
|-<br />
| Low || || || aː/a<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
* In order to form the long version of a vowel, add '''-h''' after the vowel or in rare cases double the vowel, although that is more common in [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].<br />
* Final '''e''' is pronounced /ə/.<br />
* '''ü''' is pronounced /yː/, /ʏ/.<br />
* '''ö''' is pronounced /øː/, /œ/.<br />
* '''ä''' is pronounced /eː/, /ɛ/.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
*'''eu''' and '''äu''' are pronounced /ɔʏ/, /ɔɪ/.<br />
*'''ei''' and '''ai''' are pronounced /aɪ/.<br />
*'''au''' is pronounced /aʊ/.<br />
<br />
=Grammar=<br />
==The General Stuff==<br />
===Gender and Number===<br />
[[Noun]]s, [[Adjective]]s, [[Article]]s, and to some extent [[Pronoun]]s are all affected by [[Gender]] and [[Number]].<br />
There are three genders and two numbers in High German. The three genders are [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]], and the numbers are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Usually all forms of the Plural are the same, when it comes to adjectives and articles.<br />
<br />
===Case===<br />
In German, there are four cases, [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]]. These affect articles, pronouns, adjectives, and nouns. The prepositions of German also affect whether an phrase is genitive, dative, or accusative.<br />
<br />
==Articles==<br />
There are [[definite articles]] and [[indefinite articles]] in German as well as in [[Modern English|English]]. Articles are affected by [[Case|case]], [[Gender|gender]], and [[Number|number]]. The plural is the same across the genders.<br />
<br />
===Definite===<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || der || die || das || die<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || des || der || des || der<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || dem || der || dem || den<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || den || die || das || die<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Indefinite===<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ein || eine || ein || meine†<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || eines || einer || eines || meiner<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || einem || einer || einem || meinen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || einen || eine || ein || meine<br />
|}<br />
† There is no plural form of '''ein''', but there are other indefinite article-style words that do, such as '''mein''' which means '''my'''.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Gender is arbitrary in German, but Nouns referring to living being usually are the gender of that being. The ending of a noun is usually helpful in figuring out which gender a noun is, although it is not always the case.<br />
<br />
Also, the first letter all German nouns is always capitalized.<br />
<br />
===Genders of Nouns===<br />
* Masculine<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-en''' are usually masculine (that are not derived from verbs). Ex. Der Garten, der Norden.<br />
** Nouns ending '''-er''' are usually masculine. Ex. Der Lehrer, die Amerikaner<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-ismus''' are masculine. Ex. Der Feminismus, Der Kommunismus,<br />
* Feminine<br />
** To convert masculine nouns ending to feminine, add '''-in''' to it. Ex. Die Lehrer'''in''', Die Freund'''in'''.<br />
** Most nouns ending with '''-e'''. Ex. Die Frage, Die Straße,<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-ion, -ik, -ie, -unft, -tät, -ei, -heit, -keit, -schaft,''' and '''-ung''' are almost always feminine. Ex. Die Logik, Die Magie, Die Universität, Die Vorlesung, Die Gesundheit, etc.<br />
* Neuter<br />
** Young living beings are Neuter. Ex. Das Kind, Das Lamm, Das Baby,<br />
** The ending '''-chen''' and '''-lein''' are diminutives and are always neuter. Ex. Das Mädchen, Das Märchen. <br><br />
'''-lein''' is used more in the south than in the north, so it's less common in the standard form of German. <br><br />
** Metals and infinitive-nouns are always neuter. Ex. Das Gold, Das Metall, Das Singen, Das Essen,<br />
<br />
===Forming the Plural===<br />
The formation of the plural is different for many different nouns. The idea of the Umlaut is important in forming the plural as well. <br />
*For monosyllabic words, the plural is usually for by adding '''-e''' in the masculine and feminine and '''-er''' in some neuter nouns.<br />
*For Polysyllabic masculine and neuter nouns, many take no ending, but most others take '''-e''' as an ending. <br />
*For most Polysyllabic feminine nouns that end with '''-e''', '''-er''' or '''-el''', the ending is '''-n''' or '''-en'''. If the ending is '''-in''' then the total ending is '''-innen'''.<br />
*Foreign words (except those from Latin) and new words usually take the ending '''-s'''.<br />
<br />
===Noun Declensions===<br />
There are many different kinds of German Nouns. Here are a few fully declined ones: <br><br />
'''Masculine:''' <br><br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Tag 'Day'<br />
! Tage 'Days'<br />
! Apfel 'Apple'<br />
! Äpfel'Apples'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Der Tag || Die Tage || Der Apfel || Die Äpfel<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des Tag(e)s || Der Tage || Des Apfels || Der Äpfel<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem Tag(e) || Den Tagen || Dem Apfel || Den Äpfeln<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Den Tag || Die Tage || Den Apfel || Die Äpfel<br />
|}<br />
'''Feminine:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Hand 'Hand'<br />
! Hände 'Hands'<br />
! Freude 'Joy'<br />
! Freuden 'Joys'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Der Hand || Der Hände || Der Freude || Der Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Der Hand || Den Händen || Der Freude || Den Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden<br />
|}<br />
'''Neuter:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Schiff 'Ship'<br />
! Schiffe 'Ships'<br />
! Volk 'Folk, People'<br />
! Völker 'Folks, Peoples'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Volk || Die Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des Schiff(e)s || Der Schiffe || Des Volk(e)s || Der Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem Schiff(e) || Den Schiffen || Dem Volk(e) || Den Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Folk || Die Völker<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Personal Pronouns==<br />
'''First person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ich || wir <br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || meiner || uns(e)rer <br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || mir || uns <br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || mich || uns <br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Second person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Singular Informal<br />
! Plural Informal<br />
! Plural/Singular Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || du || ihr || Sie‡<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || deiner || eu(e)rer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || dir || euch || Ihnen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || dich || euch || Sie<br />
|}<br />
‡The formal plural pronoun '''Sie''' is the same form as the 3rd person plural pronoun '''sie''' but is also always capitalized.<br />
<br />
'''Third person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Mascu. Sing.<br />
! Fem. Sing.<br />
! Neut. Sing.<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || er || sie || es || sie<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || seiner || ihrer || seiner || ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || ihm || ihr || ihm || ihnen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || ihn || sie || es || sie<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Possessive Pronouns==<br />
<br />
'''Attributively-used''' they agree with the noun they refer to in case, number and gender. They stand always in front of the noun.<br />
<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! 1st Sg. <br />
! 2nd Sg.<br />
! 3rd Sg. masc.<br />
! 3rd Sg. fem.<br />
! 3rd Sg. neut.<br />
! 1st Pl.<br />
! 2nd Pl.<br />
! 3rd Pl.<br />
! 2nd Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative Sg. m./n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative Sg. f''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|- <br />
| '''Nominative Pl.''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Sg. m./n.''' || meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Pl. '''|| meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Sg. m./n.''' || meinem || deinem || seinem || ihrem || seinem || unserem || eurem || ihrem || Ihrem<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Pl. '''|| meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. m.''' || meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. f.''' || meine || deinen || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Pl. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''mein Haus''' - ''my house '' <br><br />
'''deiner Frau''' - ''of your wife, to your wife'' <br><br />
'''ihrem Buch''' - ''to her book ''<br />
<br />
'''Predicatively-used''' they function as follows:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! 1st Sg. <br />
! 2nd Sg.<br />
! 3rd Sg. masc.<br />
! 3rd Sg. fem.<br />
! 3rd Sg. neut.<br />
! 1st Pl.<br />
! 2nd Pl.<br />
! 3rd Pl.<br />
! 2nd Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Masculine Sg.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Feminine Sg. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihrer || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Neuter Sg. '''|| meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres<br />
|-<br />
| '''Plural''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Dieser Baum ist meiner.''' - ''This tree is mine.'' <br><br />
'''Seines ist es nicht.''' - ''This isn't his.''<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and Adverbs==<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
German adjectives have different behaviours and patterns depending on whether there are articles or not, and whether those articles are definite or indefinite. Predicate adjectives take no endings.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gut = Good'''<br />
With Definite articles and demonstratives, so-called '''der'''-Words:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Der '''gute''' Hund|| Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot|| Die '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des '''guten''' Hundes || Der '''guten''' Katze || Des '''guten''' Bootes || Der '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem '''guten''' Hunde || Der '''guten''' Katze || Dem '''guten''' Boot || Den '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Den '''guten''' Hund || Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot || Die '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
With the Indefinite articles and possessives, so-called '''ein'''-words:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ein '''guter''' Hund|| eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || eines '''guten''' Hundes || einer '''guten''' Katze || eines '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || einem '''guten''' Hunde || einer '''guten''' Katze || einem '''guten''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || einen '''guten''' Hund || eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Articles without articles of any form:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || '''guter''' Hund|| '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || '''guten''' Hundes || '''guter''' Katze || '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || '''gutem''' Hunde || '''guter''' Katze || '''gutem''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || '''guten''' Hund || '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
In High German, the change from an adjective to an adverb does not require an ending, as it would in [[Modern English]] or [[French]]. The adverb form is usually the same as the nominative masculine form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
The Word Order for Adverbs usually follows a pattern of the ordering of 1. Time, 2. Manner, and 3. Place. This means '''Gut''' in German can mean both '''well''' and '''good'''. There are other words which are strictly adverbs, such as '''sehr''', which means '''very'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Prepositions==<br />
Prepositions are classified by the cases that follow them. Some have the accusative case follow, some the dative, and some the genitive. However some take either accusative or dative, based on whether or not it is a there is motion involved.<br />
===Accusative===<br />
bis - until, as far as <br><br />
durch - through, by means of <br><br />
entlang - along, down <br><br />
für - for <br><br />
gegen - against, around <br><br />
ohne - without <br><br />
um - around <br><br />
===Dative===<br />
aus - out of, from, made of, <br><br />
außer - at, <br><br />
bei - at, near, with, <br><br />
gegenüber von - opposite, across from, <br><br />
mit - with <br><br />
nach - to, after, according to, <br><br />
seit - since, for a period of time, <br><br />
von - from, of, by <br><br />
zu - to <br><br />
<br />
===Accusative and Dative===<br />
an - on, to go to, <br><br />
auf - on, to, in, at <br><br />
hinter - behind, <br><br />
in - in, into, to, <br><br />
neben - next to, beside, <br><br />
über - over, above, across, <br><br />
unter - under, <br><br />
vor - in front of, before <br><br />
zwischen - between, <br><br />
===Genitive===<br />
anstatt - instead of, <br><br />
statt - instead of, <br><br />
trotz - in spite of <br><br />
während - during <br><br />
wegen - because of, <br><br />
==Conjunctions==<br />
There are different conjunctions which affect a sentence in different ways. [[Coordinating Conjunction]]s usually do not affect the word or of a German sentence, whereas [[Subordinating Conjunction]]s usually involve the transposed word order mentioned below.<br />
===Coordinating Conjunctions===<br />
aber - but <br><br />
denn - because, for <br><br />
oder - or <br><br />
sondern - but, rather, <br><br />
und - and <br><br />
===Subordinating Conjunctions===<br />
als, wann, wenn - when <br><br />
bevor - before <br><br />
bis - until <br><br />
da - since, <br><br />
damit - so that, <br><br />
dass - that <br><br />
ob - whether, if <br><br />
obwohl - although <br><br />
seit - since <br><br />
während - while <br> <br />
weil - because <br><br />
wenn - if <br><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
<i> Main Page: [[High German Verbs]] <i> <br><br />
German Verbs have two major subdivisions, [[Strong]] and [[Weak]]. German verbs are conjugated according to 3 [[Person|persons]], 2 [[Number|numbers]], 2 inflecting [[Tense|tenses]], and 3 [[Mood|moods]], although German is rather intermediate when it comes to verbal inflection. The [[German Strong Verbs]] often have some patterns and classifications which are used for identifying them.<br />
<br />
The [[infinitive]] of a verb is formed by adding '''-en''' to the end.<br />
<br />
The [[imperative]] is formed, in the 2nd person singular informal by only the verb stem, the 2nd person plural informal is formed by adding '''-t''' to the stem. The 2nd personal formal is formed by adding '''-en''' to the stem and adding '''Sie''' afterwards. The "let's" or first person plural imperative is formed by adding '''-en''' and '''wir''' after words or, as in English, with the imperative of '''lassen''' and '''uns'''. Examples: Verb: Gehen - to go <br><br />
'''Geh nach Hause!''' <br><br />
'''Geht nach Hause!'''<br><br />
'''Gehen Sie nach Hause!''' <br><br />
Go home! <br><br />
'''Gehen wir nach Hause. / Lass uns nach Hause gehen. '''(speaking to one person)''' / Lasst uns nach Hause gehen.''' (speaking to several persons) - let's go home. <br><br />
<br />
===Modals===<br />
There are a few verbs which are essential for German. These are called Modals or [[Modal Auxiliaries]]. There are 6 primary modals, and one which has a subjunctive form in common use. The latter would be '''Möchten''' which is the subjunctive of '''Mögen'''. The modal in the present tense is as follows:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="15" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''dürfen''' may, to be allowed|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''können''' can, to be able, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''müssen''' must, to have to, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''sollen''' should, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''mögen''' to like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''möchten''' would like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''wollen''' to want, <br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || darfst || dürft || kannst || könnt || musst || müsst || sollst || sollt || magst || mögt || möchtest || möchtet || willst ||wollt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Auxiliaries===<br />
The most important auxiliaries are '''sein''' (to be), '''werden''' (to become, shall, will), and '''haben''' (to have). '''Sein''' and '''Haben''' are both used to form the [[Present Perfect]] tense, and '''Werden''' is used to form the [[Future]] tense. <br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Sein''' to be|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Haben''' to have ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Werden''' to become<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || bin || sind || habe || haben || werde || werden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || bist || seid || hast || habt || wirst || werdet<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || ist || sind || hat || haben || wird || werden <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Imperfect Tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || war|| waren || hatte || hatten || wurde || wurden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || warst|| wart || hattest|| hattet || wurdest || wurdet<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || war || waren || hatte|| hatten || wurde || wurden<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Perfect Form'''<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || bin gewesen || sind gewesen || habe gehabt || haben gehabt || bin geworden || sind geworden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || bist gewesen || seid gewesen || hast gehabt || habt gehabt || bist geworden || seid geworden<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || ist gewesen || sind gewesen || hat gehabt || haben gehabt || ist geworden || sind geworden<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Present Tense===<br />
In the present tense, German verbs follow a common pattern. Quite a few verbs have change or umlaut the vowel in the second person informal singular and the third person singular. Verbs that end with an alveolar fricative or affricate have identical '''du'''-forms and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Verbs ending '''-d''' or '''-t''' insert an '''-e-''' in the '''du''', '''ihr''', and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Here are examples:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || lerne || lernen || antworte || antworten || heiße || heißen || fahre || fahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || lernst || lernt || antwortest || antwortet || heißt || heißt || fährst || fahrt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || lernt || lernen || antwortet || antworten || heißt || heißen || fährt || fahren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Perfect Tense===<br />
The present perfect is used in High German in the same senses that English uses the [[Simple Past]] and the [[Perfect]] tenses. For weak verbs, in order to form the Present tense, first a form of '''haben''' (or '''sein''') must be used, and at the end of the clause comes the verb. For the verb, '''ge-''' must be attached to beginning of the stem and '''-t''' must be attached to the end. In many strong verbs, '''ge-''' is still often attached, but sometimes '''-en''' is the ending. Also many strong verbs involve a vowel stem change as well.<br />
<br />
Most Verbs take '''haben''' as the auxiliary verb, but verbs of motion and select others take the verb '''sein''' as the auxiliary.<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present Perfect Tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || habe gelernt || haben gelernt || habe geantwortet || haben geantwortet|| habe geheißen || haben geheißen || habe gefahren || haben gefahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || hast gelernt || habt gelernt || hast geantwortet|| habt geantwortet|| hast geheißen || habt geheißen || hast gefahren || habt fahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || hat gelernt || haben gelernt || hat geantwortet|| haben geantwortet|| hat geheißen|| haben geheißen || hat gefahren || haben gefahren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Imperfect===<br />
The Imperfect tense in High German is used more as a written tense than as a spoken one, although a few key words are used more often in speech as well, such as the Modals and Auxiliaries. The Imperfect tense is used to describe something that happened a while in the past. It differs greatly from the Romance and Slavic Language idea of Imperfect. It is used in telling stories of things that happened a long time ago.<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Imperfect tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || hieß || hießen || fuhr || fuhren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || lerntest || lerntet || antwortetest || antwortetet || hießest || hießt || fuhrst || fuhrt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || hieß || hießen || fuhr || fuhren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Word Order==<br />
German word order is fairly unique and has particular features with which a learner must become acquainted. The normal order is SVO, and occasional OVS, because German has a structure know as V<sub>2<sub> or 2nd Position Verb rule, as described here:<br />
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|"...I find German to be the strangest in the area of syntax. German has several interesting word order issues. Now a simple German sentence can be SVO. But German, as well as most other Germanic language such as Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, and Dutch, follow what I call the 2nd Position Verb rule. This states that no matter where the objects and subjects move, the conjugated verb or Finite verb stays in the second position. So this means that SVO or OVS are very common. Here is an example, You can say in German: <br><br />
'''Ich sehe den Himmel.''' (I see the sky.) or <br><br />
'''Den Himmel sehe ich.''' (The sky see I.) <br><br />
We can see how the verb stays when the other elements move. Now for questions it is acceptable to have a verb in the first position, using a standard inverted word order. However for many statements the verb second ideal needs to stay in place." [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] <br />
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
However, German and [[Dutch]] both have a unique trait in having something called Transposed or Dependent Clause word order. This type of word order only occurs <i>inside<i> dependent clauses, and what happens is that the inflected or [[finite]] verb is sent to the end. It is described as this:<br />
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|"Now the pattern that Dutch and German have, but is not really shared with the other Germanic languages, is the movement of the conjugated verb to the end of a dependent clause. This might seem strange at first, but one must learn to notice it. An example would be: <br><br />
'''Der Mann, den ich gestern sah, ist gelassen.''' <br> <br />
('''The man, whom I yesterday saw, left.''') <br><br />
Instead of; '''The man, whom I saw yesterday, left.'''" [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] <br><br />
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''<br />
|}<br />
Another interesting feature is the movement of the [[Infinitive]]s and [[Past Participle]]s to the end of the sentence. This is a trait that written German got from Latin, and then it became common in spoken German as well. It also leads to idioms such as '''Ich kann Deutsch.''' (Lit. '''I can German''', but means, '''I can speak German''') which comes from the expression '''Ich kann Deutsch sprechen.''' In the cases of Transposed word order, the inverted verb goes <i>after<i> the infinitives and participles.<br />
<br />
=Sources and External Links=<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546 An Introduction to Basic Word Order] by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]<br />
<br />
Stern, Guy, and Everett Bleiler. Essential German Grammar. Mineola, New York. Dover Publications inc, 1961.<br />
<br />
Dippmann, Gerda, and Johanna Watzinger-Tharp. A Practical review of German Grammar. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall inc. 2000.<br />
<br />
Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].<br />
<br />
=Translations=<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]<br />
[[Category:Linguistics]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Upper_Imstian_Phonology&diff=45840Upper Imstian Phonology2009-06-05T23:17:55Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>This site describes the phonology of Upper Imstian tending to the local idiom of Imst ('''Iisch''', ''adj.'' ''' iischlorisch'''). As mentioned in the main article, there is no official orthography used for the language. Nevertheless here it is tried to establish one based partly on German.<br />
<br />
=Consonants=<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || '''{{IPA|m}}''' || || || || '''{{IPA|n}}''' || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || '''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|ḅ}}''' (b) || || || '''{{IPA|t}} '''|| '''{{IPA|ḍ}}''' (d) || || || || || '''{{IPA|k}}''' || '''{{IPA|ġ}}''' (g) || '''q''' (g, k)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || '''{{IPA|f}}''' || '''{{IPA|v}}''' (w) || '''{{IPA|s}}''' || || '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' (sch) || || || || || || '''{{IPA|χ}}''' (ch)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || '''pf''' || || '''{{IPA|ʦ}}''' (tz) || || '''{{IPA|ʧ}}''' (tsch) |||| || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || '''{{IPA|j}}'''<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || '''{{IPA|r}} '''|| || || || '''{{IPA|ʀ}}''' (rr)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || '''{{IPA|l}}'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[q] is an allophone of [k] and [ġ] and only appears in front of [ʀ]: '''krromo''' ['qʀɔmʌ] ''come'' (participle).<br />
*[ʀ] developed from Germanic '''*kw''' > Old Upper Imstian '''chw'''. It is not an allophone of original [r]: '''rremo''' ['ʀɛmʌ] ''to come'' vs. '''krozzo''' ['krɔʦ:ʌ] ''to scratch''.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Upper_Imstian_Phonology&diff=45839Upper Imstian Phonology2009-06-05T22:44:51Z<p>Caedes: New page: This site describes the phonology of Upper Imstian tending to the local idiom of Imst ('''Iisch''', ''adj.'' ''' iischlorisch'''). As mentioned in the main article, there is no official or...</p>
<hr />
<div>This site describes the phonology of Upper Imstian tending to the local idiom of Imst ('''Iisch''', ''adj.'' ''' iischlorisch'''). As mentioned in the main article, there is no official orthography used for the language. Nevertheless here it is tried to establish one.<br />
<br />
=Consonants=<br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || '''{{IPA|m}}''' || || || || '''{{IPA|n}}''' || || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || '''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|ḅ}}''' (b) || || || '''{{IPA|t}} '''|| '''{{IPA|ḍ}}''' (d) || || || || || '''{{IPA|k}}''' || '''{{IPA|ġ}}''' (g) || '''q''' (g, k)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || '''{{IPA|f}}''' || '''{{IPA|v}}''' (w) || '''{{IPA|s}}''' || || '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' (sch) || || || || || || '''{{IPA|χ}}''' (ch)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || '''pf''' || || '''{{IPA|ʦ}}''' (tz) || || '''{{IPA|ʧ}}''' (tsch) |||| || || <br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || '''{{IPA|j}}'''<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || '''{{IPA|r}} '''|| || || || '''{{IPA|ʀ}}''' (rr)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || '''{{IPA|l}}'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*[q] is an allophone of [k] and [ġ] and only appears in front of [ʀ]: '''krromo''' ['qʀɔmʌ] ''come'' (participle).</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Imstian_Dialects&diff=45838Imstian Dialects2009-06-05T21:32:08Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria and Italy by approximately 250.000 people. They do not have any official status in any state nor are they written officially.<br />
[[Image:Deutsche_Dialekte.jpg|240px|thumb|right|The Upper german dialects]]<br />
==Name==<br />
<br />
The linguistic term '''Imstian''' (German '''Imstlerisch''') derives from the small city of Imst and the surrounding district with the same name, which is the region with the most Imstian speakers in the Imstian Sprachraum after Garmisch-Partenkirchen. The speakers themselves do not call their dialects so, in fact the term '''Schwäbisch''' is used in the north west, '''Alemannisch''' in the west and '''Bairisch''' in the east, so always according to the surrounding dialects (as many south Franconian speakers call themselves "Swabians" although they actually don't speak an Allemannic language). <br />
<br />
<br />
==Current Situation==<br />
<br />
Due to the widely not existing notice of a common language, the number of Imstian speakers decreases more and more. Especially in Austria, in the district Innsbruck-Land, speakers intend more and more to speak a South Bavarian idiom. The city of Telfs, for example, which is located in traditional Imstian Sprachraum, is now Bavarian-speaking due to massive immigration of workers from eastern Tyrol comming there to work in the still growing tourism branch. <br><br />
<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
<br />
As a High German dialect group, Imstian was affected by the [[High German Consonant Shift]]:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
| '''High German''' || haben || halb || Schlafen || Schwein || es || essen || machen || Apfel || Herz<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||'' choo ''||'' choub ''|| ''schloifo'' ||'' Schwii ''||'' is ''|| ''esso ''|| ''mocho ''|| ''Opfo'' ||'' Cherz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || Have || half || sleep || Swine || it || eat || make || apple || heart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
In distinction to Standart High German, it shares lots of features though with the surrounding dialects, especially that, as for nouns, the genitive and accusative cases are no longer productive as well as the disappearance of the synthetic preterite, which was replaced by the periphrasticly-built perfect:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
!<br />
!Disappearance of the preterite form<br />
!Building of the pluperfect form<br />
!Genitive construction<br />
!Accusative construction<br />
!Conjunctive construction in indirect speech<br />
|-<br />
| '''High German''' || Ich gab es der Frau. || Ich hatte es gekauft. || Das Haus des Freundes ist schön. || Ich sehe den Löwen an. || Sie sagen, du seiest blöd.<br />
|-<br />
| '''(southern) South Franconian''' || E håb s dr Fråå gewə. || E håbs khååft khet. || əm fraend sae hous əsch schee. || E gug də Leef åå. || Di såågəd, do däädsch bleed sae.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||''I choi's iro froowo gebo.'' || ''I choi's krrooft krroit.'' || ''Imo fruuti siis chuus isch schoo.'' || '' I luo dir lef.'' || ''Di sogit, do toitisch tuufor soo.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || I gave it to the woman. || I had bought it. || The friend's house is nice. || I am watching the lion. || They say you were dumb.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Nevertheless Imstian has many differences that distinguish it from the other Upper German Dialects:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable"<br />
!<br />
! Common plural form for verbs<br />
! Old High German ending -mês for 1st Person Plural remaining <br />
! Productive case endings<br />
|-<br />
| '''Swabian''' || mr hend, ər hend, di hend <br> '''YES''' || mr send <br> '''NO''' || dr Leef, əm Leef <br> '''NO'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' || ''mir chois, ir choi, di choi'' <br> '''NO''' || ''mir biros ''(-os < -umês) <br> '''YES''' || ''dir Lef, imo Lefi'' <br> '''YES'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Central Bavarian''' || mia håm/håmma, eß håbts, se håm(t) <br> '''NO''' || mia sàn/hàn <br> '''NO''' || da Lef, am Lefn <br> '''YES'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Standart German''' || wir haben, ihr habt, sie haben <br> '''NO''' || wir sind <br> '''NO''' || der Löwe, dem Löwen <br> '''YES'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || we have, you have, they have || we are || the lion, to the lion<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
[[Upper Imstian Phonology]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Imstian_Dialects&diff=45837Imstian Dialects2009-06-05T21:13:45Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria and Italy by approximately 250.000 people. They do not have any official status in any state nor are they written officially.<br />
[[Image:Deutsche_Dialekte.jpg|240px|thumb|right|The Upper german dialects]]<br />
==Name==<br />
<br />
The linguistic term '''Imstian''' (German '''Imstlerisch''') derives from the small city of Imst and the surrounding district with the same name, which is the region with the most Imstian speakers in the Imstian Sprachraum after Garmisch-Partenkirchen. The speakers themselves do not call their dialects so, in fact the term '''Schwäbisch''' is used in the north west, '''Alemannisch''' in the west and '''Bairisch''' in the east, so always according to the surrounding dialects (as many south Franconian speakers call themselves "Swabians" although they actually don't speak an Allemannic language). <br />
<br />
<br />
==Current Situation==<br />
<br />
Due to the widely not existing notice of a common language, the number of Imstian speakers decreases more and more. Especially in Austria, in the district Innsbruck-Land, speakers intend more and more to speak a South Bavarian idiom. The city of Telfs, for example, which is located in traditional Imstian Sprachraum, is now Bavarian-speaking due to massive immigration of workers from eastern Tyrol comming there to work in the still growing tourism branch. <br><br />
<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
<br />
As a High German dialect group, Imstian was affected by the [[High German Consonant Shift]]:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
| '''High German''' || haben || halb || Schlafen || Schwein || es || essen || machen || Apfel || Herz<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||'' choo ''||'' choub ''|| ''schloifo'' ||'' Schwii ''||'' is ''|| ''esso ''|| ''mocho ''|| ''Opfo'' ||'' Cherz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || Have || half || sleep || Swine || it || eat || make || apple || heart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
In distinction to Standart High German, it shares lots of features though with the surrounding dialects, especially that, as for nouns, the genitive and accusative cases are no longer productive as well as the disappearance of the synthetic preterite, which was replaced by the periphrasticly-built perfect:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
!<br />
!Disappearance of the preterite form<br />
!Building of the pluperfect form<br />
!Genitive construction<br />
!Accusative construction<br />
!Conjunctive construction in indirect speech<br />
|-<br />
| '''High German''' || Ich gab es der Frau. || Ich hatte es gekauft. || Das Haus des Freundes ist schön. || Ich sehe den Löwen an. || Sie sagen, du seiest blöd.<br />
|-<br />
| '''(southern) South Franconian''' || E håb s dr Fråå gewə. || E håbs khååft khet. || əm fraend sae hous əsch schee. || E gug də Leef åå. || Di såågəd, do däädsch bleed sae.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||''I choi's iro froowo gebo.'' || ''I choi's krrooft krroit.'' || ''Imo fruuti siis chuus isch schoo.'' || '' I luo dir lef.'' || ''Di sogit, do toitisch tuufor soo.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || I gave it to the woman. || I had bought it. || The friend's house is nice. || I am watching the lion. || They say you were dumb.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Nevertheless Imstian has many differences that distinguish it from the other Upper German Dialects:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable"<br />
!<br />
! Common plural form for verbs<br />
! Old High German ending -mês for 1st Person Plural remaining <br />
! Productive case endings<br />
|-<br />
| '''Swabian''' || mr hend, ər hend, di hend <br> '''YES''' || mr send <br> '''NO''' || dr Leef, əm Leef <br> '''NO'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' || ''mir chois, ir choi, di choi'' <br> '''NO''' || ''mir biros ''(-os < -umês) <br> '''YES''' || ''dir Lef, imo Lefi'' <br> '''YES'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Central Bavarian''' || mia håm/håmma, eß håbts, se håm(t) <br> '''NO''' || mia sàn/hàn <br> '''NO''' || da Lef, am Lefn <br> '''YES'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Standart German''' || wir haben, ihr habt, sie haben <br> '''NO''' || wir sind <br> '''NO''' || der Löwe, dem Löwen <br> '''YES'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || we have, you have, they have || we are || the lion, to the lion<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Imstian_Dialects&diff=45836Imstian Dialects2009-06-05T16:53:27Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria and Italy by approximately 250.000 people. They do not have any official status in any state nor are they written officially.<br />
[[Image:Deutsche_Dialekte.jpg|240px|thumb|right|The Upper german dialects]]<br />
==Name==<br />
<br />
The linguistic term '''Imstian''' (German '''Imstlerisch''') derives from the small city of Imst, which is the biggest settlement in the Imstian Sprachraum. The speakers themselves do not call their dialects so, in fact the term '''Schwäbisch''' is used in the north west, '''Alemannisch''' in the west and '''Bairisch''' in the east, so always according to the surrounding dialects (as many south Franconian speakers call themselves "Swabians" although they actually don't speak an Allemannic language). <br />
<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
<br />
As a High German dialect group, Imstian was affected by the [[High German Consonant Shift]]:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
| '''High German''' || haben || halb || Schlafen || Schwein || es || essen || machen || Apfel || Herz<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||'' choo ''||'' choub ''|| ''schloifo'' ||'' Schwii ''||'' is ''|| ''esso ''|| ''mocho ''|| ''Opfo'' ||'' Cherz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || Have || half || sleep || Swine || it || eat || make || apple || heart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
In distinction to Standart High German, it shares lots of features though with the surrounding dialects, especially that, as for nouns, the genitive and accusative cases are no longer productive as well as the disappearance of the synthetic preterite, which was replaced by the periphrasticly-built perfect:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
!<br />
!Disappearance of the preterite form<br />
!Building of the pluperfect form<br />
!Genitive construction<br />
!Accusative construction<br />
!Conjunctive construction in indirect speech<br />
|-<br />
| '''High German''' || Ich gab es der Frau. || Ich hatte es gekauft. || Das Haus des Freundes ist schön. || Ich sehe den Löwen an. || Sie sagen, du seiest blöd.<br />
|-<br />
| '''(southern) South Franconian''' || E håb s dr Fråå gewə. || E håbs khååft khet. || əm fraend sae hous əsch schee. || E gug də Leef åå. || Di såågəd, do däädsch bleed sae.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||''I choi's iro froowo gebo.'' || ''I choi's krrooft krroit.'' || ''Imo fruuti siis chuus isch schoo.'' || '' I luo dir lef.'' || ''Di sogit, do toitisch tuufor soo.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || I gave it to the woman. || I had bought it. || The friend's house is nice. || I am watching the lion. || They say you were dumb.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Nevertheless Imstian has many differences that distinguish it from the other Upper German Dialects:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable"<br />
!<br />
! Common plural form for verbs<br />
! Old High German ending -mês for 1st Person Plural remaining <br />
! Productive case endings<br />
|-<br />
| '''Swabian''' || mr hend, ər hend, di hend <br> '''YES''' || mr send <br> '''NO''' || dr Leef, əm Leef <br> '''NO'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' || ''mir chois, ir choi, di choi'' <br> '''NO''' || ''mir biros ''(-os < -umês) <br> '''YES''' || ''dir Lef, imo Lefi'' <br> '''YES'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Central Bavarian''' || mia håm/håmma, eß håbts, se håm(t) <br> '''NO''' || mia sàn/hàn <br> '''NO''' || da Lef, am Lefn <br> '''YES'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Standart German''' || wir haben, ihr habt, sie haben <br> '''NO''' || wir sind <br> '''NO''' || der Löwe, dem Löwen <br> '''YES'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || we have, you have, they have || we are || the lion, to the lion<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Nician&diff=45835Nician2009-06-05T15:39:15Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Niciane Grammàziche]] <br><br />
[[Nicians Testes]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Italic conlangs]][[Category:Romance conlangs]][[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Imstian_Dialects&diff=45834Imstian Dialects2009-06-05T15:34:16Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria and Italy by approximately 250.000 people. They do not have any official status in any state nor are they written officially.<br />
[[Image:Deutsche_Dialekte.jpg|240px|thumb|right|The Upper german dialects]]<br />
==Name==<br />
<br />
The linguistic term '''Imstian''' (German '''Imstlerisch''') derives from the small city of Imst, which is the biggest settlement in the Imstian Sprachraum. The speakers themselves do not call their dialects so, in fact the term '''Schwäbisch''' is used in the north west, '''Alemannisch''' in the west and '''Bairisch''' in the east, so always according to the surrounding dialects (as many south Franconian speakers call themselves "Swabians" although they actually don't speak an Allemannic language). <br />
<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
<br />
As a High German dialect group, Imstian was affected by the [[High German Consonant Shift]]:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
| '''High German''' || haben || halb || Schlafen || Schwein || es || essen || machen || Apfel || Herz<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||'' choo ''||'' choub ''|| ''schloifo'' ||'' Schwii ''||'' is ''|| ''esso ''|| ''mocho ''|| ''Opfo'' ||'' Cherz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || Have || half || sleep || Swine || it || eat || make || apple || heart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
In distinction to Standart High German, it shares lots of features though with the surrounding dialects, especially that, as for nouns, the genitive and accusative cases are no longer productive as well as the disappearance of the synthetic preterite, which was replaced by the periphrasticly-built perfect:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
!<br />
!Disappearance of the preterite form<br />
!Building of the pluperfect form<br />
!Genitive construction<br />
!Accusative construction<br />
!Conjunctive construction in indirect speech<br />
|-<br />
| '''High German''' || Ich gab es der Frau. || Ich hatte es gekauft. || Das Haus des Freundes ist schön. || Ich sehe den Löwen an. || Sie sagen, du seiest blöd.<br />
|-<br />
| '''(southern) South Franconian''' || E håb s dr Fråå gewə. || E håbs khååft khet. || əm fraend sae hous əsch schee. || E gug də Leef åå. || Di såågəd, do däädsch bleed sae.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||''I choi's iro froowo gebo.'' || ''I choi's krrooft krroit.'' || ''Imo fruuti siis chuus isch schoo.'' || '' I luo dir lef.'' || ''Di sogit, do toitisch tuufor soo.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || I gave it to the woman. || I had bought it. || The friend's house is nice. || I am watching the lion. || They say you were dumb.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Conlangs]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=High_German&diff=45833High German2009-06-05T15:02:11Z<p>Caedes: /* Verbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>High German, or Hochdeutsch, (the stage is called '''New High German''') is the name of the standard form of Modern German. It is a [[West Germanic]] and is related to [[Low German]], [[Dutch]], and [[Anglo-Saxon]]/[[Modern English]]. Today it is the official language of Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Liechtenstein.<br />
<br />
{{Language|<br />
| English = High German<br />
| native = HochDeutsch<br />
| dialect english = <br />
| country = Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein<br />
| nativecountry = Deutschland, Schweiz, Österreich, Liechtenstein<br />
| universe = Real world<br />
| speakers = 105 million<br />
| family = [[Indo-European]]<br />
| branch = [[Germanic]]<br />
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]] <br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[German ]]<br />
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V<sub>2</sub><br />
| type = inflecting<br />
| alignment = nominative-accusative<br />
| author = unknown<br />
| date = 1800-Present C.E.<br />
| background = white<br />
| headingbg = coral<br />
| width = 33%<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=Outline of the History of High German=<br />
High German has 4 primary written stages, similar to [[English]]. The four stages are as follows:<br />
* '''[[Old High German]]'''<br />
* '''[[Middle High German]]'''<br />
* '''[[Early New High German]]'''<br />
* '''New High German'''<br />
<br />
The last stage is the Modern German of today.<br />
<br />
=Difference between High and [[Low German]]=<br />
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where; <br />
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],<br />
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],<br />
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally<br />
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. <br><br />
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].<br />
<br />
All of these stages occur in the Highest of High German dialects, but Standard High German does not have all of them. The shift of /k/>/kx/ in stage 2 did not occur in the standard, although it did in [[Upper German]] dialects, such as [[Bavarian|Southern Bavarian]]. Also the only part of stage 3 which actually became part of standard '''High German''' was /d/>/t/. The other two happened only in the '''Highest of High German''' or '''Upper German''' dialects<br />
<br />
=Orthography=<br />
High German is written with the Latin alphabet. It has extra letters which represent some of the sounds of the German language, which are not otherwise found in the [[Roman alphabet|Latin alphabet]]. These include '''Ö ö, Ü ü, Ä ä, ß'''.<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
==Consonants==<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || (ʒ) || || ç || {{IPA|x}} || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || pf || || {{IPA|ʦ}} || || {{IPA|ʧ}} || (ʤ) || || || (kx)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
* The diagraph '''ch''' is /x/ after a back vowel, and /ç/ elsewhere.<br />
* '''v''' and '''f''' are (usually) both pronounced /f/, and '''w''' is pronounced /v/.<br />
* /ŋ/ occurs as '''ng''' and /ŋk/ is '''nk'''.<br />
* '''sch''' is pronounced /ʃ/. '''tsch''' is pronounced /ʧ/.<br />
* Initially '''s''' is pronounced /z/ before vowels, and /ʃ/ before a consonant (such as '''st''' and '''sp''').<br />
* '''j''' is pronounced /j/.<br />
* The spellings '''tz''' and '''z''' are pronounced /ʦ/.<br />
* '''ß''' and '''ss''' are pronounced /s/.<br />
* German has [[Final Devoicing|final devoicing]]. This means that all voiced consonants with voiceless forms become those voiceless forms, at the end of the word.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || iː - ɪ || yː - ʏ || || uː - ʊ<br />
|- <br />
| Mid || eː - ɛ || øː - œ || ə || oː - ɔ<br />
|-<br />
| Low || || || aː/a<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
* In order to form the long version of a vowel, add '''-h''' after the vowel or in rare cases double the vowel, although that is more common in [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].<br />
* Final '''e''' is pronounced /ə/.<br />
* '''ü''' is pronounced /yː/, /ʏ/.<br />
* '''ö''' is pronounced /øː/, /œ/.<br />
* '''ä''' is pronounced /eː/, /ɛ/.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
*'''eu''' and '''äu''' are pronounced /ɔʏ/, /ɔɪ/.<br />
*'''ei''' and '''ai''' are pronounced /aɪ/.<br />
*'''au''' is pronounced /aʊ/.<br />
<br />
=Grammar=<br />
==The General Stuff==<br />
===Gender and Number===<br />
[[Noun]]s, [[Adjective]]s, [[Article]]s, and to some extent [[Pronoun]]s are all affected by [[Gender]] and [[Number]].<br />
There are three genders and two numbers in High German. The three genders are [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]], and the numbers are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Usually all forms of the Plural are the same, when it comes to adjectives and articles.<br />
<br />
===Case===<br />
In German, there are four cases, [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]]. These affect articles, pronouns, adjectives, and nouns. The prepositions of German also affect whether an phrase is genitive, dative, or accusative.<br />
<br />
==Articles==<br />
There are [[definite articles]] and [[indefinite articles]] in German as well as in [[Modern English|English]]. Articles are affected by [[Case|case]], [[Gender|gender]], and [[Number|number]]. The plural is the same across the genders.<br />
<br />
===Definite===<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || der || die || das || die<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || des || der || des || der<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || dem || der || dem || den<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || den || die || das || die<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Indefinite===<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ein || eine || ein || meine†<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || eines || einer || eines || meiner<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || einem || einer || einem || meinen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || einen || eine || ein || meine<br />
|}<br />
† There is no plural form of '''ein''', but there are other indefinite article-style words that do, such as '''mein''' which means '''my'''.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Gender is arbitrary in German, but Nouns referring to living being usually are the gender of that being. The ending of a noun is usually helpful in figuring out which gender a noun is, although it is not always the case.<br />
<br />
Also, the first letter all German nouns is always capitalized.<br />
<br />
===Genders of Nouns===<br />
* Masculine<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-en''' are usually masculine (that are not derived from verbs). Ex. Der Garten, der Norden.<br />
** Nouns ending '''-er''' are usually masculine. Ex. Der Lehrer, die Amerikaner<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-ismus''' are masculine. Ex. Der Feminismus, Der Kommunismus,<br />
* Feminine<br />
** To convert masculine nouns ending to feminine, add '''-in''' to it. Ex. Die Lehrer'''in''', Die Freund'''in'''.<br />
** Most nouns ending with '''-e'''. Ex. Die Frage, Die Straße,<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-ion, -ik, -ie, -unft, -tät, -ei, -heit, -keit, -schaft,''' and '''-ung''' are almost always feminine. Ex. Die Logik, Die Magie, Die Universität, Die Vorlesung, Die Gesundheit, etc.<br />
* Neuter<br />
** Young living beings are Neuter. Ex. Das Kind, Das Lamm, Das Baby,<br />
** The ending '''-chen''' and '''-lein''' are diminutives and are always neuter. Ex. Das Mädchen, Das Märchen. <br><br />
'''-lein''' is used more in the south than in the north, so it's less common in the standard form of German. <br><br />
** Metals and infinitive-nouns are always neuter. Ex. Das Gold, Das Metall, Das Singen, Das Essen,<br />
<br />
===Forming the Plural===<br />
The formation of the plural is different for many different nouns. The idea of the Umlaut is important in forming the plural as well. <br />
*For monosyllabic words, the plural is usually for by adding '''-e''' in the masculine and feminine and '''-er''' in some neuter nouns.<br />
*For Polysyllabic masculine and neuter nouns, many take no ending, but most others take '''-e''' as an ending. <br />
*For most Polysyllabic feminine nouns that end with '''-e''', '''-er''' or '''-el''', the ending is '''-n''' or '''-en'''. If the ending is '''-in''' then the total ending is '''-innen'''.<br />
*Foreign words (except those from Latin) and new words usually take the ending '''-s'''.<br />
<br />
===Noun Declensions===<br />
There are many different kinds of German Nouns. Here are a few fully declined ones: <br><br />
'''Masculine:''' <br><br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Tag 'Day'<br />
! Tage 'Days'<br />
! Apfel 'Apple'<br />
! Äpfel'Apples'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Der Tag || Die Tage || Der Apfel || Die Äpfel<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des Tag(e)s || Der Tage || Des Apfels || Der Äpfel<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem Tag(e) || Den Tagen || Dem Apfel || Den Äpfeln<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Den Tag || Die Tage || Den Apfel || Die Äpfel<br />
|}<br />
'''Feminine:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Hand 'Hand'<br />
! Hände 'Hands'<br />
! Freude 'Joy'<br />
! Freuden 'Joys'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Der Hand || Der Hände || Der Freude || Der Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Der Hand || Den Händen || Der Freude || Den Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden<br />
|}<br />
'''Neuter:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Schiff 'Ship'<br />
! Schiffe 'Ships'<br />
! Volk 'Folk, People'<br />
! Völker 'Folks, Peoples'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Volk || Die Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des Schiff(e)s || Der Schiffe || Des Volk(e)s || Der Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem Schiff(e) || Den Schiffen || Dem Volk(e) || Den Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Folk || Die Völker<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Personal Pronouns==<br />
'''First person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ich || wir <br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || meiner || uns(e)rer <br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || mir || uns <br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || mich || uns <br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Second person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Singular Informal<br />
! Plural Informal<br />
! Plural/Singular Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || du || ihr || Sie‡<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || deiner || eu(e)rer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || dir || euch || Ihnen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || dich || euch || Sie<br />
|}<br />
‡The formal plural pronoun '''Sie''' is the same form as the 3rd person plural pronoun '''sie''' but is also always capitalized.<br />
<br />
'''Third person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Mascu. Sing.<br />
! Fem. Sing.<br />
! Neut. Sing.<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || er || sie || es || sie<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || seiner || ihrer || seiner || ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || ihm || ihr || ihm || ihnen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || ihn || sie || es || sie<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Possessive Pronouns==<br />
<br />
'''Attributively-used''' they agree with the noun they refer to in case, number and gender. They stand always in front of the noun.<br />
<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! 1st Sg. <br />
! 2nd Sg.<br />
! 3rd Sg. masc.<br />
! 3rd Sg. fem.<br />
! 3rd Sg. neut.<br />
! 1st Pl.<br />
! 2nd Pl.<br />
! 3rd Pl.<br />
! 2nd Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative Sg. m./n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative Sg. f''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|- <br />
| '''Nominative Pl.''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Sg. m./n.''' || meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Pl. '''|| meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Sg. m./n.''' || meinem || deinem || seinem || ihrem || seinem || unserem || eurem || ihrem || Ihrem<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Pl. '''|| meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. m.''' || meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. f.''' || meine || deinen || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Pl. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''mein Haus''' - ''my house '' <br><br />
'''deiner Frau''' - ''of your wife, to your wife'' <br><br />
'''ihrem Buch''' - ''to her book ''<br />
<br />
'''Predicatively-used''' they function as follows:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! 1st Sg. <br />
! 2nd Sg.<br />
! 3rd Sg. masc.<br />
! 3rd Sg. fem.<br />
! 3rd Sg. neut.<br />
! 1st Pl.<br />
! 2nd Pl.<br />
! 3rd Pl.<br />
! 2nd Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Masculine Sg.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Feminine Sg. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihrer || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Neuter Sg. '''|| meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres<br />
|-<br />
| '''Plural''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Dieser Baum ist meiner.''' - ''This tree is mine.'' <br><br />
'''Seines ist es nicht.''' - ''This isn't his.''<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and Adverbs==<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
German adjectives have different behaviours and patterns depending on whether there are articles or not, and whether those articles are definite or indefinite. Predicate adjectives take no endings.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gut = Good'''<br />
With Definite articles and demonstratives, so-called '''der'''-Words:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Der '''gute''' Hund|| Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot|| Die '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des '''guten''' Hundes || Der '''guten''' Katze || Des '''guten''' Bootes || Der '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem '''guten''' Hunde || Der '''guten''' Katze || Dem '''guten''' Boot || Den '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Den '''guten''' Hund || Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot || Die '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
With the Indefinite articles and possessives, so-called '''ein'''-words:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ein '''guter''' Hund|| eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || eines '''guten''' Hundes || einer '''guten''' Katze || eines '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || einem '''guten''' Hunde || einer '''guten''' Katze || einem '''guten''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || einen '''guten''' Hund || eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Articles without articles of any form:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || '''guter''' Hund|| '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || '''guten''' Hundes || '''guter''' Katze || '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || '''gutem''' Hunde || '''guter''' Katze || '''gutem''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || '''guten''' Hund || '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
In High German, the change from an adjective to an adverb does not require an ending, as it would in [[Modern English]] or [[French]]. The adverb form is usually the same as the nominative masculine form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
The Word Order for Adverbs usually follows a pattern of the ordering of 1. Time, 2. Manner, and 3. Place. This means '''Gut''' in German can mean both '''well''' and '''good'''. There are other words which are strictly adverbs, such as '''sehr''', which means '''very'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Prepositions==<br />
Prepositions are classified by the cases that follow them. Some have the accusative case follow, some the dative, and some the genitive. However some take either accusative or dative, based on whether or not it is a there is motion involved.<br />
===Accusative===<br />
bis - until, as far as <br><br />
durch - through, by means of <br><br />
entlang - along, down <br><br />
für - for <br><br />
gegen - against, around <br><br />
ohne - without <br><br />
um - around <br><br />
===Dative===<br />
aus - out of, from, made of, <br><br />
außer - at, <br><br />
bei - at, near, with, <br><br />
gegenüber von - opposite, across from, <br><br />
mit - with <br><br />
nach - to, after, according to, <br><br />
seit - since, for a period of time, <br><br />
von - from, of, by <br><br />
zu - to <br><br />
<br />
===Accusative and Dative===<br />
an - on, to go to, <br><br />
auf - on, to, in, at <br><br />
hinter - behind, <br><br />
in - in, into, to, <br><br />
neben - next to, beside, <br><br />
über - over, above, across, <br><br />
unter - under, <br><br />
vor - in front of, before <br><br />
zwischen - between, <br><br />
===Genitive===<br />
anstatt - instead of, <br><br />
statt - instead of, <br><br />
trotz - in spite of <br><br />
während - during <br><br />
wegen - because of, <br><br />
==Conjunctions==<br />
There are different conjunctions which affect a sentence in different ways. [[Coordinating Conjunction]]s usually do not affect the word or of a German sentence, whereas [[Subordinating Conjunction]]s usually involve the transposed word order mentioned below.<br />
===Coordinating Conjunctions===<br />
aber - but <br><br />
denn - because, for <br><br />
oder - or <br><br />
sondern - but, rather, <br><br />
und - and <br><br />
===Subordinating Conjunctions===<br />
als, wann, wenn - when <br><br />
bevor - before <br><br />
bis - until <br><br />
da - since, <br><br />
damit - so that, <br><br />
dass - that <br><br />
ob - whether, if <br><br />
obwohl - although <br><br />
seit - since <br><br />
während - while <br> <br />
weil - because <br><br />
wenn - if <br><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
<i> Main Page: [[High German Verbs]] <i> <br><br />
German Verbs have two major subdivisions, [[Strong]] and [[Weak]]. German verbs are conjugated according to 3 [[Person|persons]], 2 [[Number|numbers]], 2 inflecting [[Tense|tenses]], and 3 [[Mood|moods]], although German is rather intermediate when it comes to verbal inflection. The [[German Strong Verbs]] often have some patterns and classifications which are used for identifying them.<br />
<br />
The [[infinitive]] of a verb is formed by adding '''-en''' to the end.<br />
<br />
The [[imperative]] is formed, in the 2nd person singular informal by only the verb stem, the 2nd person plural informal is formed by adding '''-t''' to the stem. The 2nd personal formal is formed by adding '''-en''' to the stem and adding '''Sie''' afterwards. The "let's" or first person plural imperative is formed by adding '''-en''' and '''wir''' after words or, as in English, with the imperative of '''lassen''' and '''uns'''. Examples: Verb: Gehen - to go <br><br />
'''Geh nach Hause!''' <br><br />
'''Geht nach Hause!'''<br><br />
'''Gehen Sie nach Hause!''' <br><br />
Go home! <br><br />
'''Gehen wir nach Hause. / Lass uns nach Hause gehen. '''(speaking to one person)''' / Lasst uns nach Hause gehen.''' (speaking to several persons) - let's go home. <br><br />
<br />
===Modals===<br />
There are a few verbs which are essential for German. These are called Modals or [[Modal Auxiliaries]]. There are 6 primary modals, and one which has a subjunctive form in common use. The latter would be '''Möchten''' which is the subjunctive of '''Mögen'''. The modal in the present tense is as follows:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="15" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''dürfen''' may, to be allowed|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''können''' can, to be able, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''müssen''' must, to have to, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''sollen''' should, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''mögen''' to like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''möchten''' would like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''wollen''' to want, <br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || darfst || dürft || kannst || könnt || musst || müsst || sollst || sollt || magst || mögt || möchtest || möchtet || willst ||wollt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Auxiliaries===<br />
The most important auxiliaries are '''sein''' (to be), '''werden''' (to become, shall, will), and '''haben''' (to have). '''Sein''' and '''Haben''' are both used to form the [[Present Perfect]] tense, and '''Werden''' is used to form the [[Future]] tense. <br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Sein''' to be|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Haben''' to have ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Werden''' to become<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || bin || sind || habe || haben || werde || werden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || bist || seid || hast || habt || wirst || werdet<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || ist || sind || hat || haben || wird || werden <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Imperfect Tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || war|| waren || hatte || hatten || wurde || wurden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || warst|| wart || hattest|| hattet || wurdest || wurdet<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || war || waren || hatte|| hatten || wurde || wurden<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Perfect Form'''<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || bin gewesen || sind gewesen || habe gehabt || haben gehabt || bin geworden || sind geworden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || bist gewesen || seid gewesen || hast gehabt || habt gehabt || bist geworden || seid geworden<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || ist gewesen || sind gewesen || hat gehabt || haben gehabt || ist geworden || sind geworden<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Present Tense===<br />
In the present tense, German verbs follow a common pattern. Quite a few verbs have change or umlaut the vowel in the second person informal singular and the third person singular. Verbs that end with an alveolar fricative or affricate have identical '''du'''-forms and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Verbs ending '''-d''' or '''-t''' insert an '''-e-''' in the '''du''', '''ihr''', and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Here are examples:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || lerne || lernen || antworte || antworten || heiße || heißen || fahre || fahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || lernst || lernt || antwortest || antwortet || heißt || heißt || fährst || fahrt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || lernt || lernen || antwortet || antworten || heißt || heißen || fährt || fahren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Perfect Tense===<br />
The present perfect is used in High German in the same senses that English uses the [[Simple Past]] and the [[Perfect]] tenses. For weak verbs, in order to form the Present tense, first a form of '''haben''' (or '''sein''') must be used, and at the end of the clause comes the verb. For the verb, '''ge-''' must be attached to beginning of the stem and '''-t''' must be attached to the end. In many strong verbs, '''ge-''' is still often attached, but sometimes '''-en''' is the ending. Also many strong verbs involve a vowel stem change as well.<br />
<br />
Most Verbs take '''haben''' as the auxiliary verb, but verbs of motion and select others take the verb '''sein''' as the auxiliary.<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present Perfect Tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || habe gelernt || haben gelernt || habe geantwortet || haben geantwortet|| habe geheißen || haben geheißen || habe gefahren || haben gefahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || hast gelernt || habt gelernt || hast geantwortet|| habt geantwortet|| hast geheißen || habt geheißen || hast gefahren || habt fahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || hat gelernt || haben gelernt || hat geantwortet|| haben geantwortet|| hat geheißen|| haben geheißen || hat gefahren || haben gefahren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Imperfect===<br />
The Imperfect tense in High German is used more as a written tense than as a spoken one, although a few key words are used more often in speech as well, such as the Modals and Auxiliaries. The Imperfect tense is used to describe something that happened a while in the past. It differs greatly from the Romance and Slavic Language idea of Imperfect. It is used in telling stories of things that happened a long time ago.<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Imperfect tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || heißte || heißten || fuhr || fuhren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || lerntest || lerntet || antwortetest || antwortetet || heißtest || heißtet || fuhrst || fuhrt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || heißte || heißten || fuhr || fuhren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Word Order==<br />
German word order is fairly unique and has particular features with which a learner must become acquainted. The normal order is SVO, and occasional OVS, because German has a structure know as V<sub>2<sub> or 2nd Position Verb rule, as described here:<br />
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|"...I find German to be the strangest in the area of syntax. German has several interesting word order issues. Now a simple German sentence can be SVO. But German, as well as most other Germanic language such as Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, and Dutch, follow what I call the 2nd Position Verb rule. This states that no matter where the objects and subjects move, the conjugated verb or Finite verb stays in the second position. So this means that SVO or OVS are very common. Here is an example, You can say in German: <br><br />
'''Ich sehe den Himmel.''' (I see the sky.) or <br><br />
'''Den Himmel sehe ich.''' (The sky see I.) <br><br />
We can see how the verb stays when the other elements move. Now for questions it is acceptable to have a verb in the first position, using a standard inverted word order. However for many statements the verb second ideal needs to stay in place." [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] <br />
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
However, German and [[Dutch]] both have a unique trait in having something called Transposed or Dependent Clause word order. This type of word order only occurs <i>inside<i> dependent clauses, and what happens is that the inflected or [[finite]] verb is sent to the end. It is described as this:<br />
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|"Now the pattern that Dutch and German have, but is not really shared with the other Germanic languages, is the movement of the conjugated verb to the end of a dependent clause. This might seem strange at first, but one must learn to notice it. An example would be: <br><br />
'''Der Mann, den ich gestern sah, ist gelassen.''' <br> <br />
('''The man, whom I yesterday saw, left.''') <br><br />
Instead of; '''The man, whom I saw yesterday, left.'''" [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] <br><br />
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''<br />
|}<br />
Another interesting feature is the movement of the [[Infinitive]]s and [[Past Participle]]s to the end of the sentence. This is a trait that written German got from Latin, and then it became common in spoken German as well. It also leads to idioms such as '''Ich kann Deutsch.''' (Lit. '''I can German''', but means, '''I can speak German''') which comes from the expression '''Ich kann Deutsch sprechen.''' In the cases of Transposed word order, the inverted verb goes <i>after<i> the infinitives and participles.<br />
<br />
=Sources and External Links=<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546 An Introduction to Basic Word Order] by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]<br />
<br />
Stern, Guy, and Everett Bleiler. Essential German Grammar. Mineola, New York. Dover Publications inc, 1961.<br />
<br />
Dippmann, Gerda, and Johanna Watzinger-Tharp. A Practical review of German Grammar. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall inc. 2000.<br />
<br />
Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].<br />
<br />
=Translations=<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]<br />
[[Category:Linguistics]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User_talk:Blackkdark&diff=45832User talk:Blackkdark2009-06-05T14:54:07Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>Thank you for creating the page about Anglo-Saxon and linking it to my conlang's page. Your involvement is appreciated.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 08:59, 28 May 2008 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Again, thanks for the links on my (New) West Germanic page. Feel free to keep adding them where you've created relevant articles. I take it for granted that people are familiar with Germanic languages and it's nice for someone reading my grammar to be able to click on something for further explanation.<br />
<br />
<br />
Hey, I just wanted to say that in the [[New High German]] article you wrote: <br><br />
'''Der Mann, den ich gestern sah, ist gelassen. <br><br />
'''(The man, whom I yesterday saw, left.) <br><br />
'''Instead of; The man, whom I saw yesterday, left. <br><br />
<br />
<Gelassen sein> means something like "to be cool, unhurried, calm". I think you mean <ist gegangen> instead of that. I don't want to change it as it seems to be a quote from your site, but notice that it is kind of wrong. =)</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=High_German&diff=45831High German2009-06-05T14:37:09Z<p>Caedes: /* Possessive Pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>High German, or Hochdeutsch, (the stage is called '''New High German''') is the name of the standard form of Modern German. It is a [[West Germanic]] and is related to [[Low German]], [[Dutch]], and [[Anglo-Saxon]]/[[Modern English]]. Today it is the official language of Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Liechtenstein.<br />
<br />
{{Language|<br />
| English = High German<br />
| native = HochDeutsch<br />
| dialect english = <br />
| country = Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein<br />
| nativecountry = Deutschland, Schweiz, Österreich, Liechtenstein<br />
| universe = Real world<br />
| speakers = 105 million<br />
| family = [[Indo-European]]<br />
| branch = [[Germanic]]<br />
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]] <br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[German ]]<br />
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V<sub>2</sub><br />
| type = inflecting<br />
| alignment = nominative-accusative<br />
| author = unknown<br />
| date = 1800-Present C.E.<br />
| background = white<br />
| headingbg = coral<br />
| width = 33%<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=Outline of the History of High German=<br />
High German has 4 primary written stages, similar to [[English]]. The four stages are as follows:<br />
* '''[[Old High German]]'''<br />
* '''[[Middle High German]]'''<br />
* '''[[Early New High German]]'''<br />
* '''New High German'''<br />
<br />
The last stage is the Modern German of today.<br />
<br />
=Difference between High and [[Low German]]=<br />
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where; <br />
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],<br />
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],<br />
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally<br />
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. <br><br />
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].<br />
<br />
All of these stages occur in the Highest of High German dialects, but Standard High German does not have all of them. The shift of /k/>/kx/ in stage 2 did not occur in the standard, although it did in [[Upper German]] dialects, such as [[Bavarian|Southern Bavarian]]. Also the only part of stage 3 which actually became part of standard '''High German''' was /d/>/t/. The other two happened only in the '''Highest of High German''' or '''Upper German''' dialects<br />
<br />
=Orthography=<br />
High German is written with the Latin alphabet. It has extra letters which represent some of the sounds of the German language, which are not otherwise found in the [[Roman alphabet|Latin alphabet]]. These include '''Ö ö, Ü ü, Ä ä, ß'''.<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
==Consonants==<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || (ʒ) || || ç || {{IPA|x}} || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || pf || || {{IPA|ʦ}} || || {{IPA|ʧ}} || (ʤ) || || || (kx)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
* The diagraph '''ch''' is /x/ after a back vowel, and /ç/ elsewhere.<br />
* '''v''' and '''f''' are (usually) both pronounced /f/, and '''w''' is pronounced /v/.<br />
* /ŋ/ occurs as '''ng''' and /ŋk/ is '''nk'''.<br />
* '''sch''' is pronounced /ʃ/. '''tsch''' is pronounced /ʧ/.<br />
* Initially '''s''' is pronounced /z/ before vowels, and /ʃ/ before a consonant (such as '''st''' and '''sp''').<br />
* '''j''' is pronounced /j/.<br />
* The spellings '''tz''' and '''z''' are pronounced /ʦ/.<br />
* '''ß''' and '''ss''' are pronounced /s/.<br />
* German has [[Final Devoicing|final devoicing]]. This means that all voiced consonants with voiceless forms become those voiceless forms, at the end of the word.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || iː - ɪ || yː - ʏ || || uː - ʊ<br />
|- <br />
| Mid || eː - ɛ || øː - œ || ə || oː - ɔ<br />
|-<br />
| Low || || || aː/a<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
* In order to form the long version of a vowel, add '''-h''' after the vowel or in rare cases double the vowel, although that is more common in [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].<br />
* Final '''e''' is pronounced /ə/.<br />
* '''ü''' is pronounced /yː/, /ʏ/.<br />
* '''ö''' is pronounced /øː/, /œ/.<br />
* '''ä''' is pronounced /eː/, /ɛ/.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
*'''eu''' and '''äu''' are pronounced /ɔʏ/, /ɔɪ/.<br />
*'''ei''' and '''ai''' are pronounced /aɪ/.<br />
*'''au''' is pronounced /aʊ/.<br />
<br />
=Grammar=<br />
==The General Stuff==<br />
===Gender and Number===<br />
[[Noun]]s, [[Adjective]]s, [[Article]]s, and to some extent [[Pronoun]]s are all affected by [[Gender]] and [[Number]].<br />
There are three genders and two numbers in High German. The three genders are [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]], and the numbers are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Usually all forms of the Plural are the same, when it comes to adjectives and articles.<br />
<br />
===Case===<br />
In German, there are four cases, [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]]. These affect articles, pronouns, adjectives, and nouns. The prepositions of German also affect whether an phrase is genitive, dative, or accusative.<br />
<br />
==Articles==<br />
There are [[definite articles]] and [[indefinite articles]] in German as well as in [[Modern English|English]]. Articles are affected by [[Case|case]], [[Gender|gender]], and [[Number|number]]. The plural is the same across the genders.<br />
<br />
===Definite===<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || der || die || das || die<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || des || der || des || der<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || dem || der || dem || den<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || den || die || das || die<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Indefinite===<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ein || eine || ein || meine†<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || eines || einer || eines || meiner<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || einem || einer || einem || meinen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || einen || eine || ein || meine<br />
|}<br />
† There is no plural form of '''ein''', but there are other indefinite article-style words that do, such as '''mein''' which means '''my'''.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Gender is arbitrary in German, but Nouns referring to living being usually are the gender of that being. The ending of a noun is usually helpful in figuring out which gender a noun is, although it is not always the case.<br />
<br />
Also, the first letter all German nouns is always capitalized.<br />
<br />
===Genders of Nouns===<br />
* Masculine<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-en''' are usually masculine (that are not derived from verbs). Ex. Der Garten, der Norden.<br />
** Nouns ending '''-er''' are usually masculine. Ex. Der Lehrer, die Amerikaner<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-ismus''' are masculine. Ex. Der Feminismus, Der Kommunismus,<br />
* Feminine<br />
** To convert masculine nouns ending to feminine, add '''-in''' to it. Ex. Die Lehrer'''in''', Die Freund'''in'''.<br />
** Most nouns ending with '''-e'''. Ex. Die Frage, Die Straße,<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-ion, -ik, -ie, -unft, -tät, -ei, -heit, -keit, -schaft,''' and '''-ung''' are almost always feminine. Ex. Die Logik, Die Magie, Die Universität, Die Vorlesung, Die Gesundheit, etc.<br />
* Neuter<br />
** Young living beings are Neuter. Ex. Das Kind, Das Lamm, Das Baby,<br />
** The ending '''-chen''' and '''-lein''' are diminutives and are always neuter. Ex. Das Mädchen, Das Märchen. <br><br />
'''-lein''' is used more in the south than in the north, so it's less common in the standard form of German. <br><br />
** Metals and infinitive-nouns are always neuter. Ex. Das Gold, Das Metall, Das Singen, Das Essen,<br />
<br />
===Forming the Plural===<br />
The formation of the plural is different for many different nouns. The idea of the Umlaut is important in forming the plural as well. <br />
*For monosyllabic words, the plural is usually for by adding '''-e''' in the masculine and feminine and '''-er''' in some neuter nouns.<br />
*For Polysyllabic masculine and neuter nouns, many take no ending, but most others take '''-e''' as an ending. <br />
*For most Polysyllabic feminine nouns that end with '''-e''', '''-er''' or '''-el''', the ending is '''-n''' or '''-en'''. If the ending is '''-in''' then the total ending is '''-innen'''.<br />
*Foreign words (except those from Latin) and new words usually take the ending '''-s'''.<br />
<br />
===Noun Declensions===<br />
There are many different kinds of German Nouns. Here are a few fully declined ones: <br><br />
'''Masculine:''' <br><br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Tag 'Day'<br />
! Tage 'Days'<br />
! Apfel 'Apple'<br />
! Äpfel'Apples'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Der Tag || Die Tage || Der Apfel || Die Äpfel<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des Tag(e)s || Der Tage || Des Apfels || Der Äpfel<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem Tag(e) || Den Tagen || Dem Apfel || Den Äpfeln<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Den Tag || Die Tage || Den Apfel || Die Äpfel<br />
|}<br />
'''Feminine:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Hand 'Hand'<br />
! Hände 'Hands'<br />
! Freude 'Joy'<br />
! Freuden 'Joys'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Der Hand || Der Hände || Der Freude || Der Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Der Hand || Den Händen || Der Freude || Den Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden<br />
|}<br />
'''Neuter:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Schiff 'Ship'<br />
! Schiffe 'Ships'<br />
! Volk 'Folk, People'<br />
! Völker 'Folks, Peoples'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Volk || Die Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des Schiff(e)s || Der Schiffe || Des Volk(e)s || Der Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem Schiff(e) || Den Schiffen || Dem Volk(e) || Den Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Folk || Die Völker<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Personal Pronouns==<br />
'''First person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ich || wir <br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || meiner || uns(e)rer <br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || mir || uns <br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || mich || uns <br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Second person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Singular Informal<br />
! Plural Informal<br />
! Plural/Singular Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || du || ihr || Sie‡<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || deiner || eu(e)rer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || dir || euch || Ihnen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || dich || euch || Sie<br />
|}<br />
‡The formal plural pronoun '''Sie''' is the same form as the 3rd person plural pronoun '''sie''' but is also always capitalized.<br />
<br />
'''Third person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Mascu. Sing.<br />
! Fem. Sing.<br />
! Neut. Sing.<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || er || sie || es || sie<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || seiner || ihrer || seiner || ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || ihm || ihr || ihm || ihnen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || ihn || sie || es || sie<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Possessive Pronouns==<br />
<br />
'''Attributively-used''' they agree with the noun they refer to in case, number and gender. They stand always in front of the noun.<br />
<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! 1st Sg. <br />
! 2nd Sg.<br />
! 3rd Sg. masc.<br />
! 3rd Sg. fem.<br />
! 3rd Sg. neut.<br />
! 1st Pl.<br />
! 2nd Pl.<br />
! 3rd Pl.<br />
! 2nd Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative Sg. m./n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative Sg. f''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|- <br />
| '''Nominative Pl.''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Sg. m./n.''' || meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Pl. '''|| meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Sg. m./n.''' || meinem || deinem || seinem || ihrem || seinem || unserem || eurem || ihrem || Ihrem<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Pl. '''|| meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. m.''' || meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. f.''' || meine || deinen || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Pl. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''mein Haus''' - ''my house '' <br><br />
'''deiner Frau''' - ''of your wife, to your wife'' <br><br />
'''ihrem Buch''' - ''to her book ''<br />
<br />
'''Predicatively-used''' they function as follows:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! 1st Sg. <br />
! 2nd Sg.<br />
! 3rd Sg. masc.<br />
! 3rd Sg. fem.<br />
! 3rd Sg. neut.<br />
! 1st Pl.<br />
! 2nd Pl.<br />
! 3rd Pl.<br />
! 2nd Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Masculine Sg.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Feminine Sg. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihrer || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Neuter Sg. '''|| meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres<br />
|-<br />
| '''Plural''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Dieser Baum ist meiner.''' - ''This tree is mine.'' <br><br />
'''Seines ist es nicht.''' - ''This isn't his.''<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and Adverbs==<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
German adjectives have different behaviours and patterns depending on whether there are articles or not, and whether those articles are definite or indefinite. Predicate adjectives take no endings.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gut = Good'''<br />
With Definite articles and demonstratives, so-called '''der'''-Words:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Der '''gute''' Hund|| Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot|| Die '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des '''guten''' Hundes || Der '''guten''' Katze || Des '''guten''' Bootes || Der '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem '''guten''' Hunde || Der '''guten''' Katze || Dem '''guten''' Boot || Den '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Den '''guten''' Hund || Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot || Die '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
With the Indefinite articles and possessives, so-called '''ein'''-words:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ein '''guter''' Hund|| eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || eines '''guten''' Hundes || einer '''guten''' Katze || eines '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || einem '''guten''' Hunde || einer '''guten''' Katze || einem '''guten''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || einen '''guten''' Hund || eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Articles without articles of any form:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || '''guter''' Hund|| '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || '''guten''' Hundes || '''guter''' Katze || '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || '''gutem''' Hunde || '''guter''' Katze || '''gutem''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || '''guten''' Hund || '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
In High German, the change from an adjective to an adverb does not require an ending, as it would in [[Modern English]] or [[French]]. The adverb form is usually the same as the nominative masculine form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
The Word Order for Adverbs usually follows a pattern of the ordering of 1. Time, 2. Manner, and 3. Place. This means '''Gut''' in German can mean both '''well''' and '''good'''. There are other words which are strictly adverbs, such as '''sehr''', which means '''very'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Prepositions==<br />
Prepositions are classified by the cases that follow them. Some have the accusative case follow, some the dative, and some the genitive. However some take either accusative or dative, based on whether or not it is a there is motion involved.<br />
===Accusative===<br />
bis - until, as far as <br><br />
durch - through, by means of <br><br />
entlang - along, down <br><br />
für - for <br><br />
gegen - against, around <br><br />
ohne - without <br><br />
um - around <br><br />
===Dative===<br />
aus - out of, from, made of, <br><br />
außer - at, <br><br />
bei - at, near, with, <br><br />
gegenüber von - opposite, across from, <br><br />
mit - with <br><br />
nach - to, after, according to, <br><br />
seit - since, for a period of time, <br><br />
von - from, of, by <br><br />
zu - to <br><br />
<br />
===Accusative and Dative===<br />
an - on, to go to, <br><br />
auf - on, to, in, at <br><br />
hinter - behind, <br><br />
in - in, into, to, <br><br />
neben - next to, beside, <br><br />
über - over, above, across, <br><br />
unter - under, <br><br />
vor - in front of, before <br><br />
zwischen - between, <br><br />
===Genitive===<br />
anstatt - instead of, <br><br />
statt - instead of, <br><br />
trotz - in spite of <br><br />
während - during <br><br />
wegen - because of, <br><br />
==Conjunctions==<br />
There are different conjunctions which affect a sentence in different ways. [[Coordinating Conjunction]]s usually do not affect the word or of a German sentence, whereas [[Subordinating Conjunction]]s usually involve the transposed word order mentioned below.<br />
===Coordinating Conjunctions===<br />
aber - but <br><br />
denn - because, for <br><br />
oder - or <br><br />
sondern - but, rather, <br><br />
und - and <br><br />
===Subordinating Conjunctions===<br />
als, wann, wenn - when <br><br />
bevor - before <br><br />
bis - until <br><br />
da - since, <br><br />
damit - so that, <br><br />
dass - that <br><br />
ob - whether, if <br><br />
obwohl - although <br><br />
seit - since <br><br />
während - while <br> <br />
weil - because <br><br />
wenn - if <br><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
<i> Main Page: [[High German Verbs]] <i> <br><br />
German Verbs have two major subdivisions, [[Strong]] and [[Weak]]. German verbs are conjugated according to 3 [[Person|persons]], 2 [[Number|numbers]], 2 inflecting [[Tense|tenses]], and 3 [[Mood|moods]], although German is rather intermediate when it comes to verbal inflection. The [[German Strong Verbs]] often have some patterns and classifications which are used for identifying them.<br />
<br />
The [[infinitive]] of a verb is formed by adding '''-en''' to the end.<br />
<br />
The [[imperative]] is formed, in the 2nd person singular informal by only the verb stem, the 2nd person plural informal is formed by adding '''-t''' to the stem. The 2nd personal formal is formed by adding '''-en''' to the stem and adding '''Sie''' afterwards. The "let's" or first person plural imperative is formed by adding '''-en''' and '''wir''' after words. Examples: Verb: Gehen - to go <br><br />
'''Geh nach Hause!''' <br><br />
'''Geht nach Hause!'''<br><br />
'''Gehen Sie nach Hause!''' <br><br />
Go home! <br><br />
'''Gehen wir nach Hause''' - let's go home. <br><br />
<br />
===Modals===<br />
There are a few verbs which are essential for German. These are called Modals or [[Modal Auxiliaries]]. There are 6 primary modals, and one which has a subjunctive form in common use. The latter would be '''Möchten''' which is the subjunctive of '''Mögen'''. The modal in the present tense is as follows:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="15" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''dürfen''' may, to be allowed|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''können''' can, to be able, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''müssen''' must, to have to, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''sollen''' should, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''mögen''' to like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''möchten''' would like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''wollen''' to want, <br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || darfst || dürft || kannst || könnt || musst || müsst || sollst || sollt || magst || mögt || möchtest || möchtet || willst ||wollt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Auxiliaries===<br />
The most important auxiliaries are '''sein''' (to be), '''werden''' (to become, shall, will), and '''haben''' (to have). '''Sein''' and '''Haben''' are both used to form the [[Present Perfect]] tense, and '''Werden''' is used to form the [[Future]] tense. <br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Sein''' to be|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Haben''' to have ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Werden''' to become<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || bin || sind || habe || haben || werde || werden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || bist || seid || hast || habt || wirst || werdet<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || ist || sind || hat || haben || wird || werden <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Imperfect Tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || war|| waren || hatte || hatten || wurde || wurden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || warst|| wart || hattest|| hattet || wurdest || wurdet<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || war || waren || hatte|| hatten || wurde || wurden<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Perfect Form'''<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || bin gewesen || sind gewesen || habe gehabt || haben gehabt || bin geworden || sind geworden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || bist gewesen || seid gewesen || hast gehabt || habt gehabt || bist geworden || seid geworden<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || ist gewesen || sind gewesen || hat gehabt || haben gehabt || ist geworden || sind geworden<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Present Tense===<br />
In the present tense, German verbs follow a common pattern. Quite a few verbs have change or umlaut the vowel in the second person informal singular and the third person singular. Verbs that end with an alveolar fricative or affricate have identical '''du'''-forms and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Verbs ending '''-d''' or '''-t''' insert an '''-e-''' in the '''du''', '''ihr''', and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Here are examples:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || lerne || lernen || antworte || antworten || heiße || heißen || fahre || fahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || lernst || lernt || antwortest || antwortet || heißt || heißt || fährst || fahrt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || lernt || lernen || antwortet || antworten || heißt || heißen || fährt || fahren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Perfect Tense===<br />
The present perfect is used in High German in the same senses that English uses the [[Simple Past]] and the [[Perfect]] tenses. For weak verbs, in order to form the Present tense, first a form of '''haben''' (or '''sein''') must be used, and at the end of the clause comes the verb. For the verb, '''ge-''' must be attached to beginning of the stem and '''-t''' must be attached to the end. In many strong verbs, '''ge-''' is still often attached, but sometimes '''-en''' is the ending. Also many strong verbs involve a vowel stem change as well.<br />
<br />
Most Verbs take '''haben''' as the auxiliary verb, but verbs of motion and select others take the verb '''sein''' as the auxiliary.<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present Perfect Tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || habe gelernt || haben gelernt || habe geantwortet || haben geantwortet|| habe geheißen || haben geheißen || habe gefahren || haben gefahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || hast gelernt || habt gelernt || hast geantwortet|| habt geantwortet|| hast geheißen || habt geheißen || hast gefahren || habt fahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || hat gelernt || haben gelernt || hat geantwortet|| haben geantwortet|| hat geheißen|| haben geheißen || hat gefahren || haben gefahren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Imperfect===<br />
The Imperfect tense in High German is used more as a written tense than as a spoken one, although a few key words are used more often in speech as well, such as the Modals and Auxiliaries. The Imperfect tense is used to describe something that happened a while in the past. It differs greatly from the Romance and Slavic Language idea of Imperfect. It is used in telling stories of things that happened a long time ago.<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Imperfect tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || heißte || heißten || fuhr || fuhren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || lerntest || lerntet || antwortetest || antwortetet || heißtest || heißtet || fuhrst || fuhrt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || heißte || heißten || fuhr || fuhren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Word Order==<br />
German word order is fairly unique and has particular features with which a learner must become acquainted. The normal order is SVO, and occasional OVS, because German has a structure know as V<sub>2<sub> or 2nd Position Verb rule, as described here:<br />
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|"...I find German to be the strangest in the area of syntax. German has several interesting word order issues. Now a simple German sentence can be SVO. But German, as well as most other Germanic language such as Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, and Dutch, follow what I call the 2nd Position Verb rule. This states that no matter where the objects and subjects move, the conjugated verb or Finite verb stays in the second position. So this means that SVO or OVS are very common. Here is an example, You can say in German: <br><br />
'''Ich sehe den Himmel.''' (I see the sky.) or <br><br />
'''Den Himmel sehe ich.''' (The sky see I.) <br><br />
We can see how the verb stays when the other elements move. Now for questions it is acceptable to have a verb in the first position, using a standard inverted word order. However for many statements the verb second ideal needs to stay in place." [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] <br />
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
However, German and [[Dutch]] both have a unique trait in having something called Transposed or Dependent Clause word order. This type of word order only occurs <i>inside<i> dependent clauses, and what happens is that the inflected or [[finite]] verb is sent to the end. It is described as this:<br />
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|"Now the pattern that Dutch and German have, but is not really shared with the other Germanic languages, is the movement of the conjugated verb to the end of a dependent clause. This might seem strange at first, but one must learn to notice it. An example would be: <br><br />
'''Der Mann, den ich gestern sah, ist gelassen.''' <br> <br />
('''The man, whom I yesterday saw, left.''') <br><br />
Instead of; '''The man, whom I saw yesterday, left.'''" [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] <br><br />
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''<br />
|}<br />
Another interesting feature is the movement of the [[Infinitive]]s and [[Past Participle]]s to the end of the sentence. This is a trait that written German got from Latin, and then it became common in spoken German as well. It also leads to idioms such as '''Ich kann Deutsch.''' (Lit. '''I can German''', but means, '''I can speak German''') which comes from the expression '''Ich kann Deutsch sprechen.''' In the cases of Transposed word order, the inverted verb goes <i>after<i> the infinitives and participles.<br />
<br />
=Sources and External Links=<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546 An Introduction to Basic Word Order] by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]<br />
<br />
Stern, Guy, and Everett Bleiler. Essential German Grammar. Mineola, New York. Dover Publications inc, 1961.<br />
<br />
Dippmann, Gerda, and Johanna Watzinger-Tharp. A Practical review of German Grammar. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall inc. 2000.<br />
<br />
Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].<br />
<br />
=Translations=<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]<br />
[[Category:Linguistics]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=High_German&diff=45830High German2009-06-05T14:10:29Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>High German, or Hochdeutsch, (the stage is called '''New High German''') is the name of the standard form of Modern German. It is a [[West Germanic]] and is related to [[Low German]], [[Dutch]], and [[Anglo-Saxon]]/[[Modern English]]. Today it is the official language of Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Liechtenstein.<br />
<br />
{{Language|<br />
| English = High German<br />
| native = HochDeutsch<br />
| dialect english = <br />
| country = Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein<br />
| nativecountry = Deutschland, Schweiz, Österreich, Liechtenstein<br />
| universe = Real world<br />
| speakers = 105 million<br />
| family = [[Indo-European]]<br />
| branch = [[Germanic]]<br />
| subbranch = [[West Germanic]] <br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[German ]]<br />
| wordorder = SVO, OVS/V<sub>2</sub><br />
| type = inflecting<br />
| alignment = nominative-accusative<br />
| author = unknown<br />
| date = 1800-Present C.E.<br />
| background = white<br />
| headingbg = coral<br />
| width = 33%<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=Outline of the History of High German=<br />
High German has 4 primary written stages, similar to [[English]]. The four stages are as follows:<br />
* '''[[Old High German]]'''<br />
* '''[[Middle High German]]'''<br />
* '''[[Early New High German]]'''<br />
* '''New High German'''<br />
<br />
The last stage is the Modern German of today.<br />
<br />
=Difference between High and [[Low German]]=<br />
High German differs from other West German languages such as [[Low German]], [[Modern English|English]], and [[Dutch]] in that High German when through the [[High German Consonant Shift]]. The High German Consonant Shift (or HGCS) is the sound shift where; <br />
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],<br />
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],<br />
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally<br />
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. <br><br />
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].<br />
<br />
All of these stages occur in the Highest of High German dialects, but Standard High German does not have all of them. The shift of /k/>/kx/ in stage 2 did not occur in the standard, although it did in [[Upper German]] dialects, such as [[Bavarian|Southern Bavarian]]. Also the only part of stage 3 which actually became part of standard '''High German''' was /d/>/t/. The other two happened only in the '''Highest of High German''' or '''Upper German''' dialects<br />
<br />
=Orthography=<br />
High German is written with the Latin alphabet. It has extra letters which represent some of the sounds of the German language, which are not otherwise found in the [[Roman alphabet|Latin alphabet]]. These include '''Ö ö, Ü ü, Ä ä, ß'''.<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
==Consonants==<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=17 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Consonants<br />
|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"<br />
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || (ʒ) || || ç || {{IPA|x}} || || {{IPA|h}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Affricate || || || pf || || {{IPA|ʦ}} || || {{IPA|ʧ}} || (ʤ) || || || (kx)<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}<br />
|-<br />
|style="text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
* The diagraph '''ch''' is /x/ after a back vowel, and /ç/ elsewhere.<br />
* '''v''' and '''f''' are (usually) both pronounced /f/, and '''w''' is pronounced /v/.<br />
* /ŋ/ occurs as '''ng''' and /ŋk/ is '''nk'''.<br />
* '''sch''' is pronounced /ʃ/. '''tsch''' is pronounced /ʧ/.<br />
* Initially '''s''' is pronounced /z/ before vowels, and /ʃ/ before a consonant (such as '''st''' and '''sp''').<br />
* '''j''' is pronounced /j/.<br />
* The spellings '''tz''' and '''z''' are pronounced /ʦ/.<br />
* '''ß''' and '''ss''' are pronounced /s/.<br />
* German has [[Final Devoicing|final devoicing]]. This means that all voiced consonants with voiceless forms become those voiceless forms, at the end of the word.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
<br />
<br/><br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
<br />
{| style="text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;"<br />
!colspan=11 style="text-align:center; background: #efefef;"| Vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="2"|Front || Central || Back<br />
|- <br />
| || Unround || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded<br />
|-<br />
| High || iː - ɪ || yː - ʏ || || uː - ʊ<br />
|- <br />
| Mid || eː - ɛ || øː - œ || ə || oː - ɔ<br />
|-<br />
| Low || || || aː/a<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7"| All entries are: Tense - Lax<br />
|}<br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
* In order to form the long version of a vowel, add '''-h''' after the vowel or in rare cases double the vowel, although that is more common in [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].<br />
* Final '''e''' is pronounced /ə/.<br />
* '''ü''' is pronounced /yː/, /ʏ/.<br />
* '''ö''' is pronounced /øː/, /œ/.<br />
* '''ä''' is pronounced /eː/, /ɛ/.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
*'''eu''' and '''äu''' are pronounced /ɔʏ/, /ɔɪ/.<br />
*'''ei''' and '''ai''' are pronounced /aɪ/.<br />
*'''au''' is pronounced /aʊ/.<br />
<br />
=Grammar=<br />
==The General Stuff==<br />
===Gender and Number===<br />
[[Noun]]s, [[Adjective]]s, [[Article]]s, and to some extent [[Pronoun]]s are all affected by [[Gender]] and [[Number]].<br />
There are three genders and two numbers in High German. The three genders are [[Masculine]], [[Feminine]], and [[Neuter]], and the numbers are [[Singular]] and [[Plural]]. Usually all forms of the Plural are the same, when it comes to adjectives and articles.<br />
<br />
===Case===<br />
In German, there are four cases, [[Nominative]], [[Accusative]], [[Genitive]], and [[Dative]]. These affect articles, pronouns, adjectives, and nouns. The prepositions of German also affect whether an phrase is genitive, dative, or accusative.<br />
<br />
==Articles==<br />
There are [[definite articles]] and [[indefinite articles]] in German as well as in [[Modern English|English]]. Articles are affected by [[Case|case]], [[Gender|gender]], and [[Number|number]]. The plural is the same across the genders.<br />
<br />
===Definite===<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || der || die || das || die<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || des || der || des || der<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || dem || der || dem || den<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || den || die || das || die<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Indefinite===<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ein || eine || ein || meine†<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || eines || einer || eines || meiner<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || einem || einer || einem || meinen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || einen || eine || ein || meine<br />
|}<br />
† There is no plural form of '''ein''', but there are other indefinite article-style words that do, such as '''mein''' which means '''my'''.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Gender is arbitrary in German, but Nouns referring to living being usually are the gender of that being. The ending of a noun is usually helpful in figuring out which gender a noun is, although it is not always the case.<br />
<br />
Also, the first letter all German nouns is always capitalized.<br />
<br />
===Genders of Nouns===<br />
* Masculine<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-en''' are usually masculine (that are not derived from verbs). Ex. Der Garten, der Norden.<br />
** Nouns ending '''-er''' are usually masculine. Ex. Der Lehrer, die Amerikaner<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-ismus''' are masculine. Ex. Der Feminismus, Der Kommunismus,<br />
* Feminine<br />
** To convert masculine nouns ending to feminine, add '''-in''' to it. Ex. Die Lehrer'''in''', Die Freund'''in'''.<br />
** Most nouns ending with '''-e'''. Ex. Die Frage, Die Straße,<br />
** Nouns ending with '''-ion, -ik, -ie, -unft, -tät, -ei, -heit, -keit, -schaft,''' and '''-ung''' are almost always feminine. Ex. Die Logik, Die Magie, Die Universität, Die Vorlesung, Die Gesundheit, etc.<br />
* Neuter<br />
** Young living beings are Neuter. Ex. Das Kind, Das Lamm, Das Baby,<br />
** The ending '''-chen''' and '''-lein''' are diminutives and are always neuter. Ex. Das Mädchen, Das Märchen. <br><br />
'''-lein''' is used more in the south than in the north, so it's less common in the standard form of German. <br><br />
** Metals and infinitive-nouns are always neuter. Ex. Das Gold, Das Metall, Das Singen, Das Essen,<br />
<br />
===Forming the Plural===<br />
The formation of the plural is different for many different nouns. The idea of the Umlaut is important in forming the plural as well. <br />
*For monosyllabic words, the plural is usually for by adding '''-e''' in the masculine and feminine and '''-er''' in some neuter nouns.<br />
*For Polysyllabic masculine and neuter nouns, many take no ending, but most others take '''-e''' as an ending. <br />
*For most Polysyllabic feminine nouns that end with '''-e''', '''-er''' or '''-el''', the ending is '''-n''' or '''-en'''. If the ending is '''-in''' then the total ending is '''-innen'''.<br />
*Foreign words (except those from Latin) and new words usually take the ending '''-s'''.<br />
<br />
===Noun Declensions===<br />
There are many different kinds of German Nouns. Here are a few fully declined ones: <br><br />
'''Masculine:''' <br><br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Tag 'Day'<br />
! Tage 'Days'<br />
! Apfel 'Apple'<br />
! Äpfel'Apples'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Der Tag || Die Tage || Der Apfel || Die Äpfel<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des Tag(e)s || Der Tage || Des Apfels || Der Äpfel<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem Tag(e) || Den Tagen || Dem Apfel || Den Äpfeln<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Den Tag || Die Tage || Den Apfel || Die Äpfel<br />
|}<br />
'''Feminine:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Hand 'Hand'<br />
! Hände 'Hands'<br />
! Freude 'Joy'<br />
! Freuden 'Joys'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Der Hand || Der Hände || Der Freude || Der Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Der Hand || Den Händen || Der Freude || Den Freuden<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Die Hand || Die Hände || Die Freude || Die Freuden<br />
|}<br />
'''Neuter:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Schiff 'Ship'<br />
! Schiffe 'Ships'<br />
! Volk 'Folk, People'<br />
! Völker 'Folks, Peoples'<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Volk || Die Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des Schiff(e)s || Der Schiffe || Des Volk(e)s || Der Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem Schiff(e) || Den Schiffen || Dem Volk(e) || Den Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Das Schiff || Die Schiffe || Das Folk || Die Völker<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Personal Pronouns==<br />
'''First person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Singular<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ich || wir <br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || meiner || uns(e)rer <br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || mir || uns <br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || mich || uns <br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Second person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Singular Informal<br />
! Plural Informal<br />
! Plural/Singular Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || du || ihr || Sie‡<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || deiner || eu(e)rer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || dir || euch || Ihnen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || dich || euch || Sie<br />
|}<br />
‡The formal plural pronoun '''Sie''' is the same form as the 3rd person plural pronoun '''sie''' but is also always capitalized.<br />
<br />
'''Third person:'''<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Mascu. Sing.<br />
! Fem. Sing.<br />
! Neut. Sing.<br />
! Plural<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || er || sie || es || sie<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || seiner || ihrer || seiner || ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || ihm || ihr || ihm || ihnen<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || ihn || sie || es || sie<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Possessive Pronouns==<br />
<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! 1st Sg. <br />
! 2nd Sg.<br />
! 3rd Sg. masc.<br />
! 3rd Sg. fem.<br />
! 3rd Sg. neut.<br />
! 1st Pl.<br />
! 2nd Pl.<br />
! 3rd Pl.<br />
! 2nd Formal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative Sg. m./n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative Sg. f''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|- <br />
| '''Nominative Pl.''' || meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Sg. m./n.''' || meines || deines || seines || ihres || seines || unseres || eures || ihres || Ihres<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive Pl. '''|| meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Sg. m./n.''' || meinem || deinem || seinem || ihrem || seinem || unserem || eurem || ihrem || Ihrem<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Sg. f.''' || meiner || deiner || seiner || ihrer || seiner || unserer || eurer || ihrer || Ihrer<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative Pl. '''|| meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. m.''' || meinen || deinen || seinen || ihren || seinen || unseren || euren || ihren || Ihren<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. f.''' || meine || deinen || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Sg. n.''' || mein || dein || sein || ihr || sein || unser || euer || ihr || Ihr<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative Pl. '''|| meine || deine || seine || ihre || seine || unsere || eure || ihre || Ihre<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and Adverbs==<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
German adjectives have different behaviours and patterns depending on whether there are articles or not, and whether those articles are definite or indefinite. Predicate adjectives take no endings.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Gut = Good'''<br />
With Definite articles and demonstratives, so-called '''der'''-Words:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || Der '''gute''' Hund|| Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot|| Die '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || Des '''guten''' Hundes || Der '''guten''' Katze || Des '''guten''' Bootes || Der '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || Dem '''guten''' Hunde || Der '''guten''' Katze || Dem '''guten''' Boot || Den '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || Den '''guten''' Hund || Die '''gute''' Katze || Das '''gute''' Boot || Die '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
With the Indefinite articles and possessives, so-called '''ein'''-words:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || ein '''guter''' Hund|| eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || eines '''guten''' Hundes || einer '''guten''' Katze || eines '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || einem '''guten''' Hunde || einer '''guten''' Katze || einem '''guten''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || einen '''guten''' Hund || eine '''gute''' Katze || ein '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Articles without articles of any form:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|-<br />
! Cases<br />
! Masculine<br />
! Feminine<br />
! Neuter<br />
! Plural (all Genders)<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nominative''' || '''guter''' Hund|| '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot|| Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || '''guten''' Hundes || '''guter''' Katze || '''guten''' Bootes || Meiner '''guten''' Völker<br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || '''gutem''' Hunde || '''guter''' Katze || '''gutem''' Boot || Meinen '''guten''' Völkern<br />
|-<br />
| '''Accusative''' || '''guten''' Hund || '''gute''' Katze || '''gutes''' Boot || Meine '''guten''' Völker<br />
|}<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
In High German, the change from an adjective to an adverb does not require an ending, as it would in [[Modern English]] or [[French]]. The adverb form is usually the same as the nominative masculine form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
The Word Order for Adverbs usually follows a pattern of the ordering of 1. Time, 2. Manner, and 3. Place. This means '''Gut''' in German can mean both '''well''' and '''good'''. There are other words which are strictly adverbs, such as '''sehr''', which means '''very'''.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Prepositions==<br />
Prepositions are classified by the cases that follow them. Some have the accusative case follow, some the dative, and some the genitive. However some take either accusative or dative, based on whether or not it is a there is motion involved.<br />
===Accusative===<br />
bis - until, as far as <br><br />
durch - through, by means of <br><br />
entlang - along, down <br><br />
für - for <br><br />
gegen - against, around <br><br />
ohne - without <br><br />
um - around <br><br />
===Dative===<br />
aus - out of, from, made of, <br><br />
außer - at, <br><br />
bei - at, near, with, <br><br />
gegenüber von - opposite, across from, <br><br />
mit - with <br><br />
nach - to, after, according to, <br><br />
seit - since, for a period of time, <br><br />
von - from, of, by <br><br />
zu - to <br><br />
<br />
===Accusative and Dative===<br />
an - on, to go to, <br><br />
auf - on, to, in, at <br><br />
hinter - behind, <br><br />
in - in, into, to, <br><br />
neben - next to, beside, <br><br />
über - over, above, across, <br><br />
unter - under, <br><br />
vor - in front of, before <br><br />
zwischen - between, <br><br />
===Genitive===<br />
anstatt - instead of, <br><br />
statt - instead of, <br><br />
trotz - in spite of <br><br />
während - during <br><br />
wegen - because of, <br><br />
==Conjunctions==<br />
There are different conjunctions which affect a sentence in different ways. [[Coordinating Conjunction]]s usually do not affect the word or of a German sentence, whereas [[Subordinating Conjunction]]s usually involve the transposed word order mentioned below.<br />
===Coordinating Conjunctions===<br />
aber - but <br><br />
denn - because, for <br><br />
oder - or <br><br />
sondern - but, rather, <br><br />
und - and <br><br />
===Subordinating Conjunctions===<br />
als, wann, wenn - when <br><br />
bevor - before <br><br />
bis - until <br><br />
da - since, <br><br />
damit - so that, <br><br />
dass - that <br><br />
ob - whether, if <br><br />
obwohl - although <br><br />
seit - since <br><br />
während - while <br> <br />
weil - because <br><br />
wenn - if <br><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
<i> Main Page: [[High German Verbs]] <i> <br><br />
German Verbs have two major subdivisions, [[Strong]] and [[Weak]]. German verbs are conjugated according to 3 [[Person|persons]], 2 [[Number|numbers]], 2 inflecting [[Tense|tenses]], and 3 [[Mood|moods]], although German is rather intermediate when it comes to verbal inflection. The [[German Strong Verbs]] often have some patterns and classifications which are used for identifying them.<br />
<br />
The [[infinitive]] of a verb is formed by adding '''-en''' to the end.<br />
<br />
The [[imperative]] is formed, in the 2nd person singular informal by only the verb stem, the 2nd person plural informal is formed by adding '''-t''' to the stem. The 2nd personal formal is formed by adding '''-en''' to the stem and adding '''Sie''' afterwards. The "let's" or first person plural imperative is formed by adding '''-en''' and '''wir''' after words. Examples: Verb: Gehen - to go <br><br />
'''Geh nach Hause!''' <br><br />
'''Geht nach Hause!'''<br><br />
'''Gehen Sie nach Hause!''' <br><br />
Go home! <br><br />
'''Gehen wir nach Hause''' - let's go home. <br><br />
<br />
===Modals===<br />
There are a few verbs which are essential for German. These are called Modals or [[Modal Auxiliaries]]. There are 6 primary modals, and one which has a subjunctive form in common use. The latter would be '''Möchten''' which is the subjunctive of '''Mögen'''. The modal in the present tense is as follows:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="15" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''dürfen''' may, to be allowed|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''können''' can, to be able, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''müssen''' must, to have to, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''sollen''' should, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''mögen''' to like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''möchten''' would like, ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''wollen''' to want, <br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || darfst || dürft || kannst || könnt || musst || müsst || sollst || sollt || magst || mögt || möchtest || möchtet || willst ||wollt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || darf || dürfen || kann || können || muss || müssen || soll || sollen || mag || mögen || möchte || möchten || will || wollen<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Auxiliaries===<br />
The most important auxiliaries are '''sein''' (to be), '''werden''' (to become, shall, will), and '''haben''' (to have). '''Sein''' and '''Haben''' are both used to form the [[Present Perfect]] tense, and '''Werden''' is used to form the [[Future]] tense. <br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Sein''' to be|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Haben''' to have ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Werden''' to become<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || bin || sind || habe || haben || werde || werden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || bist || seid || hast || habt || wirst || werdet<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || ist || sind || hat || haben || wird || werden <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Imperfect Tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || war|| waren || hatte || hatten || wurde || wurden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || warst|| wart || hattest|| hattet || wurdest || wurdet<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || war || waren || hatte|| hatten || wurde || wurden<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="7" align="center"|'''Perfect Form'''<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || bin gewesen || sind gewesen || habe gehabt || haben gehabt || bin geworden || sind geworden<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || bist gewesen || seid gewesen || hast gehabt || habt gehabt || bist geworden || seid geworden<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || ist gewesen || sind gewesen || hat gehabt || haben gehabt || ist geworden || sind geworden<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Present Tense===<br />
In the present tense, German verbs follow a common pattern. Quite a few verbs have change or umlaut the vowel in the second person informal singular and the third person singular. Verbs that end with an alveolar fricative or affricate have identical '''du'''-forms and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Verbs ending '''-d''' or '''-t''' insert an '''-e-''' in the '''du''', '''ihr''', and '''er, sie, es''' forms. Here are examples:<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || lerne || lernen || antworte || antworten || heiße || heißen || fahre || fahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || lernst || lernt || antwortest || antwortet || heißt || heißt || fährst || fahrt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || lernt || lernen || antwortet || antworten || heißt || heißen || fährt || fahren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Perfect Tense===<br />
The present perfect is used in High German in the same senses that English uses the [[Simple Past]] and the [[Perfect]] tenses. For weak verbs, in order to form the Present tense, first a form of '''haben''' (or '''sein''') must be used, and at the end of the clause comes the verb. For the verb, '''ge-''' must be attached to beginning of the stem and '''-t''' must be attached to the end. In many strong verbs, '''ge-''' is still often attached, but sometimes '''-en''' is the ending. Also many strong verbs involve a vowel stem change as well.<br />
<br />
Most Verbs take '''haben''' as the auxiliary verb, but verbs of motion and select others take the verb '''sein''' as the auxiliary.<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Present Perfect Tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || habe gelernt || haben gelernt || habe geantwortet || haben geantwortet|| habe geheißen || haben geheißen || habe gefahren || haben gefahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || hast gelernt || habt gelernt || hast geantwortet|| habt geantwortet|| hast geheißen || habt geheißen || hast gefahren || habt fahren<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || hat gelernt || haben gelernt || hat geantwortet|| haben geantwortet|| hat geheißen|| haben geheißen || hat gefahren || haben gefahren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Imperfect===<br />
The Imperfect tense in High German is used more as a written tense than as a spoken one, although a few key words are used more often in speech as well, such as the Modals and Auxiliaries. The Imperfect tense is used to describe something that happened a while in the past. It differs greatly from the Romance and Slavic Language idea of Imperfect. It is used in telling stories of things that happened a long time ago.<br />
{| class="bluetable {{{1}}}" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="9" align="center"|'''Imperfect tense'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Lernen''' To Learn|| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Antworten''' to answer ||colspan="2" align="center"| '''Heißen''' to be called ||colspan="2" align="center"|'''Fahren''' to drive, go<br />
|-<br />
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl.<br />
|-<br />
| '''1st person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || heißte || heißten || fuhr || fuhren<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd person''' || lerntest || lerntet || antwortetest || antwortetet || heißtest || heißtet || fuhrst || fuhrt<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd person''' || lernte || lernten || antwortete || antworteten || heißte || heißten || fuhr || fuhren<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Word Order==<br />
German word order is fairly unique and has particular features with which a learner must become acquainted. The normal order is SVO, and occasional OVS, because German has a structure know as V<sub>2<sub> or 2nd Position Verb rule, as described here:<br />
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|"...I find German to be the strangest in the area of syntax. German has several interesting word order issues. Now a simple German sentence can be SVO. But German, as well as most other Germanic language such as Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, and Dutch, follow what I call the 2nd Position Verb rule. This states that no matter where the objects and subjects move, the conjugated verb or Finite verb stays in the second position. So this means that SVO or OVS are very common. Here is an example, You can say in German: <br><br />
'''Ich sehe den Himmel.''' (I see the sky.) or <br><br />
'''Den Himmel sehe ich.''' (The sky see I.) <br><br />
We can see how the verb stays when the other elements move. Now for questions it is acceptable to have a verb in the first position, using a standard inverted word order. However for many statements the verb second ideal needs to stay in place." [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] <br />
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
However, German and [[Dutch]] both have a unique trait in having something called Transposed or Dependent Clause word order. This type of word order only occurs <i>inside<i> dependent clauses, and what happens is that the inflected or [[finite]] verb is sent to the end. It is described as this:<br />
{|class="blueinfobox" border="1" cellpadding="2"<br />
|"Now the pattern that Dutch and German have, but is not really shared with the other Germanic languages, is the movement of the conjugated verb to the end of a dependent clause. This might seem strange at first, but one must learn to notice it. An example would be: <br><br />
'''Der Mann, den ich gestern sah, ist gelassen.''' <br> <br />
('''The man, whom I yesterday saw, left.''') <br><br />
Instead of; '''The man, whom I saw yesterday, left.'''" [http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546] <br><br />
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;'''[[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]'''<br />
|}<br />
Another interesting feature is the movement of the [[Infinitive]]s and [[Past Participle]]s to the end of the sentence. This is a trait that written German got from Latin, and then it became common in spoken German as well. It also leads to idioms such as '''Ich kann Deutsch.''' (Lit. '''I can German''', but means, '''I can speak German''') which comes from the expression '''Ich kann Deutsch sprechen.''' In the cases of Transposed word order, the inverted verb goes <i>after<i> the infinitives and participles.<br />
<br />
=Sources and External Links=<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
[http://blackkdark.deviantart.com/art/AGT-Word-Order-or-Basic-Syntax-81429546 An Introduction to Basic Word Order] by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]<br />
<br />
Stern, Guy, and Everett Bleiler. Essential German Grammar. Mineola, New York. Dover Publications inc, 1961.<br />
<br />
Dippmann, Gerda, and Johanna Watzinger-Tharp. A Practical review of German Grammar. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall inc. 2000.<br />
<br />
Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].<br />
<br />
=Translations=<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]<br />
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]<br />
[[Category:Linguistics]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Imstian_Dialects&diff=45826Imstian Dialects2009-06-05T00:14:25Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria and Italy by approximately 250.000 people. They do not have any official status in any state nor are they written officially.<br />
[[Image:Deutsche_Dialekte.jpg|240px|thumb|right|The Upper german dialects]]<br />
==Name==<br />
<br />
The linguistic term '''Imstian''' (German '''Imstlerisch''') derives from the small city of Imst, which is the biggest settlement in the Imstian Sprachraum. The speakers themselves do not call their dialects so, in fact the term '''Schwäbisch''' is used in the north west, '''Alemannisch''' in the west and '''Bairisch''' in the east, so always according to the surrounding dialects (as many south Franconian speakers call themselves "Swabians" although they actually don't speak an Allemannic language). <br />
<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
<br />
As a High German dialect group, Imstian was affected by the [[High German Consonant Shift]]:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
| '''High German''' || haben || halb || Schlafen || Schwein || es || essen || machen || Apfel || Herz<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||'' choo ''||'' choub ''|| ''schloifo'' ||'' Schwii ''||'' is ''|| ''esso ''|| ''mocho ''|| ''Opfo'' ||'' Cherz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || Have || half || sleep || Swine || it || eat || make || apple || heart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
In distinction to Standart High German, it shares lots of features though with the surrounding dialects, especially that, as for nouns, the genitive and accusative cases are no longer productive as well as the disappearance of the synthetic preterite, which was replaced by the periphrasticly-built perfect:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
!<br />
!Disappearance of the preterite form<br />
!Building of the pluperfect form<br />
!Genitive construction<br />
!Accusative construction<br />
!Conjunctive construction in indirect speech<br />
|-<br />
| '''High German''' || Ich gab es der Frau. || Ich hatte es gekauft. || Das Haus des Freundes ist schön. || Ich sehe den Löwen an. || Sie sagen, du seiest blöd.<br />
|-<br />
| '''(southern) South Franconian''' || E håb s dr Fråå gewə. || E håbs khååft khet. || əm fraend sae hous əsch schee. || E gug də Leef åå. || Di såågəd, do däädsch bleed sae.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||''I choi's iro froowo gebo.'' || ''I choi's krrooft krroit.'' || ''Imo fruuti siis chuus isch schoo.'' || '' I luo dir lef.'' || ''Di sogit, do toitisch tuufor soo.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || I gave it to the woman. || I had bought it. || The friend's house is nice. || I am watching the lion. || They say you were dumb.<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Imstian_Dialects&diff=45825Imstian Dialects2009-06-04T20:40:52Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria and Italy by approximately 250.000 people. They do not have any official status in any state nor are they written officially.<br />
[[Image:Deutsche_Dialekte.jpg|240px|thumb|right|The Upper german dialects]]<br />
==Name==<br />
<br />
The linguistic term '''Imstian''' (German '''Imstlerisch''') derives from the small city of Imst, which is the biggest settlement in the Imstian Sprachraum. The speakers themselves do not call their dialects so, in fact the term '''Schwäbisch''' is used in the north west, '''Alemannisch''' in the west and '''Bairisch''' in the east, so always according to the surrounding dialects (as many south Franconian speakers call themselves "Swabians" although they actually don't speak an Allemannic language). <br />
<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
<br />
As a High German dialect group, Imstian was affected by the [[High German Consonant Shift]]:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
| '''High German''' || haben || halb || Schlafen || Schwein || es || essen || machen || Apfel || Herz<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||'' choo ''||'' choub ''|| ''schloifo'' ||'' Schwii ''||'' is ''|| ''esso ''|| ''mocho ''|| ''Opfo'' ||'' Cherz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || Have || half || sleep || Swine || it || eat || make || apple || heart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
In distinction to Standart High German, it shares lots of features though with the surrounding dialects, especially that, as for nouns, the genitive and accusative cases are no longer productive as well as the disappearance of the synthetic preterite, which was replaced by the periphrasticly-built perfect:<br />
<br />
{| class="prettytable" <br />
!<br />
!Disappearance of the preterite form<br />
!Building of the pluperfect form<br />
!Genitive construction<br />
!Accusative construction<br />
!Conjunctive construction in indirect speech<br />
|-<br />
| '''High German''' || Ich gab es der Frau. || Ich hatte es gekauft. || Das Haus des Freundes ist schön. || Ich sehe den Löwen an. || Sie sagen, du seiest blöd.<br />
|-<br />
| '''Upper Imstian''' ||''I choi's iro froowo gebo.'' || ''I choi's krrooft krroit.'' || ''Imo fruuti siis chuus isch schoo.'' || '' I luo dir lef.'' || ''Di sogit, do toitisch tuufor soo.''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || I gave it to the woman. || I had bought it. || The friend's house is nice. || I am watching the lion. || They say you were dumb.<br />
|}</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Imstian_Dialects&diff=45824Imstian Dialects2009-06-04T17:07:32Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria and Italy by approximately 250.000 people. They do not have any official status in any state nor are they written officially.<br />
<br />
==Name==<br />
<br />
The linguistic term '''Imstian''' (German '''Imstlerisch''') derives from the small city of Imst, which is the biggest settlement in the Imstian Sprachraum. The speakers themselves do not call their dialects so, in fact the terms '''Schwäbisch''' is used in the north west, '''Alemannisch''' in the west and '''Bairisch''' in the east, so always according to the surrounding dialects (as many south Franconian speakers call themselves "Swabians" although they actually don't speak an Allemannic language). <br />
<br />
[[Image:Deutsche_Dialekte.jpg|240px|thumb|right|The Upper german dialects]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Imstian_Dialects&diff=45823Imstian Dialects2009-06-04T16:36:02Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria and Italy by approximately 250.000 people.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Deutsche_Dialekte.jpg|240px|thumb|right|The Upper german dialects]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=File:Deutsche_Dialekte.jpg&diff=45822File:Deutsche Dialekte.jpg2009-06-04T16:32:11Z<p>Caedes: The Upper German Dialects including Imstian.</p>
<hr />
<div>The Upper German Dialects including Imstian.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Imstian_Dialects&diff=45821Imstian Dialects2009-06-04T16:30:42Z<p>Caedes: New page: The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria...</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Imstian Dialects''' build, together with Bavarian, Alemannic, South and East Franconian, the Upper German dialect group. The two Imstian main dialects are spoken in Germany, Austria and Italy by approximately 250.000 people.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Caedes&diff=45820User:Caedes2009-06-04T16:18:02Z<p>Caedes: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Languages==<br />
*[[Nician]] <br />
*[[Imstian Dialects]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User_talk:Allan16&diff=45802User talk:Allan162009-06-03T16:44:30Z<p>Caedes: </p>
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<div>Feel free to comment on my conlangs through e-mail or by leaving me comments here<br />
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Hey, I just wanted to thank you for your comment on Nician (a bit late though, i wasn't using this site for a long time =) ). Nician stands between French and Italian, but also it has some specialties, especially in terms of pronunciation. Unfortunately i have lost the grammar and the Grand Master Plan due to a PC Change ... maybe i can rewrite it, we will see. --[[User:Caedes|Caedes]] 16:44, 3 June 2009 (UTC)</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User_talk:Allan16&diff=45801User talk:Allan162009-06-03T16:44:12Z<p>Caedes: </p>
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<div>Feel free to comment on my conlangs through e-mail or by leaving me comments here<br />
<br />
Hey, I just wanted to thank you for your comment on Nician (a bit late though, i wasn't using this site for a long time =) ). Nician stands between French and Italian, but also it has some specialties, especially in terms of pronunciation. Unfortunately i have lost the grammar and the Grand Master Plan due to a PC Change ... maybe i can rewrite it, we will see.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Niciane_Gramm%C3%A0ziche&diff=30346Niciane Grammàziche2008-03-31T19:16:49Z<p>Caedes: </p>
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<div>{{Infobox<br />
|name=Nician<br />
|pronounce=nitʃ'ã<br />
|tu=Alternate Earth, modern era|species=Humans<br />
|in=La Nice/Il Regn Da Nice - Nice/The kingdom of Nice <br />
|no=~930.000|script=Roman<br />
|tree=<br />
[[Indo European]] <br><br />
&nbsp;Italic<br><br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;Romance<br><br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Nician]]<br><br />
|morph=Inflecting<br />
|ms=Fusional<br />
|wo=SVO<br />
|creator=caedes<br />
|date=2008}}<br />
<br />
==Nominal Morphology==<br />
===Gender===<br />
There are two different gender, masculine and feminine: <br><br />
'''Masculine Nouns'''<br><br />
Masculine nouns usually end in a '''consonant''' or in a '''voiced vowel''':<br />
*'''l'argen''' ''the money''<br />
*'''l'òmin''' ''the man''<br />
*'''l'ingleis''' ''The Englishman''<br />
*'''il doitò''' ''The doctor''<br />
Of course, there are some irregularities:<br />
*'''il fìli''' ''the son'' <br />
*'''il poete''' ''the poet''<br />
<br />
'''Feminine Nouns'''<br><br />
Feminine nouns usually end in a '''-e''':<br />
*'''la signòe''' ''the woman''</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Niciane_Gramm%C3%A0ziche&diff=30343Niciane Grammàziche2008-03-31T18:49:29Z<p>Caedes: New page: {{Infobox |name=Nician |pronounce=nitʃ'ã |tu=Alternate Earth, modern era|species=Humans |in=La Nice/Il Regn Da Nice - Nice/The kingdom of Nice |no=~930.000|script=Roman |tree= [[Indo Eu...</p>
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<div>{{Infobox<br />
|name=Nician<br />
|pronounce=nitʃ'ã<br />
|tu=Alternate Earth, modern era|species=Humans<br />
|in=La Nice/Il Regn Da Nice - Nice/The kingdom of Nice <br />
|no=~930.000|script=Roman<br />
|tree=<br />
[[Indo European]] <br><br />
&nbsp;Italic<br><br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;Romance<br><br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Nician]]<br><br />
|morph=Inflecting<br />
|ms=Fusional<br />
|wo=SVO<br />
|creator=caedes<br />
|date=2008}}</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Nician&diff=30342Nician2008-03-31T18:20:14Z<p>Caedes: </p>
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<div>[[Niciane Grammàziche]] <br><br />
[[Nicians Testes]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Italic conlangs]][[Category:Romance conlangs]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Nician&diff=30341Nician2008-03-31T18:17:54Z<p>Caedes: </p>
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<div>[[Niciane Grammàziche]] <br><br />
[[Nicians Testes]]<br />
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[[Category:Italic Conlangs]][[Category:Aposteriori conlangs]][[Category:Romance Conlangs]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Our_Father&diff=30297Our Father2008-03-29T01:59:18Z<p>Caedes: </p>
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<div>'''Our Father''', also known as the '''Lord's Prayer''', is a widely-known prayer of Christianity. It is used by linguists and conlangers for comparing the differences between languages.<br />
<br />
==Natlangs==<br />
===English (1662 BCP)===<br />
:Our Father, which art in Heaven, <br />
:Hallowed be thy Name. <br />
:Thy Kingdom come. <br />
:Thy will be done, <br />
:in earth as it is in Heaven. <br />
:Give us this day our daily bread. <br />
:And forgive us our trespasses, <br />
:As we forgive them that trespass against us. <br />
:And lead us not into temptation; <br />
:But deliver us from evil. <br />
:[For thine is the kingdom, The power, and the glory, <br />
:For ever and ever.] Amen. <br />
<br />
===Latin===<br />
:Pater noster, qui es in caelis: <br />
:sanctificetur Nomen Tuum; <br />
:adveniat Regnum Tuum; <br />
:fiat voluntas Tua, <br />
:sicut in caelo, et in terra. <br />
:Panem nostrum cotidianum da nobis hodie; <br />
:et dimitte nobis debita nostra, <br />
:Sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris; <br />
:et ne nos inducas in tentationem; <br />
:sed libera nos a Malo.<br />
<br />
==Conlangs==<br />
Feel free to add Lord's prayer in your conlangs' version here.<br />
<br />
===Esperanto===<br />
:Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉielo,<br />
:sanktigata estu Via nomo.<br />
:Venu Via regno.<br />
:Fariĝu Via volo,<br />
:kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.<br />
:Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.<br />
:Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,<br />
:kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantojn.<br />
:Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,<br />
:sed liberigu nin de la malbono.<br />
:(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco<br />
:kaj la gloro eterne.)<br />
:Amen.<br />
<br />
===Lojban===<br />
:doi cevrirni.iu noi zvati le do cevzda do'u fu'e .aicai .e'ecai lo do cmene ru'i censa<br />
:.i le do nobli turni be la ter. ku se cfari<br />
:.i loi do se djica ba snada mulno vi'e le cevzda .e .a'o la ter.<br />
:.i fu'e .e'o ko dunda ca le cabdei le ri nanba mi'a<br />
:.i ko fraxu mi loi ri zu'o palci<br />
:.ijo mi fraxu roda poi pacyzu'e xrani mi<br />
:.i ko lidne mi fa'anai loi pacyxlu<br />
:.i ko sepri'a mi loi palci<br />
:.i .uicai ni'i loi se turni .e loi vlipa .e loi mi'orselsi'a cu me le do romei<br />
:fa'o<br />
<br />
===Classical Arithide===<br />
{{seealso|Classical Arithide}} by [[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene]]<br />
{{seealso|Arithide Sample Text Corpus}}<br />
<br />
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" width="66%"<br />
|-<br />
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Classical Arithide<br />
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Late Classical Arithide<br />
|-<br />
| width=33% valign=top | Fābā rignā, zōon saluminnum, <br/>histamosit illos ays. <br/>Egēra lisgas ays. <br/>Reskerosit deiros ays, <br/>halagum saluminnumena. <br/>Rignor emereto haror omer krerērō, <br/>a kansārērō irige syndrē, <br/>rīgisae syndirēnēs kansārena. <br/>On rege avgērērō thiftiae, <br/>nege rege magārērō vokirōn. Amen.<br />
| width=33% valign=top | Fābā rikin, saluminnum hero, <br/>histamesit illos ayn. <br/>Egura lisgas ayn. <br/>Reskeresit deiros ayn, <br/>halaginnum saluminnumena. <br/>Rikin emnatir haro omnat kreruras, <br/>nam kansaruras rīkae syndrē, <br/>rikisyndoris syndirēnēs kansariena. <br/>On riko avlataguras orgrei, <br/>nege riko magāruras vokyrōn. Amen.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ellesklavan===<br />
{{seealso|Ellesklavan}}<br />
<br />
:vidrömü, ci eu en éfni,<br />
:aolé eu tli nömü.<br />
:tli řoyamü viyen.<br />
:tli sřay eu fazi,<br />
:en teřya é ža eu en éfni.<br />
:dono no sé širu pasirana kotined.<br />
:éti frocefi no trégepaseniran,<br />
:kön no frocefi elehli ci trégepaseni kontri no.<br />
:éti neu kleřtni pa no ostü betnosü;<br />
:mé délifeř no dé džharag.<br />
:(porceu lešé eu lé řoyamü, lé pufovřir, éti lé kloriyen,<br />
:por tu éti tu) amné.<br />
<br />
===Tauro-Piscean===<br />
{{seealso|Tauro-Piscean language}}<br />
<br />
:Tet Fedä ëleêses, wa zï in Heofonem,<br />
:¡Letan tet Namen janes clenê bean!<br />
:Tet Kïnedom janes kum.<br />
:¡Letan tet Willê janes dodê bean,<br />
:Et Eëtenem tonnê in Heofonem!<br />
:¡Jefan ëleêsen tode tet jedewamliken Bräden!<br />
:¡And fëjefan ëleêsen te Jïêlten,<br />
:Tonnê ëleês fëjef kvinem, dass makê Jïêlten!<br />
:¡And ledan ëleêsen nat in Kostnungen,<br />
:Ak beëjan ëleêsan fram Ïfeêlem!<br />
:[Tï janes zï tet Kïnedom, tet Mït and tet Wöldë,<br />
:To efä nes efä.] Sotlikê.<br />
<br />
===Vityng by [[User:Schlaier|Schlaier]]===<br />
{{seealso|Vityng}}<br />
{{seealso|Vityng our Father}}<br />
<br />
:fæðirr óssa, hvem ar i himinn<br />
:nama þinn ver hǽlge<br />
:kónungrikk þinn ver gaður<br />
:øskja þinn ver skaftur<br />
:an eorð og sva i himinn.<br />
:ǿssi gefar dægglykur brǿð óssa, þessa dagg.<br />
:og synni óssa grætar óss<br />
:sva varr grætum þætt ƕað skap synni an ǿssi<br />
:i nǿðen lǽðarna óss<br />
:og fram yfil takar óss.<br />
:sænnlykur.<br />
<br />
===Nytal===<br />
{{seealso|Nytal}}<br />
{{seealso|Nytal biblical texts}}<br />
<br />
:Babu ni la, ki ad’jo ju ojl <br><br />
:Ni la a’šijnt noym Ok <br><br />
:Nori sliknost Ok <br><br />
:Ni la a’nut ehoj Ok <br><br />
:Iknijt ju ojl, Iknijt sjep bajus vsi <br><br />
:Ole tyahri er ni la ejs ni la <br><br />
:A vlup er ni la le finans ni la <br><br />
:Iknijt gek ni la a’vlup er le mefinanser ni la <br><br />
:A ta nenijt ni la ka medoljem <br><br />
:U vrij ni la de olim <br><br />
::Amen<br />
<br />
===Nician===<br />
{{seealso|Nician}}<br />
<br />
:'''Il nost pat'''<br />
<br />
:Il nost pat, chi ses nis ceis,<br />
:Saintifcat sie’l tu nom.<br />
:Venì’l tu regn.<br />
:Se face la tue volontat,<br />
:Nis ceis com sope la terre.<br />
:Oz dànos il nost pan cottizan.<br />
:E dimìttenos is nosts dèvits,<br />
:Com ezze nos dimittius ais nosts devitoes.<br />
:E n’indùcenos in teumtazion,<br />
:Veò lìveanos da male.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Nicians_Testes&diff=30289Nicians Testes2008-03-28T17:11:54Z<p>Caedes: </p>
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<div>===Il nost pat===<br />
Il nost pat, chi ses nis ceis,<br><br />
Saintifcat sie’l tu nom.<br><br />
Venì’l tu regn.<br><br />
Se face la tue volontat,<br><br />
Nis ceis com sope la terre.<br><br />
Oz dànos il nost pan cottizan.<br><br />
E dimìttenos is nosts dèvits,<br><br />
Com ezze nos dimittius ais nosts devitoes. <br><br />
E n’indùcenos in teumtazion,<br><br />
Veò lìveanos da male.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Nicians_Testes&diff=30288Nicians Testes2008-03-28T17:10:37Z<p>Caedes: </p>
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<div>===Il nost pan===<br />
Il nost pat, chi ses nis ceis,<br><br />
Saintifcat sie’l tu nom.<br><br />
Venì’l tu regn.<br><br />
Se face la tue volontat,<br><br />
Nis ceis com sope la terre.<br><br />
Oz dànos il nost pan cottizan.<br><br />
E dimìttenos is nosts dèvits,<br><br />
Com ezze nos dimittius ais nosts devitoes. <br><br />
E n’indùcenos in teumtazion,<br><br />
Veò lìveanos da male.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Nicians_Testes&diff=30270Nicians Testes2008-03-27T21:30:02Z<p>Caedes: New page: ===Il nost pan=== Il pat nost, chi ses nis ceis,<br> Saintifcat sie’l tu nom.<br> Venì’l tu regn.<br> Se face la tue volontat,<br> Nis ceis com sope la terre.<br> Oz dànos il nost pa...</p>
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<div>===Il nost pan===<br />
Il pat nost, chi ses nis ceis,<br><br />
Saintifcat sie’l tu nom.<br><br />
Venì’l tu regn.<br><br />
Se face la tue volontat,<br><br />
Nis ceis com sope la terre.<br><br />
Oz dànos il nost pan cottizan.<br><br />
E dimìttenos is nosts dèvits,<br><br />
Com ezze nos dimittius ais nosts devitoes. <br><br />
E n’indùcenos in teumtazion,<br><br />
Veò lìveanos da male.</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Nician&diff=30269Nician2008-03-27T21:27:17Z<p>Caedes: New page: Niciane Grammàziche <br> Nicians Testes</p>
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<div>[[Niciane Grammàziche]] <br><br />
[[Nicians Testes]]</div>Caedeshttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Caedes&diff=30268User:Caedes2008-03-27T21:19:19Z<p>Caedes: New page: ==Languages== Nician</p>
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<div>==Languages==<br />
[[Nician]]</div>Caedes