http://www.frathwiki.com/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Bukkia&feedformat=atomFrathWiki - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T20:55:33ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.24.4http://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIX&diff=160598User:Bukkia/sandboxIX2024-02-05T14:53:18Z<p>Bukkia: /* Numbers */</p>
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<div>==Vocabulary==<br />
===Numbers===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" | <center>'''Numbers from 1 to 1000'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʂaːʔo''' || '''*ʔaki''' || '''*mikoː''' || '''*ŋoːɬe''' || '''*ṕaːŋe'''|| '''*tʰuːɬa'''|| '''*χaʂæ'''|| '''*ḱuʔe'''|| '''*ʈoːju'''|| '''*pʰeːʔo''' || '''*ɳaːt́u''' || '''*ɬiʔaː'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | šā́ʔo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔaki || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mikṓ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gṓwe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | pā́ge ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thū́wa ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hašɑ ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kuʔe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tsṓju ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phḗʔo ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ñā́tu ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wiʔā́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | miɣò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kù || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | sô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çê || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | náðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ěn<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šæf || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æx‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mixow || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowbɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pæžɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | uba || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | haša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kuj || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | coju || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | few || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ñæθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | vjæ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ɕōw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ogi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | migō || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōh || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | čōn || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θūha || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hoɕe || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | cōju || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fēw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ňōšu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | liā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ug || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | miɣwo || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nwoh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fwa || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hoše || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fu || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čwi || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňwož || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʂāhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛgiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gōli || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | šāgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xɛšɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʈōǰu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | pēhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | wiwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šaw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | egəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | məjgo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gɔĺ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | haǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tɔj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heže || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔǧo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pejo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňacco || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | iva<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xahə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hähü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mügo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sehi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | türä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xäsä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɕoçə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pehə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | naćə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | wüha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ṡāhu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɛɣiw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gōli || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šāɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xɛžɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tsōǧu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pihu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | viwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʂāʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔakiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | miəkō || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | gōle || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ṕāge || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðūla || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | haʂə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ḱəwʔe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʈōjəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fēʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ɳāt́əw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəʔā<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gaɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | zgū || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dāk || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | atsʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | trikxʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | rməq || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dākr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴɸə || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸək || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | žaβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | kx‘ruç<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | țeʔu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iʔyq || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | emqi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anäŕ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | fänu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | yťŕä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iħśü || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ʔeći || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atjö || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | poʔi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uncu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëțnyt<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | aargo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bunaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | leeso || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zante || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | gærne || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddiino || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | woolu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | miizo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | hæærtu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | laare || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źoohdi || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bbekko<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȯħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̣s''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*caw''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋuɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pın''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*tɛjħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qȧt''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mạn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*sju̇n''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬajn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*kjıp''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | có || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | guf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pı́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tə̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | má̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šű̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bæ̱̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | çı̱́p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ěn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hōṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cɔ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nuv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | déṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qād || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | śūn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | lǽn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ǵıb || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ḕn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱θ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sɑ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | wuβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tį́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šȳn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ðɛ́n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cı̄̀p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''-''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːku''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ysaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːṅi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-imeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːto''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːre''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːdʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-uːkʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-exoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ykoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːriː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ekö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ysä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -oṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ätɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -orɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äði || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -uxa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ɛřo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yko || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -erü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βjuha''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ègu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ösà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òji || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àdo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òre || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àthi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ùha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṅò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ögò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -èrì || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''é̱n''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yku || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əze || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -üṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imy || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eto || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ürö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṙi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əwça || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -öqü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əkü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yrəj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''-üha''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṫjes-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*moʈ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰijn-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjajr-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂewṗ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kakʰ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*njuʂ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*towʡ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pəjt-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lujm-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂowk̇-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*k̇ajʂ-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | česi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moɕi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βyni || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šäri || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂöpi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gahi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuʂi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | duħi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bydi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lümi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂuki || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | käʂi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moše || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bīne || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šāre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħœfe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kage || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | tūhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | pēte || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lūme || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħūxe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | xāħe<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šer || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mɔž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bĩ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čor || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔeβ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | koɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | juʔ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ty || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ped || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lõ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔoh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | he|| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | moš || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | b‘in || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šæ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ɔv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kag || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ňow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | tuɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | p‘et || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lun || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | x‘æ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*pɛːm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*laz-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ħuːd-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɖajr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂuʡ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*towŋ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kiːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐeːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*bɔp-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂujl-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*qijm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴɔrqijm-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ̄́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hū́d || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɟā̀r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šuʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | tū̀ŋ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kī́r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žḗr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šū̀l || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ī̀m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔrī̀m<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | xúð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ǧàr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | túg || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kír || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žér || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šùl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ìm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hɔrìm <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | böm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lar || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɖajh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | town || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kjih || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žeh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βɔb || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂujl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | çijm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňɔhçijm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | bö̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | lar || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ču || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɟä || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕu || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | tü̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ci || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | že || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hɔp || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕüw || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čĩ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nɔčĩ<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*100''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1000'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 100 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Kinship===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Kinship terms'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*papu''' || '''*mamu''' || '''*tatu''' || '''*lelu''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | papu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tatu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paβu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | le<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paɸul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taθul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lɛlul‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | pobu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | momu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | todu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''obušur'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | momur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | todur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rerur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | bɛbju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liʎu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bevvo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | memmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | deddo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liho<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bäb́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mäḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | däd́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | riŕə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | vɛvju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liʝu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | papəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | maməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | tatəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | leləw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βūβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɖīrɖ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īmʈʂʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gūβ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | tape || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anna || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atta || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rare<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | llærme || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | nasnaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | śærge || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddeernæ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ta''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ma''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qe''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*te'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | he || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | da || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | de<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kabʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rabʰa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kaβa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | raβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gapha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rapha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kava || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rava<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*rome''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lele''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pute''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈere'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | rome || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lele || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bude || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | romex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lelex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | putex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šerex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lɛlɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pudɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɛrɛh <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | om || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lel || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pyt || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | še<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*roshan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanhan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rosʐiw''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanʐiw''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rožū̀ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanžū̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | roží || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanží <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosɽiw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanɽiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | osã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oɕy || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑãʑy<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Body parts===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" | <center>'''Body parts'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔeːma''' || '''*lilaː''' || '''*rako''' || '''*tʰiːka''' || '''*χæɬuː''' || '''*keːmu''' || '''*phuːʈe''' || '''*ŋoṕeː''' || '''*χæro''' || '''*reːṕæ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔḗma || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lilā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thī́ka || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''wiʔḗma'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kḗmu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phū́tse || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gopḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hɑro || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rḗpɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''pát'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lě || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | híɣe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ǐme'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kému || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çús || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goβé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | árə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | réβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''parcɛl‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lilæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raxul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jixal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''vjemal‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | čemul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fucɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goɸil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hærul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | reɸal‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ēma || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lilā || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rogu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θīga || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛhū || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kēmu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fūc || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nočē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛru || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rēče<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jemar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rirar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | roɣur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjiɣar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''hušir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čemur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fočər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nošer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hwerur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řeše<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwtīgɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gušē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rēšɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjdəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ləja || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | təjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hošəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gejmmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjtəjge'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gužəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hero || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rejže<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''güdü'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | geḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gőhä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guse || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | resä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gimju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwtīɣɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guži || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rižɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔēma || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəlā || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðīka || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kēməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fūʈe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | goṕē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | həro || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rēṕə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣiβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | truʂ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | nās || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ðām || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 9 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëħtu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | cirë || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | orek || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | oťik || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | xorup || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | qataj<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | peedæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tankaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tuurmo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zine || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | eestæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | baaršo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | irźee || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kuna || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | oosta || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | taha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rɔ̇w''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬwaħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*su̇j''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjaɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɴɛjc''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȯk''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjowħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*njȧɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjọm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔɛws'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bȁ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sʊ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | já̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nə̀c || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | jʊ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | áf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̱̋s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | βaṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sý || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎah || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | héc || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bōg || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎœ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | œ̀s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rǭ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǫ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | θư̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žɑ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | į̱̋s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žʊ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hɔ̀θ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰoːgʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰiːka''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰuːmo''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaraːṅ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰyʡəkʰ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaːtʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*10'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðoɣɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðüka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðumɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðaräṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðyhɑx || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðäθɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thòkhe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thìga || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thùmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | tharàj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thöʔäh || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thàθe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙüʝö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəjka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəwmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙareṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''ṙytö'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙeḣö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kajpe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰjuse''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kojme<br>*wojkape''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈawṗe<br>*njewkʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kjaṫe<br>*njewmowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈjukʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kiwʡe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ɽowtʰe'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | üse || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | müβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | wögäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwhyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwmüβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cuhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʎy<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kāpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gīrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɟurex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mūbex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kōmex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šōfex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | čaθex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | çugex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kyhex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ṙūdex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | girɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | žurɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čoβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čyh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | çuɣɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ḣodɛh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kæp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | g‘e || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | żow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mub || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kowm || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šowv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čað || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hyg || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kəɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*nɛːjzke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*waːmke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʈeːjhke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*maːnke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rajpke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*gohke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ŋijʡke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*duːħke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dohke'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nɛ̄́zke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wā́mke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́ke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | cḗke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mā́nke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rā̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ŋī̀ʔke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū́hke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nêzke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vámke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | búge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čîke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mánke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rɛ̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | gìke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nöjrge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wämge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čyʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mänge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hajbge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɣoʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nijge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʝuxge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðoʔge<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''badɛ'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ö̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čyge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | mä̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ävge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɣoge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nige || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʝuhge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oge<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Colours===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>'''Colours'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔuːkʰa''' || '''*pʰoːɬu''' || '''*χoːre''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''ā́lpo'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phṓwu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hṓre || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''kṓkri'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gḗʔɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''âpə'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ôrəɣi'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kôri'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jê<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''æwpul‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fowbul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | howrɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kowsr‘il‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | žel‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ūxa || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''godra'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hōr || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''ɕānko''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | oxar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''godrar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''huržir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''šãkor''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bōxri'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xōri || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔke || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bɔhŕ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɔŕ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''upe'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gehe<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hükä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gecä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''vōɣri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xōri || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔūxa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əʔtax'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | hōre || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''aʈpīʂo'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ūnesʔī''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uśerħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëʔtaħ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rosfä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ațpiśo || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | unesʔi<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | goddra || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źaanko <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*cọwħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rujm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȧjh''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cʊ̂ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rʊ̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǣ̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı̌ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hǣ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sǿ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rứm || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-isaːm''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ugʰoːd''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːloq''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isäm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βoɣri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isàm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''qû'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -elox || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mojsi<br>*kʰowlujsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṗajri<br>kʰowṗaji''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mösi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hüpä || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gūlūrix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | fārix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | golorih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | forih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | guly || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | fɛ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlbɔɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlneh''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlʂawʡ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*koːkrih''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*haːkrih''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lbɔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lšṑʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kṓkri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́kri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálβɔh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálšá || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kókri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ákri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälβɔň || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälneʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälʂaw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | güghiʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʔäghiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwhɔn || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwne || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwɕå || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gügi || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ägi<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Animals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" | <center>'''Animals'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*sopa''' || '''*jaŋe''' || '''*kæŋo''' || '''*t́uːkeː''' || '''*ŋuːʔeti''' || '''*raːɬaː''' || '''*χaːṕi''' || '''*luːʂu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jage || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kɑgo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tū́kḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gū́ʔeti || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rā́wā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hā́pi || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''pikasī́ti''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soβe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''tûče'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kaɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | túɣé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gôði || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | rǎ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | âβi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''îçrí''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soɸal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jažɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kægol‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | tučil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowθ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ræbæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hæɸ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''çæθ‘il‘''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | soba || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | jon || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kɛnu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šūgē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōdi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''kāɕa'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''sampō'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lūɕu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | sobar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jõnər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | kwẽnur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | foɣer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nudir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''kašar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''swõčir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rošur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | subɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | çɛgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | cūgē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bɛrsi'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rālā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xāšiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | lūšu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | huve || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔgej || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bejś'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lɔžo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | subä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cähi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ǵähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sühe || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bärsi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rara || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüsə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | suvɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | çɛɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣɛhär'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣānähi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣivāv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣukiv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lūžu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əlnaʂ'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kəgo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | t́ūkē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ḱihto'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''rərhi'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''pīðərū'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | lūʂəw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | xūɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βā || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣūr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βrānt || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | sans || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | osfe || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ylnaś || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | këmu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ërħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ćihto || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ryŕhi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | piťëŕu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | arśe<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | wooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | beeha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | uuhha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | rrooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | iihha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kaaśa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | sampoo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | piiha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qon''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̇h''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hu̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔọr''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xju̇jħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȧjɬ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjakrjı''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔıjkrjı'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hó || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ū̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕʊ̄̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pǣ̀b || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | á̱çrı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı̂çrı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ūṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | h́ȳ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bǣl || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | agŕı || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı́gŕı<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''myhʐa'' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ho̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕȳ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pɛ̄ð || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɑ̄̀gŕı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı́gŕı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡuː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰebeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰexə''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡaːr''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰənaːʡi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰybʰax''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰuːkif''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰiːgʰər'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛbe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛřɑ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhär || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɑnähi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣyβař || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣukif || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣüɣɑr<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔù || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khebhè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheṅä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔàr || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khänàʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khöphaṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khùgiβ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khìkhär<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔəw || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöby || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöqä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔer || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝäneʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəvaq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəwkib || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəjʝär<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*laje<br>*lajṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰewre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡune<br>*ʡunṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰowkʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡijk̇e<br>*pʰajrsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjoṗe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰawpe<br>*pojlṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kujṫe<br>*tjaʡṫij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | läty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βöwre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħune || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ühe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βärsi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šope || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bölty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güte<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lažex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bœrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hunθīx || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dūxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hīxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šofex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dōpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cahθīx<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lozɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | berɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ũfih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''foɣeh'' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ihɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɔβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ceh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | laž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bo || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ynð‘i || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | jix || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šov || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dowp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | cæð‘i<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*boːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dowɴɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*moːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kɛːwnɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*luːkɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*sɛjqɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*quːsɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːɴɖa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɔ̄̀nɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lū́kɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛ̄̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ū́ža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́ɟa <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɛ̌nğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lúkğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sèğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | úža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | páhğa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðowňɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | göwnɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʎugɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛjʝa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuɽa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäňɖa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hüɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ünɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | müɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gü̃ɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''šy'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | seʝa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čuʑa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''igʑi''<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || '''*6''' || '''*7''' || '''*8'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Template List===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Template list'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*1''' || '''*2''' || '''*3''' || '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 1 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 2 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 3 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 1|| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 2 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 3 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 4 <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=159951User:Bukkia/sandboxII2024-01-06T15:23:09Z<p>Bukkia: /* Special letters */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Læntixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
----<br />
* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
----<br />
* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
----<br />
* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ɕ ñ <br>a ā a̱ á ā́ á̱ à ā̀ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ ā̃ ã̱ <br>ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̄́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ <br>æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǣ́ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ ǣ̃ æ̱̃<br>e ē e̱ é ḗ é̱ è ḕ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ <br>ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̄́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ <br>ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̄́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ <br>ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̄́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ <br>ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̄́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ <br>o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ṓ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ <br>ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̄́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ <br>ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ø̄́ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ <br>u ū u̱ ú ū́ ú̱ ù ū̀ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ <br>ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̄́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
----<br />
* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʂ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=159950User:Bukkia/sandboxII2024-01-06T15:17:47Z<p>Bukkia: /* Special letters */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Læntixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
----<br />
* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
----<br />
* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
----<br />
* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ɕ ñ <br>a ā a̱ á ā́ á̱ à ā̀ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ ā̃ ã̱ <br>ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̄́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ <br>æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǣ́ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ ǣ̃ æ̱̃<br><br />
ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
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* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
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* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʂ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
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* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=159949User:Bukkia/sandboxII2024-01-06T15:15:42Z<p>Bukkia: /* Special letters */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Læntixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
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* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
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* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
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* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
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* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ɕ ñ <br>a ā a̱ á ā́ á̱ à ā̀ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ ā̃ ã̱ æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ ǣ̃ æ̱̃ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
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* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
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* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʂ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIX&diff=158886User:Bukkia/sandboxIX2023-11-30T19:19:51Z<p>Bukkia: /* Vocabulary */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Vocabulary==<br />
===Numbers===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" | <center>'''Numbers from 1 to 1000'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʂaːʔo''' || '''*ʔaki''' || '''*mikoː''' || '''*ŋoːɬe''' || '''*ṕaːŋe'''|| '''*tʰuːɬa'''|| '''*χaʂæ'''|| '''*ḱuʔe'''|| '''*ʈoːju'''|| '''*pʰeːʔo''' || '''*ɳaːt́u''' || '''*ɬiʔaː'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | šā́ʔo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔaki || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mikṓ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gṓwe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | pā́ge ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thū́wa ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hašɑ ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kuʔe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tsṓju ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phḗʔo ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ñā́tu ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wiʔā́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | miɣò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kù || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | sô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çê || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | náðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ěn<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šæf || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æx‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mixow || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowbɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pæžɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | uba || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | haša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kuj || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | coju || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | few || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ñæθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | vjæ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ɕōw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ogi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | migō || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōh || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | čōn || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θūha || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hoɕe || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | cōju || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fēw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ňōšu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | liā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ug || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | miɣwo || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nwoh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fwa || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hoše || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fu || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čwi || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňwož || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʂāhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛgiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gōli || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | šāgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xɛšɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʈōǰu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | pēhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | wiwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šaw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | egəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | məjgo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gɔĺ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | haǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tɔj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heže || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔǧo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pejo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňacco || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | iva<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xahə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hähü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mügo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sehi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | türä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xäsä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɕoçə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pehə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | naćə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | wüha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ṡāhu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɛɣiw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gōli || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šāɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xɛžɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tsōǧu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pihu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | viwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʂāʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔakiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | miəkō || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | gōle || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ṕāge || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðūla || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | haʂə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ḱəwʔe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʈōjəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fēʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ɳāt́əw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəʔā<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gaɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | zgū || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dāk || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | atsʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | trikxʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | rməq || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dākr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴɸə || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸək || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | žaβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | kx‘ruç<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | țeʔu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iʔyq || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | emqi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anäŕ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | fänu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | yťŕä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iħśü || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ʔeći || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atjö || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | poʔi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uncu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëțnyt<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | aargo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bunaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | leeso || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zante || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | gærne || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddiino || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | woolu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | miizo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | hæærtu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | laare || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źoohdi || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bbekko<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȯħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̣s''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*caw''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋuɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pın''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*tɛjħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qȧt''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mạn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*sju̇n''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬajn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*kjıp''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | có || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | guf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pı́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tə̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | má̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šű̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bæ̱̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | çı̱́p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ěn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hōṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cɔ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nuv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | déṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qād || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | śūn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | lǽn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ǵıb || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ḕn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱θ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sɑ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | wuβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tį́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šȳn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ðɛ́n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cı̄̀p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''-''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːku''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ysaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːṅi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-imeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːto''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːre''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːdʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-uːkʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-exoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ykoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːriː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ekö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ysä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -oṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ätɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -orɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äði || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -uxa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ɛřo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yko || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -erü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βjuha''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ègu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ösà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òji || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àdo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òre || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àthi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ùha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṅò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ögò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -èrì || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''é̱n''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yku || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əze || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -üṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imy || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eto || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ürö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṙi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əwça || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -öqü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əkü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yrəj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''-üha''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṫjes-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*moʈ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰijn-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjajr-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂewṗ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kakʰ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*njuʂ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*towʡ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pəjt-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lujm-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂowk̇-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*k̇ajʂ-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | česi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moɕi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βyni || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šäri || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂöpi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gahi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuʂi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | duħi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bydi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lümi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂuki || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | käʂi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moše || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bīne || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šāre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħœfe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kage || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | tūhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | pēte || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lūme || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħūxe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | xāħe<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šer || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mɔž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bĩ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čor || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔeβ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kaɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | juʔ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ty || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ped || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lõ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔoh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | he|| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | moš || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | b‘in || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šæ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ɔv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kag || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ňow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | tuɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | p‘et || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lun || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | x‘æ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*pɛːm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*laz-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ħuːd-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɖajr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂuʡ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*towŋ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kiːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐeːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*bɔp-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂujl-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*qijm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴɔrqijm-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ̄́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hū́d || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɟā̀r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šuʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | tū̀ŋ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kī́r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žḗr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šū̀l || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ī̀m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔrī̀m<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | xúð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ǧàr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | túg || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kír || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žér || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šùl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ìm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hɔrìm <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | böm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lar || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɖajh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | town || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kjih || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žeh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βɔb || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂujl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | çijm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňɔhçijm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | bö̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | lar || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ču || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɟä || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕu || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | tü̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ci || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | že || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hɔp || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕüw || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čĩ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nɔčĩ<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*100''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1000'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 100 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Kinship===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Kinship terms'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*papu''' || '''*mamu''' || '''*tatu''' || '''*lelu''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | papu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tatu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paβu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | le<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paɸul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taθul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lɛlul‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | pobu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | momu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | todu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''obušur'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | momur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | todur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rerur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | bɛbju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liʎu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bevvo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | memmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | deddo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liho<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bäb́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mäḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | däd́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | riŕə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | vɛvju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liʝu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | papəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | maməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | tatəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | leləw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βūβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɖīrɖ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īmʈʂʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gūβ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | tape || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anna || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atta || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rare<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | llærme || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | nasnaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | śærge || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddeernæ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ta''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ma''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qe''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*te'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | he || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | da || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | de<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kabʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rabʰa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kaβa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | raβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gapha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rapha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kava || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rava<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*rome''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lele''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pute''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈere'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | rome || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lele || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bude || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | romex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lelex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | putex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šerex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lɛlɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pudɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɛrɛh <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | om || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lel || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pyt || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | še<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*roshan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanhan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rosʐiw''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanʐiw''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rožū̀ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanžū̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | roží || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanží <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosɽiw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanɽiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | osã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oɕy || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑãʑy<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Body parts===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" | <center>'''Body parts'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔeːma''' || '''*lilaː''' || '''*rako''' || '''*tʰiːka''' || '''*χæɬuː''' || '''*keːmu''' || '''*phuːʈe''' || '''*ŋoṕeː''' || '''*χæro''' || '''*reːṕæ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔḗma || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lilā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thī́ka || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''wiʔḗma'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kḗmu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phū́tse || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gopḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hɑro || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rḗpɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''pát'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lě || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | híɣe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ǐme'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kému || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çús || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goβé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | árə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | réβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''parcɛl‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lilæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raxul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jixal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''vjemal‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | čemul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fucɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goɸil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hærul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | reɸal‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ēma || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lilā || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rogu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θīga || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛhū || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kēmu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fūc || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nočē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛru || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rēče<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jemar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rirar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | roɣur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjiɣar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''hušir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čemur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fočər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nošer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hwerur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řeše<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwtīgɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gušē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rēšɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjdəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ləja || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | təjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hošəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gejmmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjtəjge'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gužəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hero || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rejže<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''güdü'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | geḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gőhä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guse || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | resä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gimju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwtīɣɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guži || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rižɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔēma || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəlā || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðīka || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kēməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fūʈe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | goṕē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | həro || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rēṕə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣiβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | truʂ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | nās || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ðām || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 9 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëħtu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | cirë || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | orek || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | oťik || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | xorup || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | qataj<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | peedæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tankaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tuurmo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zine || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | eestæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | baaršo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | irźee || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kuna || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | oosta || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | taha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rɔ̇w''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬwaħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*su̇j''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjaɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɴɛjc''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȯk''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjowħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*njȧɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjọm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔɛws'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bȁ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sʊ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | já̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nə̀c || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | jʊ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | áf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̱̋s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | βaṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sý || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎah || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | héc || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bōg || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎœ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | œ̀s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rǭ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǫ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | θư̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žɑ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | į̱̋s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žʊ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hɔ̀θ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰoːgʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰiːka''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰuːmo''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaraːṅ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰyʡəkʰ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaːtʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*10'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðoɣɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðüka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðumɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðaräṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðyhɑx || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðäθɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thòkhe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thìga || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thùmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | tharàj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thöʔäh || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thàθe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙüʝö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəjka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəwmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙareṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''ṙytö'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙeḣö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kajpe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰjuse''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kojme<br>*wojkape''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈawṗe<br>*njewkʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kjaṫe<br>*njewmowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈjukʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kiwʡe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ɽowtʰe'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | üse || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | müβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | wögäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwhyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwmüβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cuhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʎy<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kāpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gīrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɟurex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mūbex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kōmex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šōfex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | čaθex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | çugex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kyhex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ṙūdex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | girɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | žurɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čoβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čyh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | çuɣɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ḣodɛh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kæp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | g‘e || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | żow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mub || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kowm || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šowv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čað || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hyg || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kəɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*nɛːjzke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*waːmke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʈeːjhke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*maːnke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rajpke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*gohke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ŋijʡke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*duːħke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dohke'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nɛ̄́zke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wā́mke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́ke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | cḗke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mā́nke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rā̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ŋī̀ʔke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū́hke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nêzke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vámke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | búge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čîke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mánke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rɛ̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | gìke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nöjrge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wämge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čyʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mänge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hajbge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɣoʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nijge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʝuxge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðoʔge<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''badɛ'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ö̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čyge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | mä̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ävge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɣoge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nige || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʝuhge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oge<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Colours===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>'''Colours'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔuːkʰa''' || '''*pʰoːɬu''' || '''*χoːre''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''ā́lpo'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phṓwu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hṓre || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''kṓkri'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gḗʔɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''âpə'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ôrəɣi'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kôri'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jê<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''æwpul‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fowbul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | howrɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kowsr‘il‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | žel‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ūxa || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''godra'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hōr || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''ɕānko''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | oxar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''godrar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''huržir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''šãkor''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bōxri'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xōri || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔke || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bɔhŕ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɔŕ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''upe'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gehe<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hükä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gecä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''vōɣri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xōri || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔūxa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əʔtax'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | hōre || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''aʈpīʂo'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ūnesʔī''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uśerħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëʔtaħ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rosfä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ațpiśo || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | unesʔi<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | goddra || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źaanko <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*cọwħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rujm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȧjh''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cʊ̂ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rʊ̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǣ̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı̌ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hǣ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sǿ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rứm || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-isaːm''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ugʰoːd''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːloq''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isäm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βoɣri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isàm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''qû'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -elox || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mojsi<br>*kʰowlujsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṗajri<br>kʰowṗaji''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mösi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hüpä || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gūlūrix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | fārix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | golorih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | forih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | guly || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | fɛ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlbɔɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlneh''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlʂawʡ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*koːkrih''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*haːkrih''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lbɔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lšṑʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kṓkri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́kri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálβɔh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálšá || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kókri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ákri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälβɔň || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälneʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälʂaw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | güghiʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʔäghiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwhɔn || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwne || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwɕå || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gügi || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ägi<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Animals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" | <center>'''Animals'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*sopa''' || '''*jaŋe''' || '''*kæŋo''' || '''*t́uːkeː''' || '''*ŋuːʔeti''' || '''*raːɬaː''' || '''*χaːṕi''' || '''*luːʂu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jage || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kɑgo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tū́kḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gū́ʔeti || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rā́wā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hā́pi || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''pikasī́ti''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soβe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''tûče'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kaɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | túɣé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gôði || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | rǎ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | âβi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''îçrí''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soɸal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jažɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kægol‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | tučil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowθ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ræbæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hæɸ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''çæθ‘il‘''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | soba || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | jon || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kɛnu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šūgē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōdi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''kāɕa'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''sampō'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lūɕu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | sobar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jõnər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | kwẽnur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | foɣer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nudir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''kašar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''swõčir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rošur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | subɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | çɛgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | cūgē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bɛrsi'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rālā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xāšiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | lūšu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | huve || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔgej || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bejś'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lɔžo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | subä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cähi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ǵähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sühe || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bärsi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rara || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüsə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | suvɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | çɛɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣɛhär'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣānähi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣivāv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣukiv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lūžu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əlnaʂ'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kəgo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | t́ūkē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ḱihto'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''rərhi'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''pīðərū'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | lūʂəw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | xūɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βā || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣūr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βrānt || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | sans || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | osfe || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ylnaś || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | këmu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ërħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ćihto || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ryŕhi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | piťëŕu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | arśe<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | wooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | beeha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | uuhha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | rrooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | iihha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kaaśa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | sampoo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | piiha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qon''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̇h''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hu̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔọr''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xju̇jħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȧjɬ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjakrjı''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔıjkrjı'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hó || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ū̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕʊ̄̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pǣ̀b || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | á̱çrı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı̂çrı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ūṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | h́ȳ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bǣl || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | agŕı || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı́gŕı<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''myhʐa'' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ho̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕȳ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pɛ̄ð || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɑ̄̀gŕı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı́gŕı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡuː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰebeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰexə''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡaːr''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰənaːʡi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰybʰax''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰuːkif''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰiːgʰər'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛbe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛřɑ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhär || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɑnähi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣyβař || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣukif || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣüɣɑr<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔù || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khebhè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheṅä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔàr || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khänàʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khöphaṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khùgiβ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khìkhär<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔəw || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöby || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöqä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔer || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝäneʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəvaq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəwkib || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəjʝär<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*laje<br>*lajṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰewre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡune<br>*ʡunṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰowkʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡijk̇e<br>*pʰajrsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjoṗe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰawpe<br>*pojlṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kujṫe<br>*tjaʡṫij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | läty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βöwre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħune || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ühe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βärsi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šope || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bölty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güte<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lažex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bœrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hunθīx || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dūxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hīxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šofex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dōpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cahθīx<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lozɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | berɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ũfih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''foɣeh'' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ihɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɔβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ceh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | laž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bo || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ynð‘i || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | jix || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šov || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dowp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | cæð‘i<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*boːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dowɴɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*moːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kɛːwnɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*luːkɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*sɛjqɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*quːsɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːɴɖa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɔ̄̀nɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lū́kɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛ̄̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ū́ža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́ɟa <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɛ̌nğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lúkğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sèğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | úža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | páhğa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðowňɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | göwnɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʎugɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛjʝa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuɽa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäňɖa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hüɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ünɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | müɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gü̃ɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''šy'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | seʝa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čuʑa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''igʑi''<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || '''*6''' || '''*7''' || '''*8'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Template List===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Template list'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*1''' || '''*2''' || '''*3''' || '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 1 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 2 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 3 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 1|| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 2 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 3 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 4 <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII&diff=158885User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII2023-11-30T19:18:43Z<p>Bukkia: /* Lændixu */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Italian==<br />
''La pecora e i cavalli''<br />
#''Una pecora, che non aveva lana, vide due cavalli.''<br />
#''Il primo cavallo trainava un carro pesante,''<br />
#''il secondo cavallo trasportava un uomo.''<br />
#''La pecora disse ai cavalli:''<br />
#''“Soffro perché l’uomo sfrutta i cavalli”''<br />
#''Ma i cavalli le dissero:''<br />
#''“Ascolta, pecora,''<br />
#''noi soffriamo'' <br />
#''perché l’uomo si cuce dei vestiti con la vostra lana''<br />
#''e le pecore rimangono senza lana.”''<br />
#''Sentito ciò, la pecora fuggì nei campi.''<br />
<br />
==Piti languages==<br />
===Proto-Piti===<br />
'''jaŋe ŋuːʔetiʔina'''<br />
#'''pʰoːχaŋil ʔaʔæɳiːtoli jaŋeli ŋuːʔetiʔi ʔaloliːṕ(æt́).'''<br />
#'''ʂaːʔokoli ŋuːʔetili suŋeː ŋæɬot́u ʔaɬoːʔæm(æt́),'''<br />
#'''ʔakikoli ŋuːʔetili pʰuːka ʔaŋaŋok(æt́).'''<br />
#'''jaŋeli ŋuːʔeti(ʔi)χæ(ʔi) ʔaʈeŋæɬ(æt́):'''<br />
#'''“tʰuːʔakoɬ pʰuːkali ŋuːʔetiʂu ṕuːŋakoːrikakʰu”'''<br />
#'''poː ŋuːʔeti(ʔi)li(ʔi) æt́tuχæ/æt́loχæ ʔaʈeŋæɬ(ʔi)(æt́)(ʔi):'''<br />
#'''“kʰeɬoːruŋiɳer, jaŋe,'''<br />
#'''joʔi tʰuːʔak(ʔi)oɬ(ʔi)''' <br />
#'''ʂætukʰu/ʂælokʰu pʰuːkali ræʂoχukʰat́u ertuʂu/næʂu pʰoːχakhæ kʰat́oɬiɳ(æt́)'''<br />
#'''ɳuː jaŋe pʰoːχaŋil ʔæɳuŋiɳ(æt́).”'''<br />
#'''niŋtuʂu/niŋloʂu ʔakʰeɬoːrikakhu, jaŋeli ṕonuχæ ʔaɬæṕuːḱ(æt́).'''<br />
<br />
====Kī́rtako====<br />
jage gū́ʔetinona<br />
#phṓɣagil ʔaʔɑñī́toli jageli ʔaki gū́ʔetino ʔalolī́pɑt.<br />
#šā́ʔokoli gū́ʔetili sugḗkī́to gɑwotu ʔawṓʔɑmɑt,<br />
#ʔakikoli gū́ʔetili phū́ka ʔagagokɑt.<br />
#jageli gū́ʔetinoɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt:<br />
#“šī́jakow phū́kali gū́ʔetišu pū́gakṓriñɑmekhu”<br />
#pṓ gū́ʔetinoli ɑktuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwonɑt:<br />
#“khewṓrugiñer, jage,<br />
#jono thū́ʔakonow<br />
#šɑkhu phū́kali pā́ktā́no ertunošu phṓɣakhɑ khatowiñɑt <br />
#ñū́ jage phṓɣagil ʔɑñugiñ.”<br />
#niwošu ʔɑkhewṓriñɑmekhu jageli ponunoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt.<br />
<br />
=====Iðâɣ=====<br />
tûče no gôðinə<br />
#tûče ì î áðòr çóhe tòr êβíðə áɣi gôðinə.<br />
#gôði ô šâɣə ǒm góðə ô sǒɣíðə,<br />
#gôði ô áɣiɣə áɣaɣok çúɣe.<br />
#tûče tòr áséðə gôðinore:<br />
#“šêɣò šax çúɣe púɣaɣórin gôðinə“.<br />
#pó gôðinə tôr áséðə àture:<br />
#“hôruɣinəh, tûče,<br />
#òtun šêɣonò<br />
#šax çúɣe haðen pâtánə çóhexa ôx nanəre<br />
#nú tûčenə ánuɣinon çəs çóhere“.<br />
#šax áðìn áxôríðə nî, tûče tòr ěméhəɣíðə kô ponunore.<br />
<br />
=====Læntixu=====<br />
æl‘ jažɛl‘ ñu æn‘ gowθ‘inol‘<br />
#jažɛl‘ hji he joh hejhjiθu fowhal‘ ojh loʎiɸjiθu æx‘ gowθ‘inol‘.<br />
#æl‘ šæwxul‘ gowθ‘il‘ joh vowmjiθu gæboθul‘ sužeciθul‘,<br />
#æl‘ æxixul‘ gowθ‘il‘ joh gagociθu fuxal‘.<br />
#æl‘ jažɛl‘ ojh cɛgæbjiθu kowf æn’a gowθ’inoha:<br />
#“ju šijaxæh šæθuxu æl‘ fuxal‘ pugaxowræh æn‘ gowθ‘inol‘“.<br />
#pow æn‘ gowθ‘inol‘ æsa onæh cɛgæbjiθu:<br />
#“howbɛrugiñæh, jažɛ,<br />
#jun šijaxæh<br />
#šæθuxu æl‘ fuxal‘ haθobonæh pæstænol‘ je æha æpjinoraha fowhaha<br />
#ñu æn‘ jažɛnol‘ ɛñugonæh fɛs fowhaha“.<br />
#šæθuxu joh hɛbowrjiθu nibu, æl‘ jažɛl‘ ojh emjiciθu kowf æn’a ponunoha.<br />
<br />
====Ancient Figo====<br />
jon nōdīna<br />
#fōhaxe fes ēnīduli jonəli nōdī alolīčeš.<br />
#ɕōwguli nōdili sunē nɛhošu alōmeš,<br />
#ogiguli nōdili fūga ēšmegeš.<br />
#jonəli nōdihej acenɛheš:<br />
#“ɕījasow fūgali nōdiɕunu čūnagōrigaxu”.<br />
#pō nōdilī šɛhe acenɛheši:<br />
#“xōhərunočər, jon,<br />
#joj ɕījasohi<br />
#hīduxu fūgali rɛɕohuxanu ertuɕunu fōhaxe xošohočeš<br />
#ňū jonənu fōhaxe fes ɛňunočešon”.<br />
#ninluɕu axehōrigaxu, jonəli fēfihenu alečūšeš.<br />
<br />
=====Modern Figo=====<br />
jõnər nor nudirĩ<br />
#θanc ejid wĩs šweduɣur jõnər ug nudĩ řirušjid jẽh.<br />
#šwoɣur nudir suňe ňež arumjid wẽh,<br />
#uɣiɣur nudir foɣa noneǧid wẽh.<br />
#jõnər nudišũ kwov čwiçid jẽh:<br />
#“šiješid wẽv çidux foɣar nudĩ šonaɣurjid wũš”.<br />
#wo nudirĩ iš kwov čwiçidũ jẽžõ:<br />
#“xworuňid wũšr, jõ,<br />
#ortũ šiješidũ wẽnõ<br />
#çidux foɣar ičihnã ertũšuš θancəš xud xožujid wũš<br />
#ňo jõnərĩ θancəš fes weňuǧidũ wũžõ”.<br />
#çidux nĩr axuřid jũš, jõnər fjifišũ kwov rošižid jẽh.<br />
<br />
====Biwdiw====<br />
çɛgi nɛlu bɛrsihiw<br />
#pōxɛšu xēhīxiwgɛ hɛhīsīduliw çɛgiliw hɛlulīšɛc bɛrsihiw.<br />
#ʂāhuguliw bɛrsiliw hɛwōcɛmjɛc sjugēgīdu wābumu,<br />
#hɛgiwguliw bɛrsiliw hɛgɛgugjɛc pūgɛ.<br />
#çɛgiliw hɛʈigjɛʎɛc bɛrsihiwxjɛ:<br />
#“tūhɛg ūdjuxjɛ pūgɛliw bɛrsišu šūgɛgōriwňiwgɛku”.<br />
#bō bɛrsihiwliw hɛʈigjɛliwcɛc jɛšluxjɛ:<br />
#“kilōrjugiwňir, çɛgi,<br />
#tuhɛg ūdjuhiwxjɛ<br />
#šɛdjuku pūgɛliw çīrmunušu čīg irdjunušu pōxɛšu kɛculiwňɛc<br />
#ňū çɛgi pis pōxɛšu tōhixiwň”.<br />
#niwlušu hɛkilōriwňiwgɛku çɛgiliw hɛʎɛšūč šunjunuxjɛ.<br />
<br />
=====Gəjlnigo=====<br />
ež heǵ ňɔ ežno bejśino<br />
#heǵ ša hejhəjdo əjs pɔhe ejjužəjdo egəj bejśino.<br />
#ež šawgo bejś ɔcceməjdo ɔš avumo,<br />
#ežd egəjgo bejś gegugəjdo pɔge.<br />
#ež heǵ ecegəjdo gɔ ežnore bejśinore:<br />
#“hore tɔjg hedduk ež pɔge hɔgegɔh ežno bejśino“.<br />
#bɔ ežno bejśino hore ecegəjduno:<br />
#“kɔjrrugih hɔh, heǵ,<br />
#hunure tɔjg<br />
#hedduk ež pɔge keccɔ həjmono čəjg əjddunužore pɔhere<br />
#ňɔ ežno heǵino tɔjhun pis pɔhere“.<br />
#hedduk ježlo ekɔjrəjdo nɔ, ež heǵ evožečəjdo gɔ ežnore hunnonore.<br />
<br />
=====Cärähə=====<br />
äs çähi nü äsən bärsinə<br />
#çähi xīhə xīhex́äh wī poxä rurīśäh hähü bärsinə.<br />
#äs xahuhə bärsi wäɟöḿäh wäbumə śuhehīdə,<br />
#äs hähühə bärsi guhäh́äh pühä.<br />
#äs çähi sihäŕäh gösən bärsinə:<br />
#“çərä tühäg säd́uk äs pühä sühähoŕäh äsən bärsinə“.<br />
#bo äsən bärsinə järä sihäruńäh:<br />
#“koriŕuhünir, çähi,<br />
#çunərä tühäg<br />
#säd́uk äs pühä käɟuŕäh çīrmənə cīh äs poxä nänərä<br />
#nü äsən çähinə tohixun pis poxä“.<br />
#xīruk häcän kirorīdə nürə, äs çähi ŕäsüc gösən suńənə.<br />
<br />
=====Viwdiwgu=====<br />
çɛɣi nɛlu ɣānähihiw<br />
#çɛɣi xī hīzīdu xihīxiwgɛ pōxɛrɛ lulīžīdu ɣānähihiw.<br />
#ṡāhugu ɣānähi vōcɛmīdu vōrṡi vāvumu,<br />
#hɛɣiwgu ɣānähi gɛɣuɣīdu pūɣɛ.<br />
#çɛɣi tsiɣɛlīdu ɣānähihiwxjɛ:<br />
#“tūhɛg çuxjɛ šɛdjuk pūɣɛ šūɣɛɣōrünjɛc ɣānähü”.<br />
#vō ɣānähihiw tsiɣɛlīduhiw jɛšxjɛ:<br />
#“kōlirjuɣiwňir, çɛɣi,<br />
#tūhɛg çuhiwxjɛ<br />
#šɛdjuk pūɣɛ kɛcuʝɛc çīrmū čīg pōxɛrɛ njörɛ<br />
#nɛlu çɛɣü tōhixün pis pōxɛrɛ”.<br />
#šɛdjuk jɛšlu kilōrīdu niwlu, çɛɣi ʝɛžūčīdu šunjūxjɛ.<br />
<br />
====Jeʂtəra====<br />
əlnaʂ ḱihtonona<br />
#ʔalolīṕət́ əlnaʂəliə ʔaʔəɳītoliə fōhagiəl ʔakiə ḱihtono.<br />
#ʔalōʔəmət́ ḱihtoliə ʂāʔokol t́ūʂpa sugē,<br />
#ʔagagokət́ ḱihtoliə ʔakiəkol fūka.<br />
#ʔaʈegələt́ əlnaʂəliə ḱihtoxəno:<br />
#“ðūʔakol ṕūgakōrəmexəw fūkaliə ḱihto”.<br />
#pō ʔaʈegələt́on ḱihtoliəno ət́əxə:<br />
#“xelōrugiəɳer, əlnaʂ,<br />
#ðūʔakolon jono<br />
#ʂəloxəw xat́oliəɳət́ fūkaliə īlemʔəməgono ḱīg fōhara ertəwrano<br />
#ɳū ðōʔehōriəɳon əlnaʂəno fōhagiəl”.<br />
#ʔaxelōrəmexəw niəglo, ʔalūṕəḱ əlnaʂ ṕonəwxəno.<br />
<br />
==Βaβar languages==<br />
===Βaβar===<br />
βā i sansa<br />
#tɬʼanʈ ɣuç n-sūrā βā gaɸɴ sansɴ ɸāquɣ.<br />
#rārm sans knāɖaβuɴ drāzɴ krutsʼ,<br />
#gaɸəsq sans βarɴ zrkiʂiɣ.<br />
#βā sansaɟ ɸīɣ:<br />
#“kxʼrānquš qašn βar sansaɴ šnɣaɴsiɣ“.<br />
#a sansa ɣuç ɸīç:<br />
#“ɟnʐid, βā,<br />
#žī kxʼrānqūža<br />
#qašn βar iʈʂʼiknāɴ tɬʼanʈiqək īxuɣ<br />
#i βwa tɬʼanʈiq rim susuβūç“.<br />
#qašn ʂum ʐīdirā sūɣ, βā ārxaʈ ɣmʈʂʼwiɣ.<br />
<br />
==Memniqiju languages==<br />
===Memniq===<br />
ylnaś ka ëćoht<br />
#jaťererk ylnaś pëhomuś lënom lët ëćohtim iʔyqim.<br />
#cśerpe ćihto țeʔiju cuśpam pëkpofuśim,<br />
#pterke ćihto yʔaiju ćonuhim.<br />
#emert ylnaś ëćohtoʔ:<br />
#“joťʔehu xušțö lqüxaŕot oćnuh ëćohtim“.<br />
#emertet së ëćoht ʔțëʔ:<br />
#“foxasuŕ, ylnaś,<br />
#ťʔehem lu<br />
#xušțö śhäqet oćnuh ülemʔümim ćuħ lënoʔ aŕeš<br />
#ka ʔanaħäke lonśi ëqti lënoš“.<br />
#xušțö fosülŕ ʔți, ŕoʔon ylnaś ruh ruktuʔoʔ.<br />
<br />
==Rebti languages==<br />
===Æbbro===<br />
beeha iihhažepu<br />
#gomoojjo beeha bunaano iihhažeppii tuurkarapudd.<br />
#aargondu iihha ppooromantuno maanogono rrantasomuud,<br />
#bunaandu iihha retine bumæšmiigemiid.<br />
#beeha iihhažehee kaažimapudd:<br />
#“roo haahomom iihhažene retiśi ræniśśtemetibbii“.<br />
#mo iihhaže taahoo kaažimapudd:<br />
#“ppukorab, beeha,<br />
#roožo haahomom<br />
#kerriśedehiine retiśi šeežerræ gomooddoo pokadotubbuu<br />
#iź beehaśi gomoojjo hanoodotubbuu“.<br />
#naano korabapotubbuu, beeha eertæhiimo mikpimeśæpiid.<br />
<br />
==Pı̇ħ languages==<br />
===Pı̇ħ===<br />
'''mɛ̇h aj mɛ̇s xju̇jħ'''<br />
#'''ɬė kɛ̇wn nɔ̇ʔ qọw ɴjạ sėjn mɛ̇h mɛ̇s xju̇jħ rjɛ̇w su̇h xȯ.'''<br />
#'''xȯħ sė xju̇jħ tjawk ħı̇kɬjı̇k ɬạw ɴjạ,'''<br />
#'''mɛ̇s sė xju̇jħ qɛ̣ħ hụppjȧjt ɴjạ.'''<br />
#'''mɛ̇h mɛ̇s xju̇jħ ɬoj xȯ:'''<br />
#'''“ŋọ ħawk ɴjạ, qɛ̣ħ xju̇jħ pụtpụt muħ”.'''<br />
#'''ɬa mɛ̇s xju̇jħ ɬė ɬoj xȯ:'''<br />
#'''“tohrjos sjı̇, mɛ̇h,'''<br />
#'''ŋọ ʔẹ ħawk ɴjạ'''<br />
#'''qɛ̣ħ kjuɴɬjı̇h sȧ ʔẹ sėj kɛ̇wn ŋȧʔ sjun muħ'''<br />
#'''aj mɛ̇h kɛ̇wn ʔɔwp ʔjɛ̇n muħ”.'''<br />
#'''ʔẹq ʔạ rjos xȯ muħ, mɛ̇h ɸjit toh mı̣ɸxowr xȯ.<br />
'''<br />
====Pı̀====<br />
mɛ̄̀ æ̀ mɛ̱s ɕʊ̄̃<br />
#bē ɔ̄̀ hó̱ ña̱ kø̄m sɪ̌ mɛ̄̀ rǿ sū̀ xō mɛ̱s ɕʊ̄̃.<br />
#xṑ sē ɕʊ̄̃ bó̱ ña̱ tő̱k ı́çjı̄̃,<br />
#mɛ̱s sē ɕʊ̄̃ u̱ppǣ̃t ña̱ hɛ̱.<br />
#mɛ̄̀ bɑ̀ xō mɛ̱s ɕʊ̄̃:<br />
#“gø̱ ő̱k ña̱, émʊ hɛ̱ pu̱tpu̱t ɕʊ̄̃”.<br />
#ba mɛ̱s ɕʊ̄̃ bɑ̀ xō bē:<br />
#“tòró̱s šı́, mɛ̄̀,<br />
#gø̱ ő̱k ña̱<br />
#émʊ hɛ̱ šú̱n çú̱njı̄̃ gā̀ sæ̱̏ sē kø̄m <br />
#æ̀ mɛ̄̀ ɛ́ ő̱p kø̄m”.<br />
#émʊ bē ró̱s xō éh, mɛ̄̀ mı̱fxʊ́r xō tò fı̱́t.<br />
<br />
====Bīṙ====<br />
mɛ̄ ǽ mɛ̱s h́ȳṙ<br />
#lē gœ̄̀m nɔ̄ qœ̱ h́a̱ sı̄n mɛ̄ mɛ̱s h́ȳṙ ŕœ̄̀ sū hō. <br />
#hōṙ sē h́ȳṙ d́ɔ̀g ṙı̄gʎı̄ lɔ̱ h́a̱, <br />
#mɛ̱s sē h́ȳṙ qɛ̱ṙ u̱bb́ǣd h́a̱. <br />
#mɛ̄ mɛ̱s h́ȳṙ e̱n lɛ́ hō: <br />
#“no̱ ṙɔ̀g h́a̱ qɛ̱ṙ h́ȳṙ bu̱dbu̱d muṙɛṙ”. <br />
#la mɛ̱s h́ȳṙ lē e̱n lɛ́ hō: <br />
#“doŕos śı̄, mɛ̄, <br />
#no̱ e̱ ṙɔ̀g h́a̱ <br />
#qɛ̱ṙ ǵuhʎı̄ sā e̱ sı̄ gœ̄̀m nā śuh muṙɛṙ <br />
#ǽ mɛ̄ gœ̄̀m œ̀b ɛ̄n muṙɛṙ”. <br />
#ēq a̱ ŕos hō muṙɛṙ, mɛ̄ v́ıd do mı̱vhœ̀r hō.<br />
<br />
====Į̄mχɛ̱́====<br />
mɛ̄ ɛ̌ mɛ̱θ ɕȳ<br />
#mɛ̄ θı̄n ðē nɔ̄h χǫ̱ ěw kɔ̄̀m θū xø̌w ŕə̄̀ mɛ̱θ ɕȳ.<br />
#xō θē ɕȳ ðɑ̱ ěw ʂư̄̏k ı̄gžı̄, <br />
#mɛ̱θ θē ɕȳ ùpçǭt ěw χɛ̱́. <br />
#mɛ̄ ðɛ́ xø̌w e̱n mɛ̱θ ɕȳ: <br />
#“wo̱ ɑ̀k ɑ̀rɛ́ hēmø̌ χɛ̱́ pu̱tpu̱t ɕȳ”. <br />
#ða mɛ̱θ ɕȳ ðɛ́ xø̌w e̱n ðē: <br />
#“šı̄ tóŕǿ̱θ, mɛ̄, <br />
#wo̱ he̱ ɑ̀k ɑ̀rɛ́ <br />
#hēmø̌ χɛ̱́ šȳ̏ cȳ̏žı̄ wāh kɔ̄̀m θı̄ θā he̱ <br />
#ɛ̌ mɛ̄ ɟēn hǫ̀p kɔ̄̀m”. <br />
#hēmø̌ ŕǿ̱θ xø̌w ha̱ hēχ, mɛ̄ mı̱βxø̀r xø̌w tó ʝı̄̀t.<br />
<br />
==Axi languages==<br />
===Dʰakʰi===<br />
'''rebeː y gʰjənaʡi'''<br />
#'''pebeː bes rur rebeː gʰjysaː gʰjənaʡi rəgʰjoljuːska.'''<br />
#'''gʰyʡeːku gʰənaʡi kʰiːlaː kʰeːrfə gʰokəkjuːrgʰa,'''<br />
#'''gʰyʡysaː gʰənaʡi koːbʰa gʰokəkjeːrfə.'''<br />
#'''rebeː gʰjənaʡi na rəsoljorkʰu:'''<br />
#'''“ṅjəkiːstʰum, njoːbʰa gʰjənaʡi ṅjəgʰjaːfekeːkyb ʡu”.'''<br />
#'''uː gʰjənaʡi reː na gʰjəsoljorkʰu:'''<br />
#'''“gəsolosospʰaː, rebeː'''<br />
#'''ṅjoː ṅjəkiːstʰum'''<br />
#'''njoːbʰa khjəmgʰoːd seː ʡu pəgjebeː meː njokaːfoːrsə'''<br />
#'''y rjebeː pebeː bes seː ʡu rjaːfimimop”.'''<br />
#'''seː rəsaːfoljospʰaː ʡu, rebeː xjindʰeː pa roljəskoː.''' <br />
<br />
====Đaxi====<br />
rɛbe y žɑnahi<br />
#bɛs pɛbe rör rɛbe žysä žɑnahi rɑžɔʎuska.<br />
#ɣyhekö ɣɑnahi xülä xerfɑ ɣɔkɑčurɣa,<br />
#ɣyhysä ɣɑnahi koβa ɣɔkɑčerfɑ.<br />
#rɛbe na žɑnahi rɑsɔʎɔrxö:<br />
#“ṅɑküsθöm, seh ňoβa žɑnahi ňɑžɛkekyb“.<br />
#u žɑnahi na ro žɑsɔʎɔrxö:<br />
#“gɑsɔlɔsɔsɸä, rɛbe,<br />
#jo jɑküsθöm<br />
#seh ňoβa ɕɑmɣod me ǧoð pɛbe ňɔkɔrsɑ<br />
#y rjɛbe bɛs pɛbe rjimimɔp“.<br />
#seh se rɑsɔʎɔsɸä, rɛbe pa ṙinðe rɔʎɑsko.<br />
====Thahi====<br />
rebhè ö khä́naʔi<br />
#räkhólûsga rebhè rur rêhdi bhes bebhè khö́sà khä́naʔi. <br />
#khogägûrkha khänaʔi khöʔègu hèrβä hìlà, <br />
#khogägêrβä khänaʔi khöʔösà gòpha. <br />
#räsolórhu rebhè na khä́naʔi: <br />
#“jägìsθum, ʔu jäkhàβegègöbh nôpha khä́naʔi“. <br />
#ù khäsolórhu khä́naʔi na rè: <br />
#“ghäsolososfà, rebhè, <br />
#jä́gìsθum jô, <br />
#ʔusèbh jogàβòrsä nôpha hä́mkhòdh mè bäghebhè <br />
#ö ràβimimob rébhè pes bebhè“. <br />
#ʔu räsàβolósfà sè, rolä́sgò rebhè ba ṅínthè.<br />
====Ṙaçi====<br />
röby ə ɟänaʔi<br />
#pöby bes rur röby ɟəze ɟänaʔi räɟoɭəwska. <br />
#ʝəʔyku ʝänaʔi çəjle çyrḃä ʝokäʈəwrṙa, <br />
#ʝəʔəze ʝänaʔi küva ʝokäʈyrḃä. <br />
#röby ɟänaʔi na räzoɭorçu: <br />
#“ṅäkəjsḣum, hyʔub ňüva ɟänaʔi ňäɟeḃökykəb”. <br />
#əw ɟänaʔi ry na ɟäzoɭorçu: <br />
#“gäzolososfe, röby, <br />
#ɳü ɳäkəjsḣum, <br />
#hyʔub ňüva ʂämʝüd ɖü ṙi pöby my ňokeḃürsä <br />
#ə ɬöby pöby bes ɬeḃimimop”. <br />
#hyʔub hä räzeḃoɭosfe, röby ʑinṙy pa roɭäskü.<br />
<br />
==Alri languages==<br />
===Proto-Alri===<br />
'''pʰewre tʰe ʡijk̇ej'''<br />
#'''k̇ume ləjnema si iməwo pʰewrek̇ə moʈi ʡijk̇ej majru.'''<br />
#'''ṫjesisik̇ə ʡijk̇ek̇ə ṗewti wapʰmju ṫiro,'''<br />
#'''moʈisik̇ə ʡijk̇ek̇ə ṫiʡe wapʰo.'''<br />
#'''pʰewrek̇ə (oke) ʡijk̇ejʈu tejk̇u:'''<br />
#'''“okeno kʰajʡowm ṫiʡek̇ə ʡijk̇e rajrpenəwow”.'''<br />
#'''mi ʡijk̇ejk̇ə (oke) okeʈu tejk̇uj:'''<br />
#'''“to rajrsenuwt, pʰewre,'''<br />
#'''amej okeno kʰajʡowmij,'''<br />
#'''ṫiʡek̇ə ʡjəjrmjuj itima ləjnema najkʰəwow'''<br />
#'''kʰa pʰewre ləjnema si rajriməwow.”'''<br />
#'''okeʡo asoke senəweno pʰewre k̇aṫmujʈu spʰownu.'''<br />
====Nämty====<br />
βöwre e βärsy<br />
#βöwrek ke si lynema imog moɕi βärsy märɑg.<br />
#česisik βärsik pöwdi waβmu tirog, <br />
#moɕisik βärsik tiħe waβog. <br />
#βöwrek βärsyɕ dikɑg: <br />
#“häħüm on tiħik βärsy rärbenügy”. <br />
#mi βärsyk ogeɕ dikɑgy:<br />
#“do rärsenüd, βöwre, <br />
#ami häħümy <br />
#on tiħik çyrmü benä idiriɕ lyneɕ nähügy <br />
#e βöwri si lynema rärimügy”. <br />
#asoge senosen, βöwre pa katmüɕ sβünɑg.<br />
<br />
====Foħθīri====<br />
bœrex de hīxēx<br />
#si lēnema imævo xumek bœrex moše hīxē māru. <br />
#ɕeririx hīxex fœti θōršā θiro, <br />
#moširix hīxex θihe ňeṙōro. <br />
#bœrex hīxēšu tēxu: <br />
#“kōrūm ofen θihēx hīxē rārpenævūvī”. <br />
#mi hīxēx okešu tēxuvī: <br />
#“senuṙūto, bœre, <br />
#amēx kōrūmī<br />
#ofen θihēx qērmū itērima lēnema nāgævūvī <br />
#ga bœrēx si lēnema rārimævūvī”. <br />
#ofen aroke senævū, bœrex fa xaθmūšu sbūnu.<br />
<br />
=====Cažorih=====<br />
berɛh də iheh<br />
#sə lenɛβ ime ĩ hũh berɛh mɔž ihe mor. <br />
#šeririh ihɛh fede forča fire ĩ, <br />
#mɔžirih ihɛh fy jɛḣore ĩ. <br />
#berɛh ihež teh: <br />
#“korõ ɔβɛ̃ fyh ihe rorpɛnoβi”. <br />
#mə iheh ɔž tehuβi: <br />
#“sɛnuḣodɔ, ber, <br />
#õmeh koroxi <br />
#ɔβɛ̃ fih herõ kidma ideriβ lenɛβ noɣoβi <br />
#də bereh sə lenɛβ rorimoβi”. <br />
#ɔβɛ̃ rɔx sɛnu ĩ, berɛh fa homož zbõ.<br />
<br />
=====Hoð‘i=====<br />
ek‘ bo də ek’i jix’e<br />
#bo xym imy s’ə l’enevo me moš jix’e. <br />
#ek‘ hi jix imy ð‘oð‘i ðowšæ hɔt‘, <br />
#ek‘ moši jix imy ňerowð‘i ðiɣ. <br />
#ek‘ bo t’exy fa ek’i jix’e: <br />
#“kun on ek’i ðiɣ’e æpenuv’i ek’i jix’e”.<br />
#m’ə ek’i jix’e okešo t’exyv’i: <br />
#“senyruto, bo,<br />
#am’ex kum’i <br />
#on ek’i jix’e næguv’i q’emu s‘ə evo l’enevo ket’yvo <br />
#də ek’i b’o ɛmuv’i s’ə l’enevo”. <br />
#on imy senyð’i ɔk’, ek‘ bo sbuny fa ek’i xaðmu.<br />
==Sakdi languages==<br />
===Proto-Saːkdi:===<br />
'''dowɴɖa ho luːkɖa laz'''<br />
#'''buːgnez ŋuh luːkɖa laz dowɴɖa qisas qɛsʈaʡ moʈ uʈ biː dowɴko pɔ.''' <br />
#'''goʂnez moʈ beːzgaɴ biːprih luːkɖa pepɛːmta,'''<br />
#'''bɛːznez moʈ mɔqmih luːkɖa pelazta.''' <br />
#'''tujʡʂem ŋuh dowɴɖa ɴaː luːkɖa laz:''' <br />
#'''“malsuħ moʈ ɔn kaj as ɴɔrzawnez luːkɖa mɔqmih”'''<br />
#'''ʂo tujʡʂem ŋuh luːkɖa laz ɴaː uʈ:'''<br />
#'''“tiː ɴɔrkotnez, dowɴɖa,''' <br />
#'''malsuħ moʈ ɔnɔn kaj uk''' <br />
#'''as laːmnez paːktaːq mɔqmih zaw dowɴko qiseʂeʂ''' <br />
#'''hi konqɛsʈaʡ dowɴɖa biː dowɴko”.'''<br />
#'''kaj as kotnez ŋuh ak uʈ, wizeɖ ŋuh dowɴɖa gɛ ʈuːmtaɴ.'''<br />
<br />
====Rertu:====<br />
dū̀ɟa o laz lū́kɟa<br />
#bū́gnez ŋu dū̀ɟa isas ɛšaʔ moc uc bī́ dū̀ko laz lū́kɟa pɔ.<br />
#gošnez moc lū́kɟa pepɛ̄́m bɛ̄́zga bī́pri, <br />
#bɛ̄́znez moc lū́kɟa pelaz mɔmi. <br />
#tū̀ʔšem ŋu dū̀ɟa ā́ laz lū́kɟa: <br />
#“malsuh moc ɔn kā́s ɔrzɔ̄̀nez mɔmi lū́kɟa”. <br />
#šo tū̀ʔšem ŋu laz lū́kɟa ā́ uc: <br />
#“tī́ ɔrkot, dū̀ɟa,<br />
#malsuh moc ɔnɔn <br />
#kā́s lā́nez mɔmi pā́ktā́ zɔ̄̀ dū̀ko isešeš <br />
#i konɛšaʔ dū̀ɟa bī́ dū̀ko”. <br />
#kā́s kotnez ŋu uc aksɑ, wizeɟ ŋu dū̀ɟa gɛ cū́mta.<br />
<br />
====Žérði====<br />
dúhğa i laz lúkğa <br />
#dúhğa isas uč ɛča moč bí dúhko pɔ búɣnez gu laz lúkğa.<br />
#lúkğa pepɛ́mta gošnez moč bɛ́zɣa bípri, <br />
#lúkğa pelazta bɛ́znez moč mɔmi. <br />
#dúhğa tùšem gu há laz lúkğa: <br />
#“ɔn malsu moč kɛ̀s mɔmi hɔrzánez lúkğa”. <br />
#šo laz lúkğa tùšem gu há uč: <br />
#“hɔrkot tí, dúhğa, <br />
#ɔneš malsu moč <br />
#kɛ̀s mɔmi lámez páktá zá dúhko isešeš <br />
#i dúhğa konɛča bí dúhko”. <br />
#kɛ̀s uč kotnez gu aksɑ, dúhğa vizeğ gu gɛ čúmtah.<br />
<br />
====Eβmiʔ====<br />
ðowňɖa ʔo ʎugɖa lar<br />
#vuɣner nuʔ ʎugɖa lar ðowňɖa çisas çɛʂa moʈ uʈ vi ðowňgo bɔ. <br />
#ɣoʂner moʈ βörɣaň vibhiʔ ʎugɖa bömda, <br />
#βörner moʈ mɔçmiʔ ʎugɖa larda.<br />
#dujʂem nuʔ ðowňɖa ňä ʎugɖa lar: <br />
#“malsux moʈ ɔn gajug ňɔhrawner ʎugɖa mɔçmiʔ”. <br />
#ʂo dujʂem nuʔ ʎugɖa lar ňä uʈ: <br />
#“dji ňɔhgoʈɑ, ðowňɖa, <br />
#malsux moʈ ɔnɔn <br />
#gajug lämer bägdäç mɔçmiʔ raw ðowňgo gü eʂeʂ <br />
#ʔo gonçɛʂa ðowňɖa vi ðowňgo”. <br />
#gajug godner nuʔ as ak uʈ, wireɖ nuʔ ðowňɖa ɣɛ čumdaň<br />
<br />
=====Ỹhɛ=====<br />
ünɟa nɔr lar šy <br />
#ünɟa ças uc çɛɕa movɔ vi üngo vuɣner nuvɔ lar šy. <br />
#šy bö̃da ɣoɕner movɔ hörɣan vivi, <br />
#šy larda hörner movɔ hɛ. <br />
#ünɟa düɕẽ nuvɔ nä lar šy: <br />
#“ɔ̃ mawsuh moce gɑk hɛ nɔråner šy”. <br />
#ɕo lar šy düɕẽ nuvɔ nä uc: <br />
#“ği nɔgocɑ, ünɟa, <br />
#ɔ̃nɔ̃ mawsuh moce <br />
#gɑk hɛ lämer bägdäç rå üngo gɑʂɛʂ <br />
#nɔr ünɟa ʝẽ vi üngo”. <br />
#gɑk uc godner nuvɔ ak, ünɟa yreɟ nuvɔ ɣɛ čũdan.</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxVI&diff=158884User:Bukkia/sandboxVI2023-11-30T19:17:23Z<p>Bukkia: </p>
<hr />
<div>List of sample sentences<br />
==I'm falling==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''I'm falling''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*χiːʂakoɬ'''<br><small>fall<sub>IMPF</sub>1ps</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hī́šakow<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | îčaɣò<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | owf hjišaciθu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hīɕagow<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | çišeǧid wẽv<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xīʂɛgū<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | həjšegɔ<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cänü xīxehīdə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xīṡɛɣū<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | hīʂakol<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸāðiš<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | jopxofu<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | roo oobbagom<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋọ kjas ɴjạ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | go̱ çá̱s ña̱<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | no̱ ǵas h́a̱<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | wo̱ cɑ̄̀θ ɑ̀rɛ́<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*ṅəkenkə'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṅɑkɛnkɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | jägengä <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṅäkönkä<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mijrowm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | myrüm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mīrūm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mire imõ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | imun m‘oð‘i<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːdrɛːħ moʈ ɔn<br>*paːdʈɑʡ moʈ ɔn<br>*paːdrɛːħ moʈ ɔn re<br>*paːdʈɑʡ moʈ ɔn re'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́drɛ̄́ moc ɔn<br>pā́drɛ̄́ moc ɔn re<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔn páðrɛ́ moč<br>ɔn re páðrɛ́ moč <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäɖɑ moʈ ɔn<br>bäɖɑ moʈ ɔn he<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | õ bäɟɑ moce<br>ɔ̃ bäɟɑ moce<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==We fell==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''We fell''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔaχaʂiːkonoɬ'''<br><small>PAST-fall<sub>PERF</sub>-PLUR-1ps</small><br>'''*ʔaχaʂiːkoɬon'''<br><small>PAST-fall<sub>PERF</sub>-1ps-PLUR</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔaɣašī́konow<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | tòrô êčaɣíðə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | onof hašjiciθu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ahoɕīgohon<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | çišeǧidũ jẽnõ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛxɛʂigunū<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔdduno ehišegəjduno<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xexīhunü<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ūdjū xɛṡīgīdū<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔahaʂīkolon<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸwaðīža<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | poxofom<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | roožo oobbagapuud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋọ ʔẹ kjas xȯ<br>*ŋọ ʔẹ hı̣wŋ kjas xȯ<br>*ŋọ ʔẹ rjɛ̇w kjas xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | gø̱ çá̱s xō<br>gø̱ ɪ̱́g çá̱s xō<br>gø̱ rǿ çá̱s xō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | no̱ e̱ ǵas hō<br>no̱ e̱ ṙy̱n ǵas hō<br>no̱ e̱ ŕœ̄̀ ǵas hō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | wo̱ he̱ cɑ̄̀θ xø̌w<br>wo̱ he̱ cɑ̄̀θ xø̌w ŕə̄̀<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*ṅjoljenkə'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | jɔʎɛnkɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | jóléngä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | ɳoɭönkä<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mijrumij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | myrɑmy<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mīrumī<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | miruxi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | m‘ym’i<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːdrɛːħ ŋuh ɔnɔn<br>*paːdrɛːħ ŋuh ɔneʂ<br>*paːdʈɑʡ ŋuh ɔnɔn<br>*paːdʈɑʡ ŋuh ɔneʂ<br>*paːdrɛːħ ŋuh ɔnɔn pɔ<br>*paːdrɛːħ ŋuh ɔneʂ pɔ<br>*paːdʈɑʡ ŋuh ɔnɔn pɔ<br>*paːdʈɑʡ ŋuh ɔneʂ pɔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́drɛ̄́ ŋu ɔnɔn<br>pā́drɛ̄́ ŋu ɔneš<br>pā́drɛ̄́ ŋu ɔnɔn pɔ<br>pā́drɛ̄́ ŋu ɔneš pɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔneš páðrɛ́ gu<br>ɔneš páðrɛ́ gu pɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäɖɑ nuʔ ɔnɔn<br>bäɖɑ nuʔ ɔneʂ<br>bäɖɑ nuʔ ɔnɔn bɔ<br>bäɖɑ nuʔ ɔneʂ bɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɔ̃nɔ̃ bäɟɑ nuvɔ<br>õnõ bäɟɑ nuvɔ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The person fell==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The person fell''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''''Proto-Piti''''' || '''*pʰuːka ʔaχaʂiːk(æt́)'''<br><small>person-PASS PAST-fall<sub>PERF</sub>(-3ps)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phū́ka ʔaɣašī́k<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çúɣe tòr êčaɣíðə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ fuxal‘ ojh hašjiciθu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fūga ahoɕīgeš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | foɣar çišeǧid jẽh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | pūgɛ hɛxɛʂig<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ež pɔge ehišegəjdo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs pühä xexīg <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pūɣɛ xɛṡīgīdu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔahaʂīk fūka<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βar ɸwaðīɣ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | poxof ćonuh<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | reti oobbagapuud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qɛ̣ħ kjas xȯ<br>*qɛ̣ħ hı̣wŋ kjas xȯ<br>*qɛ̣ħ rjɛ̇w kjas xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hɛ̱ çá̱s xō<br>hɛ̱ ɪ̱́g çá̱s xō<br>hɛ̱ rǿ çá̱s xō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qɛ̱ṙ ǵas hō<br>qɛ̱ṙ ṙy̱n ǵas hō<br>qɛ̱ṙ ŕœ̄̀ ǵas hō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χɛ̱́ cɑ̄̀θ xø̌w<br>χɛ̱́ cɑ̄̀θ xø̌w ŕə̄̀<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*noːbʰa moljenkə'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | noβa mɔʎɛnkɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | moléngä nòpha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | nüva moɭönkä<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṫiʡe mijru'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | tiħe myrɑg<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | θihex mīru<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cožerih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | fyh mir<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ek‘ ðiɣ m‘y<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːdrɛːħ ŋuh mɔqmih<br>*paːdʈɑʡ ŋuh mɔqmih<br>*paːdrɛːħ ŋuh mɔqmih pɔ<br>*paːdʈɑʡ ŋuh mɔqmih pɔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́drɛ̄́ ŋu mɔmi<br>pā́drɛ̄́ ŋu mɔmi pɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mɔmi páðrɛ́ gu<br>mɔmi páðrɛ́ gu pɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäɖɑ nuʔ mɔçmiʔ<br>bäɖɑ nuʔ mɔçmiʔ bɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hɛ bäɟɑ nuvɔ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The man saw the dog==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The man saw the dog''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''''Proto-Piti''''' || '''*ɬiːroli sopa ʔaloliːṕ(æt́)'''<br><small>man-AGEN dog-PASS PAST-see<sub>PERF</sub>(-3ps)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wī́roli sopa ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | îrə tòr êβíðə soβe<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ vjirul‘ ojh loʎiɸjiθu æl‘ soɸal‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | līruli soba alolīčeš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řirur soba řirušjid jẽh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | wīruliw hɛlulīšɛc subɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ežd əjro ejjužəjdo ež huve<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs wīrə rurīśäh äs subä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | vīru lulīžīdu suvɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔalolīṕət́ līroliə sopa<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | tɬīx xūɸɴ ɸāquɣ <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ťerek ʔinur osfem<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tterni woohano tuurkarapuud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*nɔɴqɛ̣h qon su̇h xȯ<br>*nɔɴqɛ̣h qon hı̣wŋ su̇h xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɔ̄̀nhɛ̱ sū̀ xō hó<br>ɔ̄̀nhɛ̱ ɪ̱́g sū̀ xō hó<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nɔhqɛ̱ṙ qon sū hō<br>nɔhqɛ̱ṙ qon ṙy̱n sū hō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nɔ̀χɛ̱́ θū xø̌w χon<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*koːbʰa gʰeʡuː kəgʰoljuːska'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | koβa ɣɛhu kɑɣɔʎuska<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | gäkholûsga gòpha kheʔù<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | küva ʝöʔəw käʝoɭəwska<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kʰjenek̇ə laje majru'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | henek läty märɑg<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ğenex laže māru<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cožerih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ğẽh loz mor<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ek‘ żen me ek‘ laž<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgnez ŋuh boːrɖa mɔqmih'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́gnez ŋuh mɔmi bṓrɟa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mɔmi búɣnez gu bórğa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣner nuʔ βühɖa mɔçmiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hɛ vuɣner nuvɔ hüɟa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The brother is giving water to the sister==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The brother is giving water to the sister''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''''Proto-Piti''''' || '''*tatuli ṕiḱe leluχæ kæɬok(æt́)'''<br><small>brother-AGEN water-PASS sister-TERM see<sub>IMPF</sub>(-3ps)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tatuli leluɣɑ pike kɑwokɑt<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taðu kók piɣ lere<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ taθul‘ ojh kæbociθu pičɛl‘ kowf æha lɛluha <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | toduli leluhe čiš kɛhogeš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | todur ših reruš kov čiǧid wẽh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | dɛdjuliw gjɛlugjɛc liʎuxjɛ šiwči<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ež deddo gewg həjč ežəre lihore<br>ež deddo gewg həjč gɔ ežəre lihore<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs däd́ə gäruǵäh süci gös riŕə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | dɛdju gjɛluɣjɛc šiwči liʝuxjɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kəlokət́ tatəwliə ṕiəḱe leləwxə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īmʈʂʼ ɴiʈʂʼɴ gūβuɟ ðirā sūɣ<br>īmʈʂʼ ɴiʈʂʼɴ gūβuɟ ɟn ðirā sūɣ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | jašeke atta teʔom rareʔ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | śærge ddeernæhee boodano urrgamom<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qe te ʔıjk tjuħ ɴjạ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | he tû ña̱ te ı̂k<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qe ı́g de e̱n d́uṙ h́a̱<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χe ʂy̌ ɑ̀rɛ́ e̱n te hı́k <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*kabʰa rabʰa na gʰukʰi kəgʰəkermo'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | kaβa ɣöxi na raβa kɑɣɑkɛrmɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | gäkhägermo gapha khuhi na rapha <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | kava rava na ʝuçi käʝäkörmo<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*putek̇ə tjaʡe ʈereʈu k̇oʂow<br>*putek̇ə ʈereʈu tjaʡe k̇oʂow'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | budek ɕereɕ ɟaħe koʂüg<br>budek ɟaħe ɕereɕ koʂüg<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | putex šerešu cahe xoħū<br>putex cahe šerešu xoħū<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pudɛh čɛrɛž cɔ hɔʔe imo<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ek‘ pyt imo xowð‘i caɣ ha ek‘ še<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːʂem moʈ paːɴdeː rosʐiw ʐanʐiw'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́šem moc rožū̀ pā́dḗ žanžū̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | roží hášem moč páhðé há žanží<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňäʂem moʈ bäňʝy hosɽiw ɽanɽiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oɕy näɕẽ moce bänʝy ʑãʑy<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Template==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''I am seeing you''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*næ liːloṕoɬ'''<br><small>2p-PASS see<sub>IMPF</sub>1ps</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | nɑ lī́lopow<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lîβò nə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æpji owf ʎiloɸjiθu<br>næ owf ʎiloɸjiθu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nɛ līločow<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nwet řirušjid wẽv<br>nwe řirušjid wẽv<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | njɛ līlušū<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ne ləjužɔ<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | nä cänü rīrusīdə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | līlužū njɛ<br>njɛ līlužū<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | līloṕol nə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸaqušəx<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | joťreku ëŕ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | roo šeene tuurkarom<br>roo šeen tuurkarom<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋọ sȧ su̇h ɴjạ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | go̱ sū̀ ña̱ sā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | no̱ sā sū h́a̱<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱ θū ɑ̀rɛ́ θā<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*ṅəgəkuːska'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṅɑgɑkuska<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | jäghägùsga<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṅägäkəwska<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ite majrowm'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ide märüm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ite mārūm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | i more imõ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | k‘et mɔn<br>it mɔn<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgnez moʈ eʂ ɔn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́gnez moc ɔn eš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔn búɣnez moč eš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣner moʈ eʂ ɔn<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | õ vuɣner moce aɕ<br>ɔ̃ vuɣner moce eɕ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The wise man came to the village==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The wise man came to the village''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''''Proto-Piti''''' || '''*tʰaːŋiːtili ɬæḱiχæ ʔaḱoŋiɬ(æt́)'''<br><small>know-er-AGEN village-TERM PAST-come<sub>PRF</sub>(-3ps)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thā́gī́tili wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwɑt<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | háɣíði tòr áɣiɣěðə kô kačəre<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ ægjiθ‘il‘ ojh kogibjiθu kowf æha væx‘iha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | čōšānīdili sōnošuhe ašohiheš<br>dērɛmirili sōnošuhe ašohiheš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | djerwemirir swonožuš kwov fiňid jẽh<br>šwožiňidir swonožuš kwov fiňid jẽh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tāgīdiwliw hɛčugiw bjɛčiwxjɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ež tagəjdəj ečəjgɔdo gɔ ežəre bečəjre<br>ež tagəjdəj ečəjgɔdo ežəre bečəjre<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs tahīdü cuhü gös b́äcü<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | nösvɛ čugiw gōw vjɛčiwxjɛ<br>nösvɛ čugiw vjɛčiwxjɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔaḱogiəl aðaneʂ kōl ləḱiexə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | kāβa tɬʼūβuriʈ ɟn ʈʂʼujɣ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | qomol aťaneś ruh oŕšiʔ<br>qomorl aťaneś ruh oŕšiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | deerræmiri oddraamo toodugapuud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɸınqɛ̣ħ kaʔkaʔ toh ŋjɔj xȯ<br>*ɸınqɛ̣ħ kaʔkaʔ toh ħı̣wŋ ŋjɔj xȯ<br>*ɸınqɛ̣ħ kaʔkaʔ toh rjɛ̇w ŋjɔj xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | fı́hɛ̱ žɑ̀ xō tò kàkà<br>fı́hɛ̱ ɪ̱́g žɑ̀ xō tò kàkà<br>fı́hɛ̱ rǿ žɑ̀ xō tò kàkà<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | vınqɛ̱ṙ gaga do ńɛ́ hō<br>vınqɛ̱ṙ gaga do ṙy̱n ńɛ́ hō<br>vınqɛ̱ṙ gaga do ŕœ̄̀ ńɛ́ hō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | βınχɛ̱́ ǧě xø̌w tó kaχkaχ<br>βınχɛ̱́ ǧě xø̌w ŕə̄̀ tó kaχkaχ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*nusbe qaːpʰim pa moljoːlteː'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | nösbɛ pa qäɸim mɔʎolte<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | molôldè nusbhe ba qàfim<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | nuzbö qefim pa moɭülty<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*saṗtij tojmsjajʈu pʰajnu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | sapty pa dömšäɕ βënɑg<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | safθīx fa tōmšāšu bānu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | sofih fa tõšaž bõ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ek‘ savð‘i bæny ha ek‘ towmšæ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*bɛːɴʈɑʡ ŋuh tɑsmih to kazʈɛq<br>*bɛːɴʈɑʡ ŋuh tɑsmih to kazʈɛq pɔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɛ̄́cɑʔ ŋu tɑsmi to kašɛ<br>bɛ̄́cɑʔ ŋu tɑsmi to kašɛ pɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | tɑsmi bɛ́hčɑ gu to kağɛ<br>tɑsmi pɔ bɛ́hčɑ gu to kağɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βöňʈɑ nuʔ dɑsmiʔ do garʈɛç<br>βöňʈɑ nuʔ dɑsmiʔ do garʈɛç bɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hĩhɛ höncɑ nuvɔ do garcɛç<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The happy leader is going to give the good shepherd five sheep==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The happy leader is going to give the good shepherd five sheep''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*maːt́oli ṕaːtæli ṕaːŋe jaŋeno ruʔaχæ rimusiːtiχæ koɬæk(æt́)'''<br><small>happy-AGEN leader-AGEN five sheep-PASS-PL good-TERM tend-er-TERM give<sub>PRF</sub>(-3p)</small><br>'''*maːt́oli ṕaːtæli ruʔaχæ rimusiːtiχæ ṕaːŋe jaŋeno koɬæk(æt́)'''<br><small>happy-AGEN leader-AGEN good-TERM tend-er-TERM five sheep-PASS-PL give<sub>PRF</sub>(-3p)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mā́toli pā́tɑli ruʔaɣɑ rimusī́tiɣɑ pā́ge jageno kowɑkɑt<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ême ô máðə kìɣ kóɣam pâ jašenə rimusíðire ôr ro<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ emal‘ mæθul‘ gjixæh kæboxiñæm‘ pæžɛ jažɛnol‘ kowf æha roha rimušiθ’iha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | mōšuli unidali rōhe rimusīdihe čōn jonənu kɛhogiga imēheš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | mwožur ǧũkər šwõ jõnẽ řejš rimušidiš kwov čiǧid mješ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | māculiw šādjɛliw guʎɛgjɛc rjuhɛxjɛ riwmjusīdiwxjɛ šāgi çɛginu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ež macco hadde eggewgəjgeh haǵ heǵino gɔ ežəre rore rəjmmuzəjdəjre<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs sed́ä maɟə cän ǵäruhühä sehi cähinə gös rüḿusīdü ŕuhä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mācu närvä guʝɛɣjɛc rjuhɛxjɛ riwmjuzīdiwxjɛ šāɣi çɛɣü<br>mācu närvä guʝɛɣjɛc rjuhɛx riwmjuzīdiwxjɛ šāɣi çɛɣü<br>mācu närvä guʝɛɣjɛc rjuhɛr riwmjuzīdiwxjɛ šāɣi çɛɣü<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | koləkət́ ṕātəliə māt́ol ṕāge əlnaʂəno riəməwsītiəxə rəwʔax<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gruš ɟumk atsʼɴ βwaɴ āmt tsʼrkβaɟ ðīɣ<br>gruš ɟumk atsʼɴ βwaɴ āmt tsʼrkβaɟ ɟn ðīɣ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | jöšeke ŕakam akniro fänum lonśim asarmeśoʔ umerćiʔ<br>jöšerke ŕakam akniro fänum lonśim asarmeśoʔ umerćiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ziirdækee źuunakuru nuurahoo puskamuruhoo gærnene beehažeppii urrgamapoow<br>ziirdækee źuunakuru nuurahoo puskamuruhoo gærnene beehappii urrgamapoow<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ewncjȧn xȯjsqɛ̣ħ xjıħ ʔȧpqɛ̣ħ pın mɛ̇h ku̇x tjuħ xȯ<br>*ewncjȧn xȯjsqɛ̣ħ xjıħ ʔȧpqɛ̣ħ ẹn pın mɛ̇h ku̇x tjuħ xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ǿčá ē̂me kūx tû xō ɕı̂ áphɛ̱ pı́ mɛ̄̀<br>ǿčá ē̂me kūx tû xō é̱ ɕı̂ áphɛ̱ pı́ mɛ̄̀<br>ē̂me tı̱̋ ǿčá kūx tû xō áphɛ̱ tı̱̋ ɕı̂ pı́ mɛ̄̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | œ̀nćān hœ́sqɛ̱ṙ bın mɛ̄ h́ıṙ ābqɛ̱ṙ e̱n gūh d́uṙ hō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ə̀nčān xə̄θχɛ̱́ ʂy̌ xōrɛ́ kūx ɕı̌ hāpχɛ̱́ e̱n pın mɛ̄<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*neːden naːrbaː nagoː niːntʰos na gʰjaːto gʰjeːbe nəgʰjolwermo<br>*neːden naːrbaː gʰjaːto gʰjeːbe nagoː niːntʰos na nəgʰjolwermo'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | nedɛn närbä žätɔ žɛbe na nägɔ nünθɔs nɑžɔlɛrmɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | näkholé̱rmo nàrbhà nèdhen khâdo khébhè na nìnθos nàgho<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | nydön nerbe nego nəjnḣos na ɟeto ɟöby näɟolörmo<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''Sample''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The dog is seen by the man==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The dog is seen by the man''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''''Proto-Piti''''' || '''*sopa ɬiːroli liːloṕ(æt́)'''<br><small>dog-PASS man-AGEN see<sub>IMPF</sub>(-3ps)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soβe kìɣ lîβuɣi âk îrəre<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ soɸal‘ ojh ʎiloɸux‘ jæl æha vjiruha <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | soba līruli līloč<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | sobar řiruš jer řirušug wẽh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | subɛ līluš wīruliw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ež huve ləjužuǵ ləj ežd əjro<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs subä cän rīruśuhi rüs wīrə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | suvɛ lulīžuɣi čɛl vīrurɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | līloṕ sopa līroliə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | xūɸ tɬīxɴ ɣm ɸaqižu sūɣ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | jaťreket osfe ʔyl ʔinuraš <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | woohano tterni tuurkarom <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*nɔɴqɛ̣h qon ʔạ su̇h njạ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɔ̄̀nhɛ̱ sū̀ ña̱ hó a̱<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nɔhqɛ̱ṙ qon a̱ sū h́a̱<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nɔ̀χɛ̱́ θū ɑ̀rɛ́ ha̱ χon<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*gʰeʡuː koːbʰa kəgʰəkuːska'''<br>'''*gʰeʡuː boː koːbʰa kəgʰəkuːska'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhu koβa kɑɣɑkuska<br>ɣɛhu bo koβa kɑɣɑkuska<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gäkhägùsga kheʔù gòpha<br>gäkhägùsga kheʔù bhò gòpha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔəw küva käʝäkəwska<br>ʝöʔəw bü küva käʝäkəwska<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''Sample''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The new house of the young man is in the nearby village==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The new house of the young man is in the nearby village''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*joːpaː ɬiːrora reːʔo soːŋo piŋko ɬæḱiʈar meːʔis(æt́)'''<br><small>young man-GEN new house-PASS near-ADJ village-LOC be.located<sub>IMPF</sub>(-3p)</small><br>'''*joːpaːra ɬiːrora reːʔo soːŋo piŋkoʈar ɬæḱiʈar meːʔis(æt́)'''<br><small>young-GEN man-GEN new-PASS house-PASS near-ADJ-LOC village-LOC be.located<sub>IMPF</sub>(-3p)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jṓpā́ra wī́rora rḗʔo sṓgo pinkotsar wɑkitsar mḗʔis<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | sóɣə ô rô ô îrəre ôr jóβé mîs kačəsah ôs pinɣə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ sowgul‘ rewil‘ hæk æha vjiruha jowɸæha mesæh uh æha væx‘iha pinkuha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | wobaš řiruš řek řevər swõnur ĩg swonož om mjijšid wẽh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | çōbārɛ wīrurɛ rēhu sōgu mēhiws hūm biwgu bjɛčiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ež rejo hɔgo čel ežəre hɔvare əjrore ɔm ež bəjgo bečəj<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs sohə rehə cäs wīrə çoba mehüs hüm äs b́äcü bühə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rihu sōgu çōvārɛ vīrurɛ mihiws hūm viwgu vjɛčiw<br>rihu sōgu çōvār vīrurɛ mihiws hūm viwgu vjɛčiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | mēʔiəs sōgo rēʔo līrora jōpār ʔūm ləḱiə piəko<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | Sample<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''Sample''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The woman didn't see the man's house==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The woman didn't see the man's house''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''''Proto-Piti''''' || '''*ʔoːnali ɬiːrora soːŋoʂu loliːṕæme ʔaʔiːs(æt́)'''<br><small>woman-AGEN man-GEN house-ABL see<sub>PERF</sub>-INF<sub>1</sub> PAST-NEG(-3ps)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔṓnali wī́rora sṓgošu lolī́ṕiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ône î tòr êβíðə soɣə ô îrəre<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ ownal‘ he ojh loʎiɸjiθu æl‘ sowgul‘ hæk æha vjiruha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ōnali līruɕu sōnu līločem ēs<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | wonar řiruš řek swõ řirušjid jĩs<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hōnɛliw hɛhīsjɛc wīrurɛ sōgušu lulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ežd ɔne ejjužəjdo əjs ež hɔgo čel ežəre əjrore<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs honä rurīśäh wī äs sohə cäs wīrə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hő hīzīdu lulīžiwgɛ sōgurɛ vīrurɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔalolīṕət́ ʔōnaliə sōgo līrora ʔīs<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | tɬʼāβ tɬʼīxuɟ tɬʼūβɴg n-ɸāquɣ<br>tɬʼāβ tɬʼīxuɟ xr tɬʼūβɴ n-ɸāquɣ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ťerek śepat sënam ʔinuraš lët<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | oobu tternirræ kootono tuurkarapoor<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɸusqɛ̣ħ nɔɴqɛ̣h sėj kaʔ nɔ̇ʔ su̇h xȯ<br>*ɸusqɛ̣ħ nɔɴqɛ̣h sėj kaʔ nɔ̇ʔ hı̣wŋ su̇h xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | fushɛ̱ ɔ̄̀ sū̀ xō ɔ̄̀nhɛ̱ sɪ̄̀ kà<br>fushɛ̱ ɔ̄̀ ɪ̱́g sū̀ xō ɔ̄̀nhɛ̱ sɪ̄̀ kà<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | vusqɛ̱ṙ nɔhqɛ̱ṙ sı̄ ga nɔ̄ sū hō<br>vusqɛ̱ṙ nɔhqɛ̱ṙ sı̄ ga nɔ̄ ṙy̱n sū hō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | βuθχɛ̱́ nɔ̄h θū xø̌w kaχ θı̄ nɔ̀χɛ̱́<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*roːbʰa koːbʰa dʰi xəmroː rəqiboljuːska'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | roβa řɑmro ðe koβa rɑqibɔʎuska<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | räqolûsga sibh ròpha ṅämrò thi gòpha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rüva küva ṙi qämrü hivä räxoɭəwska<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sajrek̇ə khjeneṗu tojme re majru'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | särek heneħ döme re märɑg<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | sārex ǧenefu tōme re māru<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | sorɛh tõ ǧẽβ rə mor<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ek‘ s‘æ ə me ek‘ towm evo żenevo<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgnez ŋuh ne kaztaɴ koː rosmɔq ʐanmɔq<br>*buːgnez ŋuh ne kaztaɴ koː rosmɔq ʐanmɔq pɔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́gnez ŋu ne žamɔ kazta kṓ rosmɔ<br>bū́gnez ŋu ne žamɔ kazta kṓ rosmɔ pɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanɔ ne búɣnez gu kaztah kó rosmɔ<br>žanɔ ne pɔ búɣnez gu kaztah kó rosmɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣner nuʔ ne gartaň gü hosmɔç ɽanɔç<br>vuɣner nuʔ ne gartaň gü hosmɔç ɽanɔç bɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑanɔç ne vuɣner nuvɔ gartan gü osmɔç<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==They saw no woman in the old house==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''They saw no woman in the old house''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*χeːsu ʔoːna ʔokeːʈar soːŋoʈar ʔaloliːṕon(æt́)'''<br><small>no-PASS woman-PASS old-LOC house-LOC PAST-see<sub>PERF</sub>-PLUR(-3p)</small><br>'''*χeːsu ʔoːna ʔokeːʈar soːŋoʈar ʔaloliːṕ(æt́)on'''<br><small>no-PASS woman-PASS old-LOC house-LOC PAST-see<sub>PERF</sub>(-3p)-PLUR</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hḗsu ʔṓna ʔokḗtsar sṓgotsar ʔalolī́ponɑt<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | î tòrò êβíðə êsu ône sóɣəsah ôs óɣé<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | he onæh loʎiɸjiθu hesul‘ ownal‘ uh æha sowguha owčiha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hēsu ōna ogēcar sōnucar alolīčešon<br>hēsu ōna ogēcar sōnucar alolīčem īson<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | çes wona oǧe swõ om řirušjidũ jĩžõs<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛlīlušunjɛc hīsīdu hōnɛ hūm hugē sōgu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ježluno ejjužəjduno əjs əjzəjdo ɔne ɔm ežd ugej hɔgo<br>ɔdduno ejjužəjduno əjs zəjdo ɔne ɔm ežd ugej hɔgo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rurīsuńäh wī hīsdə honä hüm äs sohə huhe.<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | jɛšlū lulīžīdū hīzdu hő hūm hugi sōgu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔalolīṕət́ hēsəw ʔōna ʔū́m sōgo ʔokē<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | mīxɴ tɬʼāβɴ ūrt tɬʼūβaʈ ɸāqūç<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ťereket yltäm śepatim śyn sënam ukeʔlim<br>ťereket śepatim yltäm śyn sënam ukeʔlim<br>ťererket yltäm śepatim śyn sënam ukeʔlim<br>ťererket śepatim yltäm śyn sënam ukeʔlim<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | taažo oortuno oobuno bææźemi kootomu tuurkarapuud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬė ʔẹ nowɴ ɸusqɛ̣ħ ȧjr kaʔ ʔı̣n su̇h xȯ<br>*ɬė ʔẹ nowɴ ɸusqɛ̣ħ ȧjr kaʔ ʔı̣n hı̣wŋ su̇h xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bȅ̱ sū̀ xō ʊ̌n fushɛ̱ ı̱́ ǣ̀r kà<br>bȅ̱ ɪ̱́g sū̀ xō ʊ̌n fushɛ̱ ı̱́ ǣ̀r kà<br>bȅ̱ rǿ sū̀ xō ʊ̌n fushɛ̱ ı̱́ ǣ̀r kà<br>bȅ̱ sū̀ xō ʊ̌n fushɛ̱ ı̱́ kà tı̱̋ ǣ̀r<br>bȅ̱ ɪ̱́g sū̀ xō ʊ̌n fushɛ̱ ı̱́ kà tı̱̋ ǣ̀r<br>bȅ̱ rǿ sū̀ xō ʊ̌n fushɛ̱ ı̱́ kà tı̱̋ ǣ̀r <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | lē e̱ nœ̀h vusqɛ̱ṙ ǣr ga ı̱n sū hō<br>lē e̱ nœ̀h vusqɛ̱ṙ ǣr ga ı̱n ṙy̱n sū hō<br>lē e̱ nœ̀h vusqɛ̱ṙ ǣr ga ı̱n ŕœ̄̀ sū hō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ðē he̱ θū xø̌w nø̀ βuθχɛ̱́ hı̱n ɛ́r kaχ<br>ðē he̱ θū xø̌w ŕə̄̀ nø̀ βuθχɛ̱́ hı̱n ɛ́r kaχ <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*ryʡib roːbʰa xəreː xəmroː bʰun mjəriboljuːska'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ryhib roβa βön řɑre řɑmro mjɑribɔʎuska<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | märólûsga ròpha röʔibh phun ṅämrò ṅärè <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rəʔib rüva qäry qämrü vun hivä järoɭəwska<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ori sajre ɽejniwa tojmewa majrukij<br>*ori sajre ɽejniwa tojmewa ṫa majrukij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ori säre ta ʎinima dömema märɑgy<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ori sāre ṙēniva tōmeva māruvī<br>ori sāre θa ṙēniva tōmeva māruvī<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ɔr sor fan ḣẽ tõ moruβi<br>ɔr sor fanβa ḣẽ tõ moruβi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mev‘i or‘ s‘æ ða ek‘ towm r‘en‘<br>mev‘i or‘ s‘æ ætava evo towmevo r‘en‘ivo<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgnez ŋuh ʐanmɔq qison uʈuʈ gɛ kaztaɴ qiːrɖawʡ<br>*buːgnez ŋuh ʐanmɔq qison uʈuʈ gɛ kaztaɴ qiːrɖawʡ pɔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́gnez ŋu ucumi žamɔ ison gɛ kazta ī́rɟṑʔ<br>bū́gnez ŋu ucumi žamɔ ison gɛ kazta ī́rɟṑʔ pɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | učeš búɣnez gu žanɔ ison gɛ kaztah írǧá<br>učeš pɔ búɣnez gu žanɔ ison gɛ kaztah írǧá <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣner nuʔ ɽanɔç çison uʈuʈ ɣɛ gartaň čihɖaw<br>vuɣner nuʔ ɽanɔç çison uʈuʈ ɣɛ gartaň čihɖaw bɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ecec vuɣner nuvɔ ʑanɔç çõn ɣɛ gartan čiɟå<br>ucuc vuɣner nuvɔ ʑanɔç çõn ɣɛ gartan čiɟå<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==I washed myself. Did you wash yourself?==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''I washed myself. Did you wash yourself?''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*oɬtu meʔæ jo ʔamoɬiːɳoɬ. ertu meʔæ næ ʔamoɬiːɳer?'''<br>1p-AGEN <small>same-PASS 1p-PASS PAST-wash<sub>PRF</sub>-1p. 2p-AGEN same-PASS 2p-PASS PAST-wash<sub>PRF</sub>-2p</small><br>'''*meʔæ jo ʔamoɬiːɳoɬ. meʔæ næ om ʔamoɬiːɳer?'''<br><small>same-PASS 1p-PASS PAST-wash<sub>PRF</sub>-1p. same-PASS 2p-PASS QUEST PAST-wash<sub>PRF</sub>-2p</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | owtu meʔɑ jo ʔamowī́ñow. ertu meʔɑ nɑ om ʔamowī́ñer?<br>owtu jo meʔɑ ʔamowī́ñow. ertu nɑ meʔɑ om ʔamowī́ñer? (<small>west.</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | òtu tòrò ámîníðə mô. étu tôhom ámîníðə mè?<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | owtu owf mobjiñjiθu jomɛ. æpjixu ojh mobjiñjiθu æpjimɛ?<br>owtu owf mobjiñjiθu jomɛ. ercu ojh mobjiñjiθu næmɛ? (<small>arch. or form.</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | oltu mē ju amohīňow. ertu mē nɛ amohīňər om?<br>oltu mēju amohīňow. ertu mēnɛ amohīňər om?<br>oltu mē amohīňow. ertu mē amohīňər om?<br>oltu mē amohīňow. ertu mē amohīňərom?<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ort mjə mjuňid jẽv. ert mjə mjuňid jẽrm?<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ūdju hɛrirpɛxū miçɛ çu. hɛrirpɛxir irdju miçɛ njɛ?<br>ūdju hɛrirpɛxū çu. hɛrirpɛxir irdju njɛ? <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔddo ho erejpəjhejdo. erejpəjhejdo əjddo ne?<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | üd́ə çə rirpäxü. ird́ə nä rirpäxir?<br>üd́ə çə rirpäxü. rirpäxir ird́ə nä? (<small>arch.</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ūdju rirpɛxīdu miçɛ çu. rirpɛxīdu irdju miçɛ njɛ?<br>ūdju miçɛ çu rirpɛxīdu. rirpɛxīdu irdju miçɛ njɛ?<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔaṕeḱiəsol oltəw jo meʔə. ʔaṕeḱiəser om ertəw nə meʔə?<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | Sample<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | Sample<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''Sample''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The new tailor is able to sew your dress==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The new tailor is able to sew your dress''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*reːʔoli kʰat́oɬiːtili ertura ræʂoχukʰaʂu kʰot́aɬæme pʰæŋes(æt́)'''<br><small>new-AGEN sew-er-AGEN 1p-GEN dress-strum-ABL sew-INF<sub>1</sub> be.able(-3p)</small><br>'''*reːʔoli kʰat́oɬiːtili næra ræʂoχukʰaʂu kʰot́aɬæme pʰæŋes(æt́)'''<br><small>new-AGEN sew-er-AGEN 1p-GEN dress-strum-ABL sew-INF<sub>1</sub> be.able(-3p)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rḗʔoli khatowī́tili nɑra pā́ktā́šu khotawɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | haðěði ô rô çěs haðòm pâtá ô nare<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ haθobjiθ‘il‘ rewil‘ fæžæh haθobæm‘ æl‘ æpjiral‘ pæstæl‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rēwəli xošohīdili ertuɕu rɛɕohuxaɕu xošohem fɛnəseš<br>rēwəli xošohīdili ertuɕu rɛɕohuxa xošohem fɛnəseš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řevər xožujidir ertuš ičihna xožujid fẽs<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rēhuliw kɛculīdiwliw pjɛgisjɛc irdjušu çīrmušu kucɛliwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ež rejo keccɔdəj pegis ekeccujge əjddužo hejmo <br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs käɟurīdü rehə ṕäs käɟurühä äs ird́usə çīrmə<br>äs käɟurīdü rehə ṕäs käɟurühä äs çīrmə närä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rihu kɛculīdiw pjɛɣis kucɛliwgɛ irdjužurɛ çīrmurɛ<br>rihu kɛculīdiw pjɛɣis kucɛliwgɛ irdjužu çīrmu<br>rihu kɛculīdiw pjɛɣis kucɛliwgɛ çīrmurɛ njɛrɛ<br>rihu kɛculīdiw pjɛɣis kucɛliwgɛ çīrmu njɛrɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fəgesət́ aʂaheʂəliə rēʔoliə īlemʔəm ertəwra xot́aləme<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | žur īxβa iʈʂʼiknaɴm wixirā rīkuɣ<br>žur īxβa rīkuɣ qa iʈʂʼiknaɴm wixīɣ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | jafese aśahqeś uʔermi ülemʔymim ëŕaš śehqel<br>jafese aśahqeś uʔermi śehqel ülemʔymim ëŕaš<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | sampo pokaduru kerriśedene šeerræ pokadomotu gogam<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋjej sjuɴqɛ̣ħ sȧ sėj kjuɴɬjı̇h sjuɴ pa xȯ<br>*ŋjej sjuɴqɛ̣ħ sȧ sėj kjuɴɬjı̇h sjuɴ ʔạ pa xȯ<br>*ŋjej sjuɴqɛ̣ħ pa ɬė sȧ sėj kjuɴɬjı̇h sjuɴ xȯ ʔạ<br>*ŋjej sjuɴqɛ̣ħ pa sȧ sėj kjuɴɬjı̇h sjuɴ xȯ ʔạ<br>*ŋjej sjuɴqɛ̣ħ pa sȧ sėj kjuɴɬjı̇h ʔạ sjuɴ xȯ ʔạ<br>*ŋjej sjuɴqɛ̣ħ pa ʔẹq ʔạ ɛħ ɬė sȧ sėj kjuɴɬjı̇h sjuɴ xȯ<br>*ŋjej sjuɴqɛ̣ħ pa ʔẹq ʔạ ɛħ sȧ sėj kjuɴɬjı̇h sjuɴ xȯ<br>*ŋjej sjuɴqɛ̣ħ pa ʔẹq ʔạ ɛħ sȧ sėj kjuɴɬjı̇h ʔạ sjuɴ xȯ<br>'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žɪ̂ šú̱nhɛ̱ pa xō šú̱n ǣ̃ sā sɪ̄̀ çú̱njı̄̃<br>žɪ̂ šú̱nhɛ̱ pa ǣ̃ bē šú̱n xō sā sɪ̄̀ çú̱njı̄̃<br>žɪ̂ šú̱nhɛ̱ pa ǣ̃ šú̱n xō a̱ sā sɪ̄̀ çú̱njı̄̃<br>žɪ̂ šú̱nhɛ̱ pa ǣ̃ šú̱n xō sā sɪ̄̀ çú̱njı̄̃<br>šú̱nhɛ̱ tı̱̋ žɪ̂ pa xō šú̱n ǣ̃ sā sɪ̄̀ çú̱njı̄̃<br>šú̱nhɛ̱ tı̱̋ žɪ̂ pa ǣ̃ bē šú̱n xō sā sɪ̄̀ çú̱njı̄̃<br>šú̱nhɛ̱ tı̱̋ žɪ̂ pa ǣ̃ šú̱n xō a̱ sā sɪ̄̀ çú̱njı̄̃<br>šú̱nhɛ̱ tı̱̋ žɪ̂ pa ǣ̃ šú̱n xō sā sɪ̄̀ çú̱njı̄̃<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńı́ śuhqɛ̱ṙ sā sı̄ ǵuhʎı̄ śuh ba hō<br>ńı́ śuhqɛ̱ṙ sā sı̄ ǵuhʎı̄ śuh a̱ ba hō<br>ńı́ śuhqɛ̱ṙ ba ǽ̱ṙ lē sā sı̄ ǵuhʎı̄ śuh hō<br>ńı́ śuhqɛ̱ṙ ba ǽ̱ṙ sā sı̄ ǵuhʎı̄ śuh hō<br>ńı́ śuhqɛ̱ṙ ba ǽ̱ṙ sā sı̄ ǵuhʎı̄ a̱ śuh hō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ǧı̌ šȳ̏χɛ̱́ pa xōrɛ́ šȳ̏ cȳ̏žı̄ θı̄ θā<br>ǧı̌ šȳ̏χɛ̱́ pa hēχɛ̌ ðē šȳ̏ xōrɛ́ cȳ̏žı̄ θı̄ θā<br>ǧı̌ šȳ̏χɛ̱́ pa hēχɛ̌ šȳ̏ xōrɛ́ cȳ̏žı̄ θı̄ θā<br>ǧı̌ šȳ̏χɛ̱́ pa hēχɛ̌ šȳ̏ xōrɛ́ ha̱ cȳ̏žı̄ θı̄ θā<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*nipʰə noːrsə kʰəgəmgʰoːd mokaːfoːrsə mokympaː<br>*nipʰə noːrsə mokympaː kʰəgəmgʰoːd mokaːfoːrsə<br>*nipʰə noːrsə seː mokympaː kʰəgəmgʰoːd mokaːfoːrsə'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | niɸɑ norsɑ goð xɑmɣod mɔkäforsɑ mɔkympä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | mogömbà mogàβòrsä nòrsä nifä häghämkhòdh <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | nifä nürsä gü ṙi çämʝüd mokeḃürsä mokəmpe<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*nupʰik̇ə najkʰṫijk̇ə iti ʡjəjrmju najkʰəwow emow<br>*nupʰik̇ə najkʰṫijk̇ə iteṗu iti ʡjəjrmju najkhəwow emow<br>*itiʈu ʡjəjrmjuʈu nupʰiʡo najkʰṫijʡo najkʰəwe emow<br>*iteṗu itiʈu ʡjəjrmjuʈu nupʰiʡo najkʰṫijʡo najkʰəwe emow'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | nuβik nähtyk ideriɕ çyrmuɕ nähose emüg<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | nubix nāgθīx iteri qērmu nāgævore emū<br>nubix nāgθīx iti qērmu nāgævore emū<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | nubih nogfih ir herə̃ noɣor ɛmo<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ek‘ nægð‘i nyb‘ emo nægew ek‘ q‘emy k‘et‘<br>ek‘ nægð‘i nyb‘ emo nægew ek‘ q‘emy it‘<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*tojmʈɑʡ moʈ laːmŋiːɖ ʡuːjqrih he as laːmnez moʈ paːktaːq qiseʂ uʈ<br>*tojmʈɑʡ moʈ he uk laːmŋiːɖ ʡuːjqrih as laːmnez moʈ paːktaːq qiseʂ uʈ<br>*tojmʈɑʡ moʈ laːmŋiːɖ ʡuːjqrih he as laːmnez moʈ paːktaːqqiseʂ<br>*tojmʈɑʡ moʈ he uk laːmŋiːɖ ʡuːjqrih as laːmnez moʈ paːktaːq qiseʂ<br>*tojmʈɑʡ moʈ laːmŋiːɖ ʡuːjqrih he as laːmnez moʈ he paːktaːq qiseʂ<br>*tojmʈɑʡ moʈ he uk laːmŋiːɖ ʡuːjqrih as laːmnez moʈ he paːktaːq qiseʂ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | tṑmcaʔ moc lā́ŋī́ɟ ʔū́ri ɛ̄̀s lā́mez moc ucmi pā́ktā́ iseš<br>tṑmcaʔ moc lā́ŋī́ɟ ʔū́ri ɛ̄̀s lā́mez moc pā́ktā́ iseš<br>tṑmcaʔ moc lā́ŋī́ɟ ʔū́ri ɛ̄̀s lā́mez moc e pā́ktā́ iseš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lámgíğ ûri tòmča moč ses uč lámez moč páktá iseš<br>lámgíğ ûri tòmča moč ses lámez moč páktá iseš<br>lámgíğ ûri tòmča moč ses uč lámez páktá iseš<br>lámgíğ ûri tòmča moč ses lámez páktá iseš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dojmʈa moʈ lämjiɖ jujçhiʔ ʔüg lämer moʈ as bägdäç gü eʂ uʈ<br>dojmʈa moʈ lämjiɖ jujçhiʔ ʔüg lämer moʈ bägdäç gü eʂ uʈ<br>dojmʈa moʈ lämjiɖ jujçhiʔ ʔüg lämer moʈ as bägdäç gü eʂ<br>dojmʈa moʈ lämjiɖ jujçhiʔ ʔüg lämer moʈ bägdäç gü eʂ<br>dojmʈa moʈ lämjiɖ jujçhiʔ ʔüg lämer moʈ as ʔe bägdäç gü eʂ<br>dojmʈa moʈ lämjiɖ jujçhiʔ ʔüg lämer moʈ ʔe bägdäç gü eʂ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | lä̃miɟ üçi dɔ̃ca moce ük ec lämer moce bägdäç gɑɕ<br>lä̃miɟ üçi dɔ̃ca moce ük uc lämer moce bägdäç göɕ<br>lä̃miɟ üçi dɔ̃ca moce ük lämer moce bägdäç gɑɕ<br>lä̃miɟ üçi dɔ̃ca moce ük lämer moce bägdäç göɕ<br>lä̃miɟ üçi dɔ̃ca moce ük lämer bägdäç gɑɕ<br>lä̃miɟ üçi dɔ̃ca moce ük lämer bägdäç göɕ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==My father was tending the flock==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''My father was tending the flock''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''''Proto-Piti''''' || '''*oɬtuʂu/joʂu papuli jaŋet́u ʔarimus(æt́)'''<br><small>1ps<sub>LONG</sub>-ABL/1ps<sub>SHORT</sub>-ABL father-AGEN sheep-COLLECT PAST-see<sub>IMPF</sub>(-3ps)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jošu papuli jagetu ʔarimusɑt<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paβu ô òre árimus jaðu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æl‘ joral‘ paɸul‘ joh rimusjiθu æl‘ jažɛθul‘ <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | oltuɕi pobuli jonəšu arumiseš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ortušur obušur jõž arumišid wẽh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ūdjušu bɛbjuliw hɛriwmjusjɛc čɛgiču<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔddužo bevvo rəjmmuzəjdo ež hegičo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | äs bäb́ə çərä häcän rüḿusīdə äs çähicə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | vɛvju çūrɛ riwmjuzīdu čɛɣiču<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔariəməwsət́ papəwliə oltəwra jaget́əw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βūβs βwariɴ tsʼrkirā sūɣ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | sreme tape ëlaš lonśițim<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | llærme roorra beehagene puskamomuud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋọ sėj ta mɛ̇hmɛ̇h ħı̣wŋ ʔȧp njạ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | go̱ sɪ̄̀ ta ɪ̱́g áp ña̱ mɛ̄̀mɛ̄̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | no̱ sı̄ da mɛ̄mɛ̄ ṙy̱n āb h́a̱<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta θı̄ wo̱ hāp ěw mɛ̄mɛ̄<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*koṅimaː lebeː kaləkjiːntʰos'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | ṅoð kimä lɛbe kalɑčünθɔs<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | galägînθos gojimà lebhè <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṅü ṙi kime löby kaläʈəjnḣos<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*amik̇ə romek̇ə pʰewrsjaj ləjk̇o<br>*ameʈu amik̇ə romek̇ə pʰewrsjaj ləjk̇o'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | amerik romek βöwršä lykog<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | amerix romex bœršā lēxo<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | õrih rõh beršo lehe ĩ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ek‘ om am‘ imy l‘exoð‘i ek‘ bošæ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*pɑːsnez moʈ zuhdowɴɖa roshan koː ɔn pɔ<br>*pɑːsnez moʈ zuhdowɴɖa roshan qisɔn pɔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɑ̄́snez moc rosan isɔn zudū̀ɟa pɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan isɔn pɔ pɑ́snez moč zuðúhğa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | båsner moʈ ruʔðowňɖa hosʔan gü ɔn bɔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | osã gü̃ båsner movɔ rünɟa<br>osã gö̃ båsner movɔ rünɟa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==I am saying that the bear ate the sheep==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''I am saying that the bear ate the sheep''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''''Proto-Piti''''' || '''*ʈæŋeɬoɬ t́uːkeːli jaŋeʂu ʔaχomeːnika'''<br><small>say<sub>IMPF</sub>-1ps bear-AGEN sheep-ABL PAST-eat<sub>PERF</sub>-INF<sub>2</sub></small><br>'''*ʈæŋeɬoɬ χiː t́uːkeːli jaŋe ʔaχomeːniɳ(æt́)'''<br><small>say<sub>IMPF</sub>-1ps that bear-AGEN sheep-PASS PAST-eat<sub>PERF</sub>-SUBJ(-3ps)</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tsɑgewow tū́kḗli jagešu ʔahomḗniñɑme<br>tsɑgewow hī́ɑt tū́kḗli jage ʔahomḗniñɑt<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | sâw hît túɣé tór âmoníðə jaše<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | owf cæžebjiθu hjæt æl‘ tučil‘ ojh homjeñiθu æl‘ jažɛl‘ <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | cɛnəhow šūšēli jonəɕu ahomēniga<br>cɛnəhow šūšēli jon ahomēniga<br>cɛnəhow hīdu šūšēli jon ahomēnečeš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | çwiçid wẽv çid fožer jõ çemũňid jẽh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʈɛgilū cūgēliw çɛgišu hɛxumēniwňiwgɛ<br>ʈɛgilū xīlu cūgēliw çɛgi hɛxumēniwňɛc<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cegɔ həju ež cɔgej ehejmunəjdo ež heǵ<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɕähirü xīr äs sühe xumeńäh äs çähi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tsɛɣilū xīlu ɣɛhär xumīdu çɛɣi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʈəgelol ʔahomēnəme t́ūkēliə jage<br>ʈəgelol hīlo ʔahomēnoṕət́ t́ūkēliə jage<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸirā sūš qa βrānt βāɴ mwamuɣ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | jometu țö ħemen ërħi ylnaśim<br>jometu țö ħemern ërħi ylnaśim<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | roo kaažimom rroohaśu beehane kumirapotu<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋọ ɬɔj njạ ʔọr mɛ̇h ɴu̇ħ xȯ ʔạ<br>*ŋọ ɬɔj njạ ʔọr mɛ̇h ħı̣wŋ ɴu̇ħ xȯ ʔạ<br>*ŋọ ɬɔj njạ ʔẹq ʔạ ɛħ ʔọr mɛ̇h ɴu̇ħ xȯ<br>*ŋọ ɬɔj njạ ʔẹq ʔạ ɛħ ʔọr mɛ̇h ħı̣wŋ ɴu̇ħ xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | go̱ bɑ̀ ña̱ ǣ̃ o̱r nū̀ xō mɛ̄̀<br>go̱ bɑ̀ ña̱ ǣ̃ o̱r ɪ̱́g nū̀ xō mɛ̄̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*ṅəsəkorkʰu gʰeʡaːr rebeː gʰəraːfoljeːsqi<br>seː ṅəsəkorkʰu gʰeʡaːr rebeː gʰəraːfoljeːsqi'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''Sample''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==I saw the wolf who ate the sheep==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''I saw the wolf who ate the sheep''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''''Proto-Piti''''' || '''*jaŋeʂu ʔaχomeːniːto kæŋo ʔaloliːṕoɬ'''<br><small>sheep-ABL PAST-eat<sub>PERF</sub>-PART.AG-PASS wolf-PASS PAST-see<sub>PERF</sub>-1ps</small><br>'''*χiːli jaŋe ʔaχomeːn(æt́) kæŋo ʔaloliːṕoɬ'''<br><small>which<sub>REL</sub>-AGEN sheep-PASS PAST-eat<sub>PERF</sub>(-3ps) wolf-PASS PAST-see<sub>PERF</sub>-1ps</small><br>'''*kæŋo χiːli jaŋe ʔaχomeːn(æt́) ʔaloliːṕoɬ'''<br><small>wolf-PASS which<sub>REL</sub>-AGEN sheep-PASS PAST-eat<sub>PERF</sub>(-3ps) PAST-see<sub>PERF</sub>-1ps</small><br>'''*kæŋo ʔaloliːṕoɬ χiːli jaŋe ʔaχomeːn(æt́)'''<br><small>wolf-PASS PAST-see<sub>PERF</sub>-1ps which<sub>REL</sub>-AGEN sheep-PASS PAST-eat<sub>PERF</sub>(-3ps)</small><br><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jagešu ʔahomḗnī́to kɑgo ʔalolī́pow<br>hī́li jage ʔahomḗniñɑt kɑgo ʔalolī́pow<br>kɑgo hī́li jage ʔahomḗniñɑt ʔalolī́pow<br>kɑgo ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔahomḗniñɑt<br><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | tòrò êβíðə kaɣə ì tór âmoníðə jaše<br>tòrò êβíðə kaɣə ìðu tór âmoníðə jaše<br>tòrò êβíðə kaɣə ô šáɣə tór âmoníðə jaše<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | owf loʎiɸjiθu æl‘ kægol‘ homjeñiθul‘ æl‘ jažɛl‘<br>owf loʎiɸjiθu æl‘ kægol‘ hji ojh homjeñiθu æl‘ jažɛl‘<br>owf loʎiɸjiθu æl‘ kægol‘ æl‘ sæxul‘ ojh homjeñiθu æl‘ jažɛl‘ <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | jonəɕu ahomēnīdu kɛnu alolīčow<br>hīli jon ahomēnečeš kɛnu alolīčow<br>kɛnu hīli jon ahomēnečeš alolīčow<br>kɛnu alolīčow hīli jon ahomēnečeš<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jõ çemũňid jẽh šweduɣur kwẽ řirušjid jẽv <br>kwẽ šweduɣur jõ çemũňid jẽh řirušjid jẽv<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛlulīšū çɛgišu hɛxumēnīdu gjɛgu<br>hɛlulīšū gjɛgu xīliw çɛgi hɛxumēniwňɛc<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔddo ejjužəjdo ež gego ša ehejmunəjdo ež heǵ<br>ɔddo ejjužəjdo ež gego ež šago ehejmunəjdo ež heǵ<br>ɔddo ejjužəjdo ež gego ež hego ehejmunəjdo ež heǵ<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rurīsü äs ǵähə xumenīdə äs çähi<br>rurīsü äs ǵähə xīhə xumeńäh äs çähi<br>rurīsü äs ǵähə äs sähə xumeńäh äs çähi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ūdju lulīžīdu gjɛgu xī xumīdu čɛɣi<br>ūdju lulīžīdu gjɛgu xīgu xumīdu čɛɣi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔalolīṕol kəgo ʔahomēnīto jage<br>ʔalolīṕol kəgo ʔahomēnət́ hī jage<br>ʔalolīṕol kəgo ʔahomēnət́ hīlo jage<br>ʔalolīṕol kəgo hīlo ʔahomēnət́ ət́lo jage<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βāɴ mwamurāɴ ɣūrɴ ɸāquš<br>ɣūrɴ ɟīð βāɴ mwamuɣ ɸāquš<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ťereku këmum qy ħemen ylnaśim<br>ťereku këmum qy ħemern ylnaśim<br>ťereku këmum pëħmenuśim ylnaśim<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | roo beehane kumirapantuno uuhhano tuurkarapudd<br>roo beehane kumirapuud koo uuhhano tuurkarapudd<br>roo uuhhano koo beehane kumirapuud tuurkarapudd<br>roo uuhhano tuurkarapudd koo beehane kumirapuud <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋọ ɬė u̇ħ mɛ̇h ɴu̇ħ xȯ sėjn hu̇ħ su̇h xȯ<br>*ŋọ ɬė u̇ħ mɛ̇h ħı̣wŋ ɴu̇ħ xȯ sėjn hu̇ħ ħı̣wŋ su̇h xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | go̱ sū̀ xō bē ū̀ nū̀ xō mɛ̄̀ sɪ̌ ū̃<br>go̱ sū̀ xō ū̃ sɪ̌ bē ū̀ nū̀ xō mɛ̄̀<br>go̱ sū̀ xō ū̃ sɪ̌ nū̀ xō mɛ̄̀ a̱<br>go̱ ɪ̱́g sū̀ xō bē ū̀ ɪ̱́g nū̀ xō mɛ̄̀ sɪ̌ ū̃<br>go̱ ɪ̱́g sū̀ xō ū̃ sɪ̌ bē ū̀ ɪ̱́g nū̀ xō mɛ̄̀<br>go̱ ɪ̱́g sū̀ xō ū̃ sɪ̌ ɪ̱́g nū̀ xō mɛ̄̀ a̱<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*rebeː gʰəroljeːsqi gʰur gʰexə ṅəgʰoljuːska<br>*rebeː gʰəraːfoljeːsqi gʰur gʰexə ṅəgʰoljuːska<br>*gʰur rebeː gʰəroljeːsqi gʰexə ṅəgʰoljuːska<br>*gʰur rebeː gʰəraːfoljeːsqi gʰexə ṅəgʰoljuːska'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''Sample''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==The men brought the stones to build the new street==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''The men brought the stones to build the new street''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9B23;" | '''Proto-Piti''' || style="background-color:#FF9B23;" | '''*ɬiːronoli juːɬano ʔaŋoŋakon(æt́) reːʔoʂu ṕoːteʂu tiroːsikaχæ'''<br><small>man-PLUR-AGEN stone-PLUR-PASS PAST-bring<sub>PERF</sub>-PLUR-(3p) new-ABL way-ABL build<sub>PERF</sub>-INF<sub>2</sub>-TERM<br></small> '''*ɬiːrolino juːɬano ʔaŋoŋak(æt́)on reːʔoʂu ṕoːteʂu tiroːsikaχæ'''<br><small>man-AGEN-PLUR stone-PASS-PLUR PAST-bring<sub>PERF</sub>-PLUR-(3p) new-ABL way-ABL build<sub>PERF</sub>-INF<sub>2</sub>-TERM<br></small>'''*ɬiːronoli juːɬano ʔaŋoŋakon(æt́) ʂætuχæ (suːʔ) reːʔo ṕoːte tiroːsiɳon(æt́)'''<br><small>man-PLUR-AGEN stone-PLUR-PASS PAST-bring<sub>PERF</sub>-PLUR-(3p) what-same-TERM (for.benefit) new-PASS way-PASS build<sub>PERF</sub>-SUBJ-PLUR-(3p)<br></small> '''*ɬiːrolino juːɬano ʔaŋoŋak(æt́)on ʂætuχæ (suːʔ) reːʔo ṕoːte tiroːsiɳ(æt́)on'''<br><small>man-AGEN-PLUR stone-PASS-PLUR PAST-bring<sub>PERF</sub>-PLUR-(3p) what-same-TERM (for.benefit) new-PASS way-PASS build<sub>PERF</sub>-SUBJ-(3p)-PLUR<br></small> '''*ɬiːronoli juːɬano ʔaŋoŋakon(æt́) ʂæloχæ (suːʔ) reːʔo ṕoːte tiroːsiɳon(æt́)'''<br><small>man-PLUR-AGEN stone-PLUR-PASS PAST-bring<sub>PERF</sub>-PLUR-(3p) what-same-TERM (for.benefit) new-PASS way-PASS build<sub>PERF</sub>-SUBJ-PLUR-(3p)<br></small> '''*ɬiːrolino juːɬano ʔaŋoŋak(æt́)on ʂæloχæ (suːʔ) reːʔo ṕoːte tiroːsiɳ(æt́)on'''<br><small>man-AGEN-PLUR stone-PASS-PLUR PAST-bring<sub>PERF</sub>-PLUR-(3p) what-same-TERM (for.benefit) new-PASS way-PASS build<sub>PERF</sub>-SUBJ-(3p)-PLUR<br></small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wī́ronoli jū́wano ʔagogɑkonɑt rḗʔošu ḗrgošu tirṓsiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | îrənə tôr áɣaɣoɣíðə jǒčinə sù tórisinam êgə ô rô<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æn‘ vjirunol‘ onæh gogaciθu æn‘ jubanol‘ su towrisiñæm‘ æl‘ eržul‘ rewil‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | līrulinu jūhanu ēšmegešon rēwəɕu čōdəɕu tōrisigahe<br>līrulinu jūhanu ēšmegešon rēw čōd tōrisigahe<br>līrulinu jūhanu ēšmegešon hīduhe rēw čōd tōrisočešon<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | řirurĩ wã jihmiǧidũ wẽžõ çidso řev žaθ turišidũ wũžõ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wīrunuliw hɛgugɛgunjɛc çūlɛnu rēhušu šōdišu diwrōsiwňiwgɛxjɛ<br>wīrunuliw hɛgugɛgunjɛc çūlɛnu šɛdjuxjɛ rēhu šōdi diwrōsiwňunjɛc<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ežno əjruno egegugəjduno ežno hɔjno hedduh dɔrəjsəjgere ež rejo hɔd́<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | äsən wīrənə guhähuńäh äsən çüränə süh dorüsühä äs sodi rehə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | virū guɣɛɣīdū çūlö sūh diwrōsiwgɛxjɛ rihu šōdi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔagogakət́on līroliəno jūlano tiərōsəmexə ət́lono rūxʂīro rēʔo<br>ʔagogakət́on līroliəno jūlano ʂəlox tiərōsiəɳət́on rūxʂīro rēʔo<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | tɬʼīxi ɖaβaɴ kīʂīç qašn žurɴ žaðɴ tsʼwimujç<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | peteket iʔnur ëjrkum söq potçeloʔ ruħširom uʔermim<br>peterket iʔnur ëjrkum söq potçeloʔ ruħširom uʔermim<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | tterniže suuśahuuno æšmiigæpiid taažośu sampono ppoodono konrugotuga<br>tterniže suuśahuu æšmiigæpiid taažośu sampo ppoodo konrugotuga<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*nɔɴqɛ̣ħ ŋȧjm pjȧjt xȯ ɬė ʔẹ ŋjej ɸej hu̇p xȯ kjuh<br>*nɔɴqɛ̣ħ ŋȧjm hı̣wŋ pjȧjt xȯ ɬė ʔẹ ŋjej ɸej ku̇x hu̇p xȯ kjuh<br>*nɔɴqɛ̣ħ ŋȧjm pjȧjt xȯ ʔẹq kjuh ɛħ ɬė ʔẹ ŋjej ɸej hu̇p xȯ<br>*nɔɴqɛ̣ħ ŋȧjm hı̣wŋ pjȧjt xȯ ʔẹq kjuh ɛħ ɬė ʔẹ ŋjej ɸej ku̇x hu̇p xȯ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɔ̄̀nhɛ̱ pǣ̃t xō gǣ̀m éçû bȅ̱ úp xō žɪ̂ fɪ̀<br>ɔ̄̀nhɛ̱ ɪ̱́g pǣ̃t xō gǣ̀m éçû bȅ̱ kūx úp xō žɪ̂ fɪ̀<br>ɔ̄̀nhɛ̱ pǣ̃t xō gǣ̀m éçû bȅ̱ úp xō fɪ̀ tı̱̋ žɪ̂<br>ɔ̄̀nhɛ̱ ɪ̱́g pǣ̃t xō gǣ̀m éçû bȅ̱ kūx úp xō fɪ̀ tı̱̋ žɪ̂<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nɔhqɛ̱ṙ nǽm b́ǣd hō ǵœr lē e̱ ńı́ vı́ ūb hō<br>nɔhqɛ̱ṙ nǽm ṙy̱n b́ǣd hō ǵœr lē e̱ ńı́ vı́ gūh ūb hō<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nɔ̀χɛ̱́ çǭt xø̌w wɛ̄̀m hēcư̄̃ ðē he̱ ūp xōrɛ́ ǧı̌ ehxo<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;" | '''*kjoːbʰa pjymeː kjepjoljastə qipʰə qopu kjəqaːfolwiːrgʰam bʰo<br>*kjoːbʰa pjymeː kjepjoljastə qipʰə qopu seː bʰo kjəqaːfolwiːrgʰam'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | čoβa çyme čɛçɔʎastɑ seβ qiɸɑ qɔpö čɑqɔlürɣam <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | gebólásdä gôpha bö́mè pho gäqàβólî̱rkham qifä qobu<br>gebólásdä gôpha bö́mè phosèbh gäqàβólî̱rkham qifä qobu <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#abd6fe;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#abd6fe;" | ʈüva ɕəmy ʈöɕoɭastä hyfob xifä xopu ʈäxeḃoləjrʝam<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kʰjenejk̇e ṗowtej wapʰuj nupʰiʈu spajkʰeʈu pəwʂəwepə<br>*kʰjenejk̇e ṗowtej okepə wapʰuj nupʰi spajkʰe pəwʂəwuwij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | henik püdi waβɑgy nuβiɕ sbäheɕ bɑwʂoseɕ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ǧenēx fūtē ňeṙoruvī nubi spāxe pōħævorešu<br>ǧenēx fūtē ňeṙoruvī nubi spāxe pæma pōħævorešu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ǧĩh fode jeḣoruβi nub žat pəm poʔor<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ek‘i żen‘e ňerywv‘i ek‘i hut‘e pɛma pow ek‘ eržu nyb‘<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*bɛːznez ŋuh lɑːmsɑqlɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq pɔ si ze as nɔːmnez ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ saː<br>*bɛːznez ŋuh lɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq pɔ si ze as nɔːmnez ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ saː<br>*bɛːznez ŋuh lɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq si ze as nɔːmnez ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ<br>*bɛːznez ŋuh lɑːmsɑqlɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq ze uk pɔ as nɔːmnez ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ saː<br>*bɛːznez ŋuh lɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq ze uk pɔ as nɔːmnez ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ saː<br>*bɛːznez ŋuh lɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq ze uk as nɔːmnez ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ<br>*bɛːzʈɑʡ ŋuh lɑːmsɑqlɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq pɔ si ze as nɔːmʈaʡ ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ saː<br>*bɛːzʈɑʡ ŋuh lɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq pɔ si ze as nɔːmʈaʡ ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ saː<br>*bɛːzʈɑʡ ŋuh lɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq si ze as nɔːmʈaʡ ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ<br>*bɛːzʈɑʡ ŋuh lɑːmsɑqlɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq ze uk pɔ as nɔːmʈaʡ ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ saː<br>*bɛːzʈɑʡ ŋuh lɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq ze uk pɔ as nɔːmʈaʡ ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ saː<br>*bɛːzʈɑʡ ŋuh lɑːmsɑq rosmɔqmɔq ze uk as nɔːmʈaʡ ŋuh ergoh ʡuːjqrih uʈuʈ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɛ̄́znez ŋu rosmɔmɔ lɑ̄́msɑlɑ̄́msɑ pɔ zɛ̄̀s nɔ̄́nez ŋu ucumi ergo ʔū́ri sā́<br>bɛ̄́znez ŋu rosmɔmɔ lɑ̄́msɑ pɔ zɛ̄̀s nɔ̄́nez ŋu ucumi ergo ʔū́ri sā́<br>bɛ̄́znez ŋu rosmɔmɔ lɑ̄́msɑ zɛ̄̀s nɔ̄́nez ŋu ucumi ergo ʔū́ri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosmɔmɔ pɔ bɛ́znez gu lɑ́msɑlɑ́msɑ zɛs učeš sá nɔ́mez gu erɣo ûri<br>rosmɔmɔ pɔ bɛ́znez gu lɑ́msɑ zɛs učeš sá nɔ́mez gu erɣo ûri<br>rosmɔmɔ bɛ́znez gu lɑ́msɑ zɛs učeš nɔ́mez gu erɣo ûri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βörner nuʔ låmsɑçlåmsɑç hosmɔçmɔç bɔ rüg nwomer nuʔ ehɣoʔ jujçhi uʈuʈ sä<br>βörner nuʔ låmsɑç hosmɔçmɔç bɔ rüg nwomer nuʔ ehɣoʔ jujçhi uʈuʈ sä<br>βörner nuʔ låmsɑç hosmɔçmɔç rüg nwomer nuʔ ehɣoʔ jujçhi uʈuʈ<br>βörner nuʔ låmsɑçlåmsɑç hosmɔçmɔç bɔ rüg nwomer nuʔ as ehɣoʔ jujçhi uʈuʈ sä<br>βörner nuʔ låmsɑç hosmɔçmɔç bɔ rüg nwomer nuʔ as ehɣoʔ jujçhi uʈuʈ sä<br>βörner nuʔ låmsɑç hosmɔçmɔç rüg nwomer nuʔ as ehɣoʔ jujçhi uʈuʈ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | osmɔçmɔç hörner nuvɔ lå̃sɑçlå̃sɑç rük ecec nümer nusä eɣo üçi<br>osmɔçmɔç hörner nuvɔ lå̃sɑç rük ecec nümer nusä eɣo üçi<br>osmɔçmɔç hörner nuvɔ lå̃sɑçlå̃sɑç rük ucuc nümer nusä eɣo üçi<br>osmɔçmɔç hörner nuvɔ lå̃sɑç rük ucuc nümer nusä eɣo üçi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Template==<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sentence''' || ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*Sample'''<br><small>Sample</small><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Læntixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''Sample''<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | Sample<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | Sample<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sakdi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*Sample'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ''Sample''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''Sample''<br />
|}</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIV&diff=158883User:Bukkia/sandboxIV2023-11-30T19:14:58Z<p>Bukkia: /* Lændixu */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Proto-Piti===<br />
Root '''*liːloṕ-''', ''to see''<br />
<br />
{|- class="wikitable"<br />
| colspan="5"| <center>'''''Indicative'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||'''''Imperfective present''''' ||'''''Perfective present''''' ||'''''Imperfective past''''' || '''''Perfective past'''''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || '''*liːloṕoł''' || '''*loliːṕoł''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoł''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoł''' <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || '''*liːloṕer''' || '''*loliːṕer''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕer''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕer''' <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3s || '''*liːloṕæt́''' || '''*loliːṕæt́''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæt́''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæt́''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕ''' || '''*loliːṕ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || '''*liːloṕiʔoł'''<br>'''*liːloṕołiʔ'''|| '''*loliːṕiʔoł'''<br>'''*loliːṕołiʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiʔoł'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕołiʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiʔoł'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕołiʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || '''*liːloṕiʔer'''<br>'''*liːloṕeriʔ'''|| '''*loliːṕiʔer'''<br>'''*loliːṕeriʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiʔer'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕeriʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiʔer'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕeriʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3d || '''*liːloṕiʔæt́'''<br>'''*liːloṕæt́iʔ''' || '''*loliːṕiʔæt́'''<br>'''*loliːṕæt́iʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiʔæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕæt́iʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiʔæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕæt́iʔ''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕiʔ''' || '''*loliːṕiʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || '''*liːloṕonoł'''<br>'''*liːloṕołon'''|| '''*loliːṕonoł'''<br>'''*loliːṕołon''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕonoł'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕołon''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕonoł'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕołon'''<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || '''*liːloṕoner'''<br>'''*liːloṕeron'''|| '''*loliːṕoner'''<br>'''*loliːṕeron''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoner'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕeron''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoner'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕeron'''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3p || '''*liːloṕonæt́'''<br>'''*liːloṕæt́on''' || '''*loliːṕonæt́'''<br>'''*loliːṕæt́on''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕonæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕæt́on''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕonæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕæt́on''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕon''' || '''*loliːṕon''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕon''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕon'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|- class="wikitable"<br />
| colspan="5"| <center>'''''Subjunctive'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||'''''Imperfective present''''' ||'''''Perfective present''''' ||'''''Imperfective past''''' || '''''Perfective past'''''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || '''*liːloṕiɳoł''' || '''*loliːṕiɳoł''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳoł''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳoł''' <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || '''*liːloṕiɳer''' || '''*loliːṕiɳer''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳer''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳer''' <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3s || '''*liːloṕiɳæt́''' || '''*loliːṕiɳæt́''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳæt́''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳæt́''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕiɳ''' || '''*loliːṕiɳ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || '''*liːloṕiɳiʔoł'''<br>'''*liːloṕiɳołiʔ'''|| '''*loliːṕiɳiʔoł'''<br>'''*loliːṕiɳołiʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳiʔoł'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕiɳołiʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳiʔoł'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕiɳołiʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || '''*liːloṕiɳiʔer'''<br>'''*liːloṕiɳeriʔ'''|| '''*loliːṕiɳiʔer'''<br>'''*loliːṕiɳeriʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳiʔer'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕiɳeriʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳiʔer'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕiɳeriʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3d || '''*liːloṕiɳiʔæt́'''<br>'''*liːloṕiɳæt́iʔ''' || '''*loliːṕiɳiʔæt́'''<br>'''*loliːṕiɳæt́iʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳiʔæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕiɳæt́iʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳiʔæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːiɳæt́iʔ''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕiɳiʔ''' || '''*loliːṕiɳiʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳiʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳiʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || '''*liːloṕiɳonoł'''<br>'''*liːloṕiɳołon'''|| '''*loliːṕiɳonoł'''<br>'''*loliːṕiɳołon''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳonoł'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕiɳołon''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳonoł'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕiɳołon'''<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || '''*liːloṕiɳoner'''<br>'''*liːloṕeron'''|| '''*loliːṕiɳoner'''<br>'''*loliːṕeron''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳoner'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕiɳeron''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳoner'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕiɳeron'''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3p || '''*liːloṕoniɳæt́'''<br>'''*liːloṕiɳæt́on''' || '''*loliːṕiɳonæt́'''<br>'''*loliːṕiɳæt́on''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳonæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕiɳæt́on''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳonæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕiɳæt́on''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕiɳon''' || '''*loliːṕiɳon''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiɳon''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiɳon'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|- class="wikitable"<br />
| colspan="5"| <center>'''''Optative'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||'''''Imperfective present''''' ||'''''Perfective present''''' ||'''''Imperfective past''''' || '''''Perfective past'''''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || '''*liːloṕoṕoł''' || '''*loliːṕoṕoł''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕoł''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕoł''' <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || '''*liːloṕoṕer''' || '''*loliːṕoṕer''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕer''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕer''' <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3s || '''*liːloṕoṕæt́''' || '''*loliːṕoṕæt́''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕæt́''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕæt́''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕoṕ''' || '''*loliːṕoṕ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || '''*liːloṕoṕiʔoł'''<br>'''*liːloṕoṕołiʔ'''|| '''*loliːṕoṕiʔoł'''<br>'''*loliːṕoṕołiʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕiʔoł'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕoṕołiʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕiʔoł'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕoṕołiʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || '''*liːloṕoṕiʔer'''<br>'''*liːloṕoṕeriʔ'''|| '''*loliːṕoṕiʔer'''<br>'''*loliːṕoṕeriʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕiʔer'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕoṕeriʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕiʔer'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕoṕeriʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3d || '''*liːloṕoṕiʔæt́'''<br>'''*liːloṕoṕæt́iʔ''' || '''*loliːṕoṕiʔæt́'''<br>'''*loliːṕoṕæt́iʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕiʔæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕoṕæt́iʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕiʔæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕoṕæt́iʔ''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕoṕiʔ''' || '''*loliːṕoṕiʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕiʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕiʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || '''*liːloṕoṕonoł'''<br>'''*liːloṕoṕołon'''|| '''*loliːṕonoł'''<br>'''*loliːṕoṕołon''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕonoł'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕoṕołon''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕonoł'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕoṕołon'''<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || '''*liːloṕoṕoner'''<br>'''*liːloṕoṕeron'''|| '''*loliːṕoṕoner'''<br>'''*loliːṕoṕeron''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕoner'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕoṕeron''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕoner'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕoṕeron'''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3p || '''*liːloṕoṕonæt́'''<br>'''*liːloṕoṕæt́on''' || '''*loliːṕoṕonæt́'''<br>'''*loliːṕoṕæt́on''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕonæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕoṕæt́on''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕonæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕoṕæt́on''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕoṕon''' || '''*loliːṕoṕon''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕoṕon''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕoṕon'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|- class="wikitable"<br />
| colspan="5"| <center>'''''Potential'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||'''''Imperfective present''''' ||'''''Perfective present''''' ||'''''Imperfective past''''' || '''''Perfective past'''''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || '''*liːloṕæʈoł''' || '''*loliːṕæʈoł''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈoł''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈoł''' <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || '''*liːloṕæʈer''' || '''*loliːṕæʈer''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈer''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈer''' <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3s || '''*liːloṕæʈæt́''' || '''*loliːṕæʈæt́''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈæt́''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈæt́''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕæʈ''' || '''*loliːṕæʈ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || '''*liːloṕæʈiʔoł'''<br>'''*liːloṕæʈołiʔ'''|| '''*loliːṕæʈiʔoł'''<br>'''*loliːṕæʈołiʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈiʔoł'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕæʈołiʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈiʔoł'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕæʈołiʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || '''*liːloṕæʈiʔer'''<br>'''*liːloṕæʈeriʔ'''|| '''*loliːṕæʈiʔer'''<br>'''*loliːṕæʈeriʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈiʔer'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕæʈeriʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈiʔer'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕæʈeriʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3d || '''*liːloṕæʈiʔæt́'''<br>'''*liːloṕæʈæt́iʔ''' || '''*loliːṕæʈiʔæt́'''<br>'''*loliːṕæʈæt́iʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈiʔæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕæʈæt́iʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈiʔæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕæʈæt́iʔ''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕæʈiʔ''' || '''*loliːṕæʈiʔ''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈiʔ''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈiʔ'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || '''*liːloṕæʈonoł'''<br>'''*liːloṕæʈołon'''|| '''*loliːṕæʈonoł'''<br>'''*loliːṕæʈołon''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈonoł'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕæʈołon''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈonoł'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕæʈołon'''<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || '''*liːloṕæʈoner'''<br>'''*liːloṕæʈeron'''|| '''*loliːṕæʈoner'''<br>'''*loliːṕæʈeron''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈoner'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕæʈeron''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈoner'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕæʈeron'''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | 3p || '''*liːloṕonæʈæt́'''<br>'''*liːloṕæʈæt́on''' || '''*loliːṕæʈonæt́'''<br>'''*loliːṕæʈæt́on''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈonæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaliːloṕæʈæt́on''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈonæt́'''<br>'''*ʔaloliːṕæʈæt́on''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''*liːloṕæʈon''' || '''*loliːṕæʈon''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæʈon''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæʈon'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|- class="wikitable"<br />
| colspan="5"| <center>'''Indefinite moods'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||'''''Imperfective present''''' ||'''''Perfective present''''' ||'''''Imperfective past''''' || '''''Perfective past'''''<br />
|-<br />
| ''Infinite<sub><small>1</small></sub>'' || '''*liːloṕæme''' || '''*loliːṕæme''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕæme''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕæme''' <br />
|-<br />
| ''Infinite<sub><small>2</small></sub>''|| '''*liːloṕika''' || '''*loliːṕika''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕika''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕika''' <br />
|-<br />
| ''Active participle'' || '''*liːloṕiːto'''|| '''*loliːṕiːto''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕiːto''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕiːto'''<br />
|-<br />
| ''Passive participle'' || '''*liːloṕuki'''|| '''*loliːṕuki''' || '''*ʔaliːloṕuki''' || '''*ʔaloliːṕuki'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===Kī́rtako===<br />
Verb '''lī́lopɑme''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#FFD482;"| <center>'''''Indicative'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>past''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pow<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́loper || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́per || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́loper || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́per<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lop || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lop || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́p<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́loponow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́ponow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́loponow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́ponow<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́loponer || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́poner || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́loponer || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́poner<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́loponɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́ponɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́loponɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́ponɑt<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopon || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pon || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopon || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#FFD482;"| <center>'''''Subjunctive'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>past''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñow<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñer || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñer || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñer || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñer<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñɑt<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñ || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñ || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñ || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñ<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñonow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñonow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñonow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñonow<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñoner || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñoner || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñoner || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñoner<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́loponɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́ponɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñonɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñonɑt<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñon || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñon || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñon || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñon<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#FFD482;"| <center>'''''Conditional'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>past''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtsow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtsow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtsow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtsow<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtser || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtser || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtser || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtser<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtsɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtsɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑts || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑts || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑts || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑts<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtsonow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtsonow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtsonow || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtsonow<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtsoner || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtsoner || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtsoner || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtsoner<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtsonɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtsonɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtson || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtson || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtson || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtson<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#FFD482;"| <center>'''''Infinitive'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>past''' <br />
|-<br />
| ''Indicative'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑme || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑme || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑme || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑme<br />
|-<br />
| ''Subjunctive'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñɑme || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñɑme || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñɑme || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñɑme<br />
|-<br />
| ''Conditional'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtsɑme || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtsɑme || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#FFD482;"| <center>'''''Agentive participle'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>past''' <br />
|-<br />
| ''Indicative'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopī́to || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pī́to || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopī́to || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pī́to<br />
|-<br />
| ''Subjunctive'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñī́to || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñī́to || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñī́to || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñī́to<br />
|-<br />
| ''Conditional'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtsī́to || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtsī́to || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#FFD482;"| <center>'''''Passive participle'''''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Perfective<br>past''' <br />
|-<br />
| ''Indicative'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopuki || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́puki || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopuki || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́puki<br />
|-<br />
| ''Subjunctive'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopiñuki || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́piñuki || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopiñuki || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́piñuki<br />
|-<br />
| ''Conditional'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lī́lopɑtsuki || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| lolī́pɑtsuki || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalī́lopɑtsuki || style="background-color:#FFD482;"| ʔalolī́pɑtsuki<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Iðâɣ===<br />
Verb '''lîβam''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Imperfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tòrò êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðòrò êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣò lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣò êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣò lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tôh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðôh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîh lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîh êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîh lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîp || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êp || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tòr êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðòr êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣ lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣ êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣìɣ lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβonò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβonò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tòrô êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðòrô êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣô lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣô êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣô lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβonəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβonəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tòrôh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðòrôh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣôh lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣôh êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣôh lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβon || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβon || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tôr êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðôr êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣ lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣ êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîɣ lîβam<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Passive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Imperfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣò lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣò lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣò êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣò êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣò kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣò kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣò kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîh kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîh kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîh kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣ lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣìɣ lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣ êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣìɣ êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣ kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣ kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣìɣ kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣô lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣô lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣô êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣô êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣô kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣô kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣô kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣôh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣôh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣôh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣôh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣôh kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣôh kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣôh kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣ lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîɣ lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣ êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîɣ êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣ kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣ kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîɣ kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Imperfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβinò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβinò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tìnò êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðìnò êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinò lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinò êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinò lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβinəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβinəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tìnəh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðìnəh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kinîh lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kinîh êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣinîh lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβin || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβin || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tìn êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðìn êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣin lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣin êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣìɣin lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβinonò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβinonò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tìnô êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðìnô êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinô lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinô êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinô lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβinonəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβinonəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tìnôh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðìnôh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinôh lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinôh êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinôh lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβinon || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβinon || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tîn êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðîn êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣin lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣin êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîɣin lîβam<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Passive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Imperfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinò lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinò lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinò êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinò êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinò kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinò kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinò kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kinîh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣinîh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kinîh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣinîh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kinîh kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kinîh kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣinîh kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣin lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣìɣin lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣin êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣìɣin êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣin kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kìɣin kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣìɣin kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinô lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinô lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinô êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinô êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinô kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinô kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinô kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinôh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinôh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinôh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinôh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinôh kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinôh kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣinôh kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣin lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîɣin lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣin êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîɣin êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣin kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kîɣin kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣîɣin kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Imperfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβasò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβasò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tàsò êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðàsò êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasò lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasò êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasò lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβasəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβasəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tàsəh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðàsəh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâh lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâh êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjâh lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβas || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβas || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tàs êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðàs êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjàɣ lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjàɣ êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjàɣ lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβasonò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβasonò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tàsô êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðàsô êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasô lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasô êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasô lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβasonəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβasonəh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tàsôh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðàsôh êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasôh lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasôh êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasôh lîβam<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβason || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβason || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| tâs êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áðâs êβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâɣ lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâɣ êβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjâɣ lîβam<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Passive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Imperfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasò lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasò lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasò êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasò êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasò kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasò kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasò kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjâh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjâh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâh kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâh kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjâh kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjàɣ lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjàɣ lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjàɣ êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjàɣ êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjàɣ kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjàɣ kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjàɣ kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasô lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasô lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasô êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasô êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasô kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasô kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasô kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasôh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasôh lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasôh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasôh êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasôh kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasôh kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣiɣasôh kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâɣ lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjâɣ lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâɣ êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjâɣ êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâɣ kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kjâɣ kiɣam êβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| áɣjâɣ kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Infinite'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Indicative''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβam<br />
|-<br />
| '''Subjunctive''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβinam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβinam<br />
|-<br />
| '''Conditional''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβasam || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβasam<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Infinite'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Passive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Indicative''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| '''Subjunctive''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣinam êβuɣi<br />
|-<br />
| '''Conditional''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasam lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| kiɣasam êβuɣi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Participles'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Active''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβíðə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβíðə<br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| lîβuɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| êβuɣi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Læntixu===<br />
Verb '''ʎiloɸæm‘''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="8" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Continous present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Continuous past''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past perfect''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future 1''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future 2''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Future Perfect'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸof || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| owf ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| owf loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| iwf ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| iwf loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| gjixof ʎiloɸiñæm‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| jimof ʎiloɸiñæm‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| emof ʎiloɸiñæm‘<br />
|-<br />
| 2s-3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸæh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojh ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojh loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| joh ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| joh loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| gjixæh ʎiloɸiñæm‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| jimæh ʎiloɸiñæm‘|| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| emæh ʎiloɸiñæm‘<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸonof || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| onof ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| onof loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| inof ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| inof loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| gjixonof ʎiloɸiñæm‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| jimonof ʎiloɸiñæm‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| emonof ʎiloɸiñæm‘<br />
|-<br />
| 2p-3p || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸonæh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| onæh ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| onæh loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| inæh ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| inæh loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| gjixonæh ʎiloɸiñæm‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| jimonæh ʎiloɸiñæm‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| emonæh ʎiloɸiñæm‘<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past perfect'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸiñof || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojñof loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ijñof loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|-<br />
| 2s-3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸiñæh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojñæh loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ijñæh loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸiñonof || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojñonof loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ijñonof loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|-<br />
| 2s-3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸiñonæh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojñonæh loʎiɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ijñonæh loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Continuous present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸæsof || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojsof ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojsof loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|-<br />
| 2s-3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸæsæh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojsæh ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojsæh loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸæsonof || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojsonof ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojsonof loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|-<br />
| 2s-3s || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸæsonæh || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojsonæh ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojsonæh loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Infinite'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Indicative''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸæm‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojæm‘ loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|-<br />
| '''Subjunctive''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸiñæm‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ojñæm‘ loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| <center>'''Participles'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Past''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Active''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸjiθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| loʎiɸjiθu<br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| ʎiloɸux‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| loʎiɸux‘<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Ancient Figo===<br />
Verb '''līločem''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="6" style="background-color:#83FF82;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Present''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Past''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Perfect''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Plusquamperfect''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Future''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Future perfect'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločagow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčagow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēhow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēhow <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločagər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčagər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēhər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēhər <br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločeš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčeš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločageš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčageš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēheš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēheš <br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līloč || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīč || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločag || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčag || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēh || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēh <br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločagohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčagohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēhohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēhohi <br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločagəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčagəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēhəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēhəri <br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločeši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčeši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločageši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčageši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēheši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēheši<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līloči || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīči || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločagi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčagi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēhi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēhi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločagohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčagohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēhohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēhohon <br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločagəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčagəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēhəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēhəron<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločagešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčagešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēhešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēhešon<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločagon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčagon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga imēhon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga imēhon<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="4" style="background-color:#83FF82;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Present''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Past''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Perfect''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Plusquamperfect'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagow<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagər<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočeš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočeš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočageš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočageš<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločoč || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčoč || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočag || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočag<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagohi<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagəri<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočeši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočeši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočageši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočageši<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločoči || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčoči || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagohon<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagəron<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagešon<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagon<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="4" style="background-color:#83FF82;"| <center>'''Potential'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Present''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Past''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Perfect''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Plusquamperfect'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagow || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagow<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečagər || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečagər<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečeš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečeš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečageš || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečageš<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločeč || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčeč || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečag || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečag<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečagohi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečagohi<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagəri || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagəri<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečeši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečeši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečageši || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečageši<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločeči || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčeči || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločočagi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčočagi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečagohon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečagohon<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečagəron || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečagəron<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečagešon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečagešon<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločečagon || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčečagon<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| ||colspan="4" style="background-color:#83FF82;"| <center>'''Indefinite'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Present''' ||style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''Past''' <br />
|-<br />
| Primary<br>Infinite || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločem || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčem<br />
|-<br />
| Secondary<br>Infinite || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločiga || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčiga<br />
|-<br />
| Agentive<br>Participle|| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločīdu || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčīdu<br />
|-<br />
| Passive<br>Participle || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| līločugi || style="background-color:#83FF82;"| alolīčugi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Modern Figo===<br />
Verb '''řirušjid''', ''to see''<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Participles'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| Present || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug<br />
|-<br />
| Past || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wẽv || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wĩvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wẽv || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wĩvs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wẽr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wĩrs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wẽr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wĩrs<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wẽh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wĩs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wẽh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wĩs<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wẽnõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wĩns || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wẽnõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wĩns<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wẽrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wĩrõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wẽrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wĩrõs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wẽžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wĩžõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wẽžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wĩžõs<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Past'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jẽv || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jĩvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jẽv || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jĩvs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jẽr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jĩrs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jẽr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jĩrs<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jẽh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jĩs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jẽh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jĩs<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jẽnõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jĩns || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jẽnõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jĩns<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jẽrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jĩrõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jẽrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jĩrõs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jẽžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jĩžõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jẽžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jĩžõs<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Imperfect'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wẽv || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wĩvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wẽv || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wĩvs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wẽr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wĩrs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wẽr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wĩrs<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wẽh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wĩs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wẽh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wĩs<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wẽnõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wĩns || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wẽnõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wĩns<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wẽrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wĩrõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wẽrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wĩrõs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wẽžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wĩžõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wẽžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wĩžõs<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Past perfect'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jẽv || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jĩvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jẽv || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jĩvs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jẽr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jĩrs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jẽr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jĩrs<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jẽh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jĩs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jẽh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jĩs<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jẽnõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jĩns || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jẽnõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jĩns<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jẽrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jĩrõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jẽrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jĩrõs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jẽžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jĩžõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jẽžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jĩžõs<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Future'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid mjov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid mjuvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug mjov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug mjuvs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid mjer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid mjirs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug mjer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug mjirs<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid mješ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid mjiš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug mješ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug mjiš<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ mjõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ mjũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ mjõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ mjũs <br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ mjerõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ mjirũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ mjerõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ mjirũs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ mježõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ mjižũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ mježõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ mjižũs <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Anterior future'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid imjov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid imjuvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug imjov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug imjuvs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid imir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid imirs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug imir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug imirs<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid imeš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid imiš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug imeš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug imiš<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ imjõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ imjũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ imjõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ imjũs <br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ imirõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ imirũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ imirõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ imirũs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ imižõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ imižũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ imižõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ imižũs <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Future in the past'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid imjov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid imjuvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug imjov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug imjuvs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid imir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid imirs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug imir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug imirs<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid imeš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid imiš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug imeš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug imiš<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ imjõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ imjũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ imjõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ imjũs <br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ imirõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ imirũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ imirõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ imirũs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ imižõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ imižũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ imižõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ imižũs <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wũšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wũšĩvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wũšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wũšĩvs <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wũšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wũšris || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wũšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wũšris <br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wũš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wũšis || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wũš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wũšis <br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wũšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wũšũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wũšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wũšũs <br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wũšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wũšrũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wũšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wũšrũs <br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wũžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wũžũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wũžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wũžũs <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Past'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jũšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jũšĩvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jũšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jũšĩvs <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jũšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jũšris || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jũšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jũšris <br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jũš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jũšis || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jũš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jũšis <br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jũšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jũšũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jũšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jũšũs <br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jũšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jũšrũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jũšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jũšrũs <br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jũžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jũžũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jũžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jũžũs <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Imperfect'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wũšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wũšĩvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wũšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wũšĩvs <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wũšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wũšris || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wũšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wũšris <br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wũš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wũšis || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wũš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wũšis <br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wũšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wũšũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wũšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wũšũs <br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wũšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wũšrũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wũšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wũšrũs <br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wũžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wũžũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wũžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wũžũs <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Past perfect'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jũšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jũšĩvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jũšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jũšĩvs <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jũšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jũšris || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jũšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jũšris <br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jũš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jũšis || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jũš || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jũšis <br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jũšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jũšũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jũšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jũšũs <br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jũšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jũšrũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jũšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jũšrũs <br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jũžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jũžũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jũžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jũžũs <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wĩšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wĩšivs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wĩšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wĩšivs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wĩšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wĩšris || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wĩšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wĩšris<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wĩh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid wĩs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wĩh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug wĩs<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wĩšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wĩšũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wĩšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wĩšũs<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wĩšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wĩšrũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wĩšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wĩšrũs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wĩžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ wĩžũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wĩžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ wĩžũs<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Past'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jĩšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jĩšivs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jĩšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jĩšivs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jĩšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jĩšris || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jĩšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jĩšris<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jĩh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjid jĩs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jĩh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušug jĩs<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jĩšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jĩšũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jĩšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jĩšũs<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jĩšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jĩšrũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jĩšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jĩšrũs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jĩžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušjidũ jĩžũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jĩžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| řirušuɣĩ jĩžũs<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Imperfect'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wĩšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wĩšivs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wĩšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wĩšivs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wĩšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wĩšris || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wĩšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wĩšris<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wĩh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid wĩs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wĩh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug wĩs<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wĩšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wĩšũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wĩšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wĩšũs<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wĩšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wĩšrũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wĩšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wĩšrũs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wĩžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ wĩžũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wĩžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ wĩžũs<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Past perfect'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jĩšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jĩšivs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jĩšev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jĩšivs<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jĩšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jĩšris || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jĩšr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jĩšris<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jĩh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjid jĩs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jĩh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišug jĩs<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jĩšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jĩšũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jĩšõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jĩšũs<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jĩšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jĩšrũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jĩšrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jĩšrũs<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jĩžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišjidũ jĩžũs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jĩžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| aruřišuɣĩ jĩžũs<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>'''Resultative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Active''</center> || colspan="2" style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Passive''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Positive''</center> || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| <center>''Negative''</center><br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wẽv || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wĩvs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| - || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| -<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wẽr || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wĩrs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| - || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| -<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wẽh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wĩs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| - || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| -<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wẽnõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wĩns || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| - || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| -<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wẽrõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wĩrõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| - || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| -<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wẽžõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| ruřišaža wĩžõs || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| - || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Biwdiw===<br />
Verb '''līlušiwgɛ''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective future''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Resultative perfect''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Resultative plusquamperfect''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līluš || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīš || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīluš || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīš || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛň līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛň hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛň hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwhū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwhū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwhū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwhir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwhir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwhir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwcɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwh līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwh hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwh hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňunū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňunū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňunū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňunir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňunir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňunir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňunjɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňunjɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňunjɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňun līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňun hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňun hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective future''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Resultative perfect''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Resultative plusquamperfect''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwň || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwň || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwň || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwň || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwň līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwň hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwň hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňiwhū līlušiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňiwhū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňiwhū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňiwhir līlušiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňiwhir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňiwhir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňiwcɛc līlušiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňiwcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňiwcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňiwh līlušiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňiwh hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňiwh hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňunū līlušiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňunū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňunū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňunir līlušiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňunir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňunir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňunjɛc līlušiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňunjɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňunjɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňun līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňiwňun hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňiwňun hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| <center>'''Optative'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective future''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Resultative perfect''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Resultative plusquamperfect''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušuš || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšuš || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīluš || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšuš || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňuš līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňuš hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňuš hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušiwhū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušiwhū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušiwhū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušiwhir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušiwhir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušiwhir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušiwcɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušiwcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušiwcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušiwh līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušiwh hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušiwh hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušunū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušunū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušunū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušunir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušunir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušunir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušunjɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušunjɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušunjɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušun līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňušun hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňušun hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| <center>'''Potential'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective future''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Resultative perfect''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Resultative plusquamperfect''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛcɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈ līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈ hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈ hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈiwhū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈiwhū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈiwhū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈiwhū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈiwhir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈiwhir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈiwhir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈiwhir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈiwcɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈiwcɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈiwcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈiwcɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈiwh || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈiwh līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈiwh hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈiwh hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈunū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈunū līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈunū hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈunū hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈunir || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈunir līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈunir hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈunir hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈunjɛc || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈunjɛc līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈunjɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈunjɛc hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈun || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈun līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| çɛňɛʈun hɛlulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛçɛňɛʈun hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| <center>'''Infinite'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective past''' <br />
|-<br />
| Indicative || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| Subjunctive || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušiwňiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšiwňiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| Optative || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušušiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšušiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| Potential || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušɛʈiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšɛʈiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušɛʈiwgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšɛʈiwgɛ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| <center>'''Participles'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective present''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Imperfective past''' ||style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Perfective past''' <br />
|-<br />
| Agentive || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušīdu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšīdu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušīdu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšīdu<br />
|-<br />
| Passive || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| līlušugiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| lulīšugiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlīlušugiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| hɛlulīšugiw<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Gəjlnigo===<br />
Verb '''ləjužəjge''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective past''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužɔ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužəjgehɔ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužəjgehɔ || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužəjdo || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužəjdo<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužih || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužəjgehih || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužəjgehih<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjuš || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužəjgeh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužəjgeh<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužunɔ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužəjgehunɔ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužəjgehunɔ || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužəjduno || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužəjduno<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužunih || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužəjgehunih || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužəjgehunih<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužun || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužəjgehun || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužəjgehun<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective past''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužɔ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužəjgehɔ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužužəjgehɔ || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužəjdo || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužužəjdo<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužih || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužəjgehih || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužužəjgehih<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužuš || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužəjgeh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužužəjgeh<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužunɔ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužəjgehunɔ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužužəjgehunɔ || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužəjduno || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužužəjduno<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužunih || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužəjgehunih || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužužəjgehunih<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužun || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužəjgehun || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužužəjgehun<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Infinite'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužəjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužəjge<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Participle'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective''' <br />
|-<br />
| Indicative || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužuǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužuǵ <br />
|-<br />
| Conditional || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ləjužužuǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| ejjužužuǵ <br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Cärähə===<br />
Verb '''rīrusühä''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="9" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="9" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present continuous''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past continous''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Plusquamperfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänü rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänü rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänü rīrusühä <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänir rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänir rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänir rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänir rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänir rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänir rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänir rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīruśäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīśäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cän rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cän rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcän rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcän rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cän rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cän rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcän rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusunü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsunü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunü rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunü rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunü rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunü rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunü rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunü rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunü rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusunir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsunir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunir rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunir rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunir rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunir rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunir rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunir rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunir rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänun rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänun rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänun rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänun rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänun rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänun rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänun rīrusühä<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Passive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Plusquamperfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänü cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänir cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänir cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänir cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cän rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcän rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cän rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcän rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cän cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cän cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcän cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunü cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunü cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunü cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunir cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänunir cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänunir cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänun rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänun rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänun rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänun rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänun cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänun cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänun cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="9" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="9" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present continuous''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past continous''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Plusquamperfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusünü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsünü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünü rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünü rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünü rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünü rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünü rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünü rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünü rīrusühä <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusünir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsünir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünir rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünir rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünir rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünir rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünir rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünir rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünir rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänün rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänün rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänün rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänün rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänün rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänün rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänün rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusünunü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsünunü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunü rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunü rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunü rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunü rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunü rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunü rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunü rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusünunir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsünunir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunir rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunir rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunir rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunir rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunir rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunir rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunir rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusünuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsünuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünun rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünun rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünun rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünun rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünun rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünun rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünun rīrusühä<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Passive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Plusquamperfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünü cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünü cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünü cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünir cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünir cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünir cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänün rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänün rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänün rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänün rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänün cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänün cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänün cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunü cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunü cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunü cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunir cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünunir cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünunir cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünun rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünun rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünun rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünun rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünun cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünun cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänünun cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="9" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="9" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Optative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present continuous''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past continous''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Plusquamperfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrususü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsusü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü rīrususīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänü rurīsusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusü rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusü rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusü rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusü rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusü rīrusühä <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrususir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsusir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusir rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusir rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusir rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusir rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusir rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusir rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusir rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusuśäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsuśäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänus rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänus rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänus rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänus rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänus rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänus rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänus rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrususunü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsusunü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunü rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunü rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunü rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunü rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunü rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunü rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunü rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrususunir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsusunir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunir rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunir rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunir rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunir rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunir rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunir rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunir rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrususuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsusuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusun rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusun rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusun rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusun rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusun rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusun rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusun rīrusühä<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Passive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Optative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Plusquamperfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusü cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusü cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusü cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusir cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusir cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusir cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänus rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänus rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänus rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänus rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänus cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänus cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänus cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunü cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunü cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunü cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunir cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusunir cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusunir cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusun rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusun rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusun rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusun rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusun cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänusun cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcänusun cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="9" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="9" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Potential'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present continuous''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past continous''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Plusquamperfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīruśäɕü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīśäɕü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cänünü rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕü rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕü rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕü rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕü rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕü rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕü rīrusühä <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīruśäɕir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīśäɕir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕir rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕir rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕir rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕir rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕir rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕir rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕir rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīruśäɕäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīśäɕäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕ rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕ rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕ rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕ rurīsīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕ rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕ rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕ rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīruśäɕunü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīśäɕunü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunü rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunü rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunü rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunü rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunü rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunü rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunü rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīruśäɕunir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīśäɕunir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunir rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunir rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunir rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunir rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunir rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunir rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunir rīrusühä<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīruśäɕuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīśäɕuńäh || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕun rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕun rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕun rīrusīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕun rurīsīdənə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕun rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕun rurīsühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕun rīrusühä<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Passive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="7" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Plusquamperfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future perfect''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Future in past'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕü cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕü cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕü cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕir cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕir cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕir cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕ rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕ rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕ rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕ rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕ cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕ cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕ cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunü rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunü rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunü cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunü cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunü cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunir rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunir rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunir cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕunir cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕunir cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕun rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕun rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕun rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕun rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕun cänühä rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| cäńäɕun cänühä rurīśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| häcäńäɕun cänühä rīruśuhi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Indefinite'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Past'''<br />
|-<br />
| Infinite || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusühä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsühä<br />
|-<br />
| Active<br>Participle|| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīrusīdə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīsīdə<br />
|-<br />
| Passive<br>Participle|| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rīruśuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| rurīśuhi <br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Viwdiwgu===<br />
Verb '''līlužiwgɛ''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective past''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwçū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžū || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužīdu || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžīdu<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwçir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžir <br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwčɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛc<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwhū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwçiwhū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwhū || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužīduhiw || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžīduhiw<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwhir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwçiwhir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwhir <br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwcɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwçiwcɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwcɛc <br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwçü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžü || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužīdū || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžīdū<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužür || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwçür || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžür <br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužünjɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwçünjɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžünjɛc <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective past''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwçū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňū || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňīdu || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňīdu<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwçir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňir <br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwčɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňɛc<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwhū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwçiwhū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňiwhū || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňīduhiw || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňīduhiw<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwhir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwçiwhir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňiwhir <br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwcɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwçiwcɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňiwcɛc <br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwçü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňü || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňīdū || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňīdū<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňür || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwçür || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňür <br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňünjɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwňiwçünjɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwňünjɛc <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Potential'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective present''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective future''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective past''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective past''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwçū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsū || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsīdu || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsīdu<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwçir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsir <br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛcɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwčɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛcɛc<br />
|-<br />
| 1d || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwhū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwçiwhū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsiwhū || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsīduhiw || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsīduhiw<br />
|-<br />
| 2d || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwhir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwçiwhir || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsiwhir <br />
|-<br />
| 3d || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwcɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwçiwcɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsiwcɛc <br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwçü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsü || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsīdū || rowspan="3" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsīdū<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsür || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwçür || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsür <br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsünjɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužɛtsiwçünjɛc || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžɛtsünjɛc <br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| <center>'''Indefinite moods'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Imperfective''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Perfective''' <br />
|-<br />
| Infinite || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužiwgɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžiwgɛ<br />
|-<br />
| Participle || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| līlužuɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| lulīžuɣi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Jeʂtəra===<br />
Verb '''līloṕəme''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Perfective<br>past''' ||style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>future''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳol līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳer līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳət́ līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳ līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳolon līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳeron līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳət́on līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳon līloṕəme<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Perfective<br>past''' ||style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>future''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕiəɳol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕiəɳol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕiəɳol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕiəɳol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳiəɳol līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕiəɳer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕiəɳer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕiəɳer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕiəɳer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳiəɳer līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕiəɳət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕiəɳət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕiəɳət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕiəɳət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳiəɳət́ līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕiəɳ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕiəɳ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕiəɳ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕiəɳ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳiəɳ līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕiəɳolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕiəɳolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕiəɳolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕiəɳolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳiəɳolon līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕiəɳeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕiəɳeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕiəɳeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕiəɳeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳiəɳeron līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕiəɳət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕiəɳət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕiəɳət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕiəɳət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳiəɳət́on līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕiəɳon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕiəɳon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕiəɳon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕiəɳon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳiəɳon līloṕəme<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Perfective<br>past''' ||style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>future''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕoṕol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕoṕol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕoṕol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕoṕol || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳoṕol līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕoṕer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕoṕer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕoṕer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕoṕer || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳoṕer līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕoṕət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕoṕət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕoṕət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕoṕət́ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳoṕət́ līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕoṕ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕoṕ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕoṕ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕoṕ || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳoṕ līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕoṕolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕoṕolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕoṕolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕoṕolon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳoṕolon līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕoṕeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕoṕeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕoṕeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕoṕeron || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳoṕeron līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕoṕət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕoṕət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕoṕət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕoṕət́on || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳoṕət́on līloṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕoṕon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕoṕon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕoṕon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕoṕon || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔəɳoṕon līloṕəme<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="5" style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | <center>'''Indefinite moods'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Perfective<br>present''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Imperfective<br>past''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | '''Perfective<br>past'''<br />
|-<br />
| Infinite || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕəme || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕəme || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕəme || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕəme<br />
|-<br />
| Active<br>Participle || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕīto || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕīto || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕīto || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕīto<br />
|-<br />
| Passive<br>Participle || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| līloṕəwkiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| lolīṕəwkiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalīloṕəwkiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| ʔalolīṕəwkiə <br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Βaβar===<br />
Verb '''ɸaq''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Imperfective''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Perfective''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Continous''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaquš || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāquš || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sūš || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sūš<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqum || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqum || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sūm || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sūm<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaquɣ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāquɣ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sūɣ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sūɣ<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqūža || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqūža || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sūža || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sūža<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqūku || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqūku || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sūku || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sūku<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqūç || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqūç || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sūç || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sūç<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Imperfective''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Perfective''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Continous''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqūš || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqūš || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sjaš || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sjaš<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqūm || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqūm || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sjam || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sjam<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqūɣ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqūɣ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sjaɣ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sjaɣ<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqujža || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqujža || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sjaža || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sjaža<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqujku || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqujku || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sjaku || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sjaku<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqujç || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqujç || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaqurā sjaç || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāqurā sjaç<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| <center>'''Imperative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Imperfective''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Perfective''' <br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaq || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāq<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸaq || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| ɸāq<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Memniq===<br />
Verb '''ťerkel''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="6" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="6" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Imperfective'''</center> || colspan="3" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Perfective'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Future'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| joťreku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťreku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| juťreku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| joťereku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťereku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| juťereku<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťreku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťreko || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťreku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťireku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťireku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťireku<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťreke || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťreke || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťreke || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťerek || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerek || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťerek<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrekem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrekim || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťrekem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerekim || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerekem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťerekem<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrekeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrekiš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťrekeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťirekiš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťirekeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťirekeš<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťreket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrekit || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťreket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerekit || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťereket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťereket<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="6" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="6" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Subjunctive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Imperfective'''</center> || colspan="3" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Perfective'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Future'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| joťräku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťräku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| juťräku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| joťeräku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeräku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| juťeräku<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťräku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťräko || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťräku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťiräku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťiräku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťiräku<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťräke || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťräke || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťräke || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťeräk || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeräk || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťeräk<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťräkem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťräkim || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťräkem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeräkim || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeräkem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťeräkem<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťräkeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťräkiš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťräkeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťiräkiš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťiräkeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťiräkeš<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťräket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťräkit || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťräket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeräkit || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeräket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťeräket<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="6" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="6" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Conditional'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Imperfective'''</center> || colspan="3" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Perfective'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Future'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| joťraku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťraku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| juťraku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| joťeraku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeraku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| juťeraku<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťraku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrako || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťraku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťiraku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťiraku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťiraku<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťrake || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrake || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťrake || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťerak || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerak || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťerak<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrakem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrakim || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťrakem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerakim || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerakem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťerakem<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrakeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrakiš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťrakeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťirakiš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťirakeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťirakeš<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťraket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrakit || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťraket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerakit || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeraket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťeraket<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="6" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="6" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Optative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Imperfective'''</center> || colspan="3" style="background-color:#fcff91;"| <center>'''Perfective'''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| '''Future'''<br />
|-<br />
| 1s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| joťriku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťriku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| juťriku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| joťeriku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeriku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| juťeriku<br />
|-<br />
| 2s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťriku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťriko || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťriku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťiriku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťiriku || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťiriku<br />
|-<br />
| 3s || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťrike || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrike || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťrike || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jaťerik || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerik || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| jöťerik<br />
|-<br />
| 1p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrikem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrikim || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťrikem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerikim || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerikem || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťerikem<br />
|-<br />
| 2p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrikeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrikiš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťrikeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťirikiš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťirikeš || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťirikeš<br />
|-<br />
| 3p || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťriket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťrikit || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťriket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťerikit || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ťeriket || style="background-color:#fcff91;"| ëťeriket<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Æbbro===<br />
Verb '''tuurkar''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Positive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Repetitive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Progressive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkar || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarom || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarap || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarunn<br />
|-<br />
| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaruud || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaromuud || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarapudd || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarunnuud<br />
|-<br />
| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroow || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaromoow || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarapoow || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarunnoow<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Negative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Indicative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Repetitive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Progressive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaral || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaromal || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarapal || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarunnal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroor || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaromoor || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarapoor || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarunnoor<br />
|-<br />
| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaruubb || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaromuubb || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarapuubb || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarunnuubb<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Positive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Optative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Repetitive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Progressive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarull || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullom || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullap || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullunn<br />
|-<br />
| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarulluud || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullomuud || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullapudd || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullunnuud<br />
|-<br />
| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarulloow || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullomoow || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullapoow || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullunnoow<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Negative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Optative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Repetitive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Progressive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullal || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullomal || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullapal || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullunnal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarulloor || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullomoor || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullapoor || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullunnoor<br />
|-<br />
| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarulluubb || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullomuubb || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullapuubb || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarullunnuubb<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Positive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Potential'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Repetitive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Progressive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarogg || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggom || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggap || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggunn<br />
|-<br />
| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarogguud || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggomuud || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggapudd || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggunnuud<br />
|-<br />
| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggoow || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggomoow || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggapoow || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggunnoow<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Negative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Potential'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Repetitive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Progressive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggal || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggomal || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggapal || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggunnal<br />
|-<br />
| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggoor || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggomoor || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggapoor || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggunnoor<br />
|-<br />
| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarogguubb || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggomuubb || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggapuubb || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaroggunnuubb<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Positive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Imperative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Repetitive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Progressive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkar || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkarom || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - <br />
|-<br />
| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| -|| style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| -<br />
|-<br />
| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Active'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Negative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="4" style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| <center>'''Imperative'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Repetitive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Progressive''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Perfect''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| '''Resultative''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Present''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaral || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| tuurkaromal || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - <br />
|-<br />
| '''Past''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| -|| style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| -<br />
|-<br />
| '''Future''' || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| - || style="background-color:#e6b8af;"| -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Dʰakʰi===<br />
Verb '''-uːska''', ''to see''<br />
{|-<br />
| || colspan="18" style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| <center>'''Habitual'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="18" style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| <center>'''-'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="18" style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| <center>'''Positive'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="18" style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| <center>'''Main'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''-''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''1-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''1a-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''2-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''3-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''3a-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''4-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''5-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''6-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''6a-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''7-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''7a-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''8-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''9-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''1p-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''2p-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''dim.-sg'''<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''1-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kaluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| koṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''1a-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kaluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| koṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| kəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''2-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| repuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| raluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ridʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| roṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rəguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| rəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''3-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| muːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| maluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| midʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| moṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''3a-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| muːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| mutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| maluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| midʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| moṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| məsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''4-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰaluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰoṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰəguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gʰəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''5-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| puːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| putuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| putuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| paluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| poṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pəguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| pəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''6-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| taluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| toṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''6a-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| taluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| tidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| toṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| təsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''7-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| quːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qaluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qoṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''7a-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| quːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qaluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qoṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| qəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''8-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| luːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| lokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| lokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ləruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| lumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| lumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ləgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| lepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| lutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| lutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ləquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ləquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| laluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| lidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| loṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ləguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ləsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''9-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰaluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰoṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰəguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| dʰəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''1p-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅaluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| - || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅəguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| ṅəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''2p-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| guːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gəruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gəgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gəquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| galuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| goṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| - || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| gəsuːska<br />
|-<br />
| || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| '''dim-sg''' || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| suːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| sokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| sokuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| səruːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| sumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| sumuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| səgʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| sepuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| sutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| sutuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| səquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| səquːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| saluːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| sidʰuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| soṅuːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| səguːska || style="background-color:#6cb8ff;"| səsuːska<br />
|}</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia&diff=158882User:Bukkia2023-11-30T19:14:28Z<p>Bukkia: /* Piti world */</p>
<hr />
<div>{|style="margin-left:1em; border:1px solid #000000; background-color:#f2f2f2; padding:2px; float:right;" <br />
|style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ccf;text-align: center; font-size:85%;" | Sandboxes<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandbox|Sandbox I]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxII|Sandbox II]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxIII|Sandbox III]] <br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxIV|Sandbox IV]] <br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxV|Sandbox V]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxVI|Sandbox VI]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxVII|Sandbox VII]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII|Sandbox VIII]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxIX|Sandbox IX]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ccf;text-align: center; font-size:85%;" | Fonts<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/charinsert|Charinsert]]<br />
|}<br />
Hi, my name is Marco Bucchianeri and I'm a 35 year-old Italian man.<br />
<br />
<center>'''Na'saj, ni a'noym Marco Bucchianeri''' - '''Zdravite, jimenujo se Marco Bucchianeri''', - '''Śdrafţië, kajal nimi õłokost Marco Bucchianeri''' - '''Здрафөиë, кайал ними õљокост Марко Букианери''' - '''Ça, I mi çam Marco Bucchianeri''' - '''Ehoj, Marco Bucchianeri wamus''' - '''Lë bheroc t'ełëm, le bhe ë seɸo go Marco Bucchianeri''' - '''Axi, Marco Bucchianeri myso læ''' - '''Cyao, Marco Bucchianeri vocer''' - '''Eh, ul Marco Bucchianeri ńīm!'''</center><br />
<br />
I've been a conlang maker since I was 16 years old, when I created my first (nameless) conlang, a curious mix of Italian, German, English and French lexicon based on Latin and German morphology rules. My conlanging activity kept on developing in these years, during which I started studying foreign languages (Slavic ones) and Linguistics.<br />
<br />
== Conlangs ==<br />
<br />
These are my conlangs and other related pages:<br />
<br />
*'''[[Nytal]]''' (<small>[[Nytal-English dictionary|vocabulary]] • [[Specific Nytal lexycon|phraseology]] • [[Nytal biblical texts|texts]] • [[States of the World (Nytal)|list of states]] • [[Swadesh list for Nytal|Swadesh list]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Slevian]]'''<br />
<br />
*'''[[Lišěč]]''' (<small>[[Lišěč-English dictionary|vocabulary]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Itëłan]]'''<br />
<br />
*'''[[Lánc]]''' (<small>[[Lánc phonology|phonology]] • [[Lánc conjugation tables|verbal conjungation]] • [[Lánc syntax|syntax]] • [[Lánc-English-Lánc dictionary|vocabulary]] • [[Lánc dialogues|dialogues]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Keβag]]''' (<small>[[Keβag-English dictionary|vocabulary]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Teycil]]''' (<small>[[Teycil-English dictionary|vocabulary]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Novelatine]]''' (<small>[[Novelatine phonology|phonology]] • [[Novelatine morphology|morphology]] • [[Novelatine syntax|syntax]] • [[Novelatine-English dictionary|vocabulary]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Velcjik]]'''<br />
<br />
*'''[[Kôt]]'''<br />
<br />
*'''[[Qihep]]''' (<small>[[Qihep phonology|phonology]] • [[Qihep morphology|morphology]] • [[Qihep syntax|syntax]] • [[Qihep-English dictionary|vocabulary]] • [[Qihep dialogues|dialogues]] • [[Qihep texts|texts]] • [[States of the World (Qihep)|list of states]] • [[Qihep script|script]]</small>)<br />
<br />
=== Piti world ===<br />
'''Piti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Piti'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** [[Kī́rtako]]<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>[[Kī́rtako phonology|phonology]] • [[Kī́rtako morphology|morphology]] • [[Kī́rtako syntax|syntax]] • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** [[Iðâɣ]] (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Læntixu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** [[ancient Figo]]<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>[[Ancient Figo phonology|phonology]] • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** modern Figo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Biwdiw<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Gəjlnigo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cärähə (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Viwdiwgu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** [[Jeʂtəra]]<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Βaβar language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Βaβar (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Memniqiju language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Memniqiju<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Rebti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Æbbro<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Pı̇ħ language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Pı̇ħ'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Pı̀ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Bīṙ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Į̄mχɛ̱́† (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Axi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Dʰakʰi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Đaxi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Thahi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Ṙaçi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Alri language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Alri'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Nämty<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Foħθīri<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cažorih (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Hoð‘i (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Sākdi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Saːkdi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Rertu<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Žérði<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Eβmiʔ<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Ỹhɛ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
<small><sup>†</sup> indicates a dead language</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=158881User:Bukkia/sandboxII2023-11-30T19:14:08Z<p>Bukkia: /* Special letters */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Læntixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
----<br />
* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
----<br />
* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
----<br />
* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ɕ ñ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ ǣ̃ æ̱̃ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
----<br />
* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʂ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIX&diff=156988User:Bukkia/sandboxIX2023-09-06T18:18:39Z<p>Bukkia: /* Body parts */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Vocabulary==<br />
===Numbers===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" | <center>'''Numbers from 1 to 1000'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʂaːʔo''' || '''*ʔaki''' || '''*mikoː''' || '''*ŋoːɬe''' || '''*ṕaːŋe'''|| '''*tʰuːɬa'''|| '''*χaʂæ'''|| '''*ḱuʔe'''|| '''*ʈoːju'''|| '''*pʰeːʔo''' || '''*ɳaːt́u''' || '''*ɬiʔaː'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | šā́ʔo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔaki || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mikṓ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gṓwe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | pā́ge ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thū́wa ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hašɑ ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kuʔe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tsṓju ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phḗʔo ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ñā́tu ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wiʔā́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | miɣò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kù || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | sô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çê || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | náðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ěn<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šæf || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æx‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mixow || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowbɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pæžɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | uba || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | haša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kuj || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | coju || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | few || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ñæθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | vjæ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ɕōw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ogi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | migō || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōh || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | čōn || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θūha || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hoɕe || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | cōju || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fēw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ňōšu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | liā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ug || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | miɣwo || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nwoh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fwa || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hoše || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fu || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čwi || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňwož || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʂāhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛgiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gōli || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | šāgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xɛšɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʈōǰu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | pēhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | wiwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šaw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | egəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | məjgo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gɔĺ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | haǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tɔj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heže || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔǧo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pejo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňacco || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | iva<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xahə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hähü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mügo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sehi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | türä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xäsä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɕoçə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pehə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | naćə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | wüha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ṡāhu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɛɣiw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gōli || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šāɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xɛžɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tsōǧu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pihu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | viwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʂāʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔakiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | miəkō || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | gōle || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ṕāge || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðūla || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | haʂə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ḱəwʔe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʈōjəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fēʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ɳāt́əw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəʔā<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gaɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | zgū || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dāk || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | atsʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | trikxʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | rməq || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dākr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴɸə || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸək || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | žaβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | kx‘ruç<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | țeʔu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iʔyq || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | emqi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anäŕ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | fänu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | yťŕä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iħśü || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ʔeći || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atjö || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | poʔi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uncu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëțnyt<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | aargo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bunaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | leeso || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zante || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | gærne || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddiino || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | woolu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | miizo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | hæærtu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | laare || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źoohdi || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bbekko<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȯħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̣s''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*caw''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋuɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pın''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*tɛjħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qȧt''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mạn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*sju̇n''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬajn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*kjıp''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | có || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | guf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pı́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tə̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | má̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šű̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bæ̱̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | çı̱́p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ěn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hōṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cɔ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nuv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | déṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qād || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | śūn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | lǽn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ǵıb || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ḕn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱θ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sɑ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | wuβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tį́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šȳn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ðɛ́n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cı̄̀p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''-''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːku''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ysaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːṅi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-imeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːto''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːre''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːdʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-uːkʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-exoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ykoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːriː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ekö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ysä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -oṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ätɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -orɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äði || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -uxa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ɛřo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yko || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -erü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βjuha''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ègu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ösà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òji || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àdo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òre || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àthi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ùha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṅò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ögò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -èrì || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''é̱n''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yku || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əze || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -üṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imy || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eto || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ürö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṙi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əwça || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -öqü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əkü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yrəj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''-üha''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṫjes-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*moʈ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰijn-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjajr-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂewṗ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kakʰ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*njuʂ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*towʡ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pəjt-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lujm-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂowk̇-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*k̇ajʂ-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | česi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moɕi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βyni || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šäri || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂöpi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gahi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuʂi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | duħi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bydi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lümi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂuki || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | käʂi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moše || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bīne || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šāre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħœfe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kage || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | tūhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | pēte || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lūme || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħūxe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | xāħe<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šer || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mɔž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bĩ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čor || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔeβ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kaɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | juʔ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ty || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ped || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lõ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔoh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | he|| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | moš || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | b‘in || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šæ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ɔv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kag || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ňow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | tuɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | p‘et || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lun || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | x‘æ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*pɛːm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*laz-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ħuːd-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɖajr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂuʡ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*towŋ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kiːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐeːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*bɔp-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂujl-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*qijm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴɔrqijm-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ̄́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hū́d || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɟā̀r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šuʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | tū̀ŋ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kī́r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žḗr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šū̀l || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ī̀m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔrī̀m<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | xúð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ǧàr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | túg || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kír || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žér || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šùl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ìm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hɔrìm <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | böm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lar || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɖajh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | town || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kjih || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žeh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βɔb || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂujl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | çijm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňɔhçijm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | bö̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | lar || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ču || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɟä || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕu || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | tü̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ci || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | že || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hɔp || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕüw || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čĩ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nɔčĩ<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*100''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1000'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 100 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Kinship===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Kinship terms'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*papu''' || '''*mamu''' || '''*tatu''' || '''*lelu''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | papu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tatu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paβu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | le<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paɸul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taθul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lɛlul‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | pobu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | momu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | todu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''obušur'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | momur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | todur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rerur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | bɛbju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liʎu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bevvo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | memmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | deddo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liho<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bäb́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mäḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | däd́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | riŕə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | vɛvju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liʝu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | papəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | maməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | tatəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | leləw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βūβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɖīrɖ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īmʈʂʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gūβ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | tape || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anna || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atta || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rare<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | llærme || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | nasnaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | śærge || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddeernæ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ta''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ma''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qe''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*te'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | he || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | da || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | de<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kabʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rabʰa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kaβa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | raβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gapha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rapha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kava || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rava<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*rome''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lele''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pute''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈere'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | rome || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lele || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bude || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | romex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lelex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | putex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šerex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lɛlɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pudɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɛrɛh <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | om || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lel || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pyt || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | še<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*roshan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanhan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rosʐiw''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanʐiw''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rožū̀ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanžū̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | roží || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanží <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosɽiw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanɽiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | osã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oɕy || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑãʑy<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Body parts===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" | <center>'''Body parts'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔeːma''' || '''*lilaː''' || '''*rako''' || '''*tʰiːka''' || '''*χæɬuː''' || '''*keːmu''' || '''*phuːʈe''' || '''*ŋoṕeː''' || '''*χæro''' || '''*reːṕæ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔḗma || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lilā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thī́ka || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''wiʔḗma'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kḗmu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phū́tse || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gopḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hɑro || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rḗpɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''pát'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lě || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | híɣe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ǐme'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kému || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çús || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goβé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | árə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | réβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''parcɛl‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lilæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raxul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jixal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''vjemal‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | čemul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fucɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goɸil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hærul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | reɸal‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ēma || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lilā || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rogu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θīga || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛhū || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kēmu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fūc || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nočē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛru || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rēče<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jemar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rirar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | roɣur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjiɣar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''hušir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čemur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fočər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nošer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hwerur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řeše<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwtīgɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gušē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rēšɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjdəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ləja || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | təjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hošəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gejmmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjtəjge'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gužəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hero || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rejže<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''güdü'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | geḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gőhä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guse || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | resä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gimju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwtīɣɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guži || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rižɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔēma || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəlā || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðīka || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kēməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fūʈe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | goṕē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | həro || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rēṕə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣiβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | truʂ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | nās || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ðām || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 9 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëħtu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | cirë || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | orek || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | oťik || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | xorup || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | qataj<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | peedæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tankaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tuurmo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zine || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | eestæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | baaršo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | irźee || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kuna || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | oosta || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | taha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rɔ̇w''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬwaħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*su̇j''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjaɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɴɛjc''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȯk''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjowħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*njȧɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjọm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔɛws'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bȁ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sʊ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | já̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nə̀c || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | jʊ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | áf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̱̋s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | βaṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sý || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎah || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | héc || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bōg || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎœ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | œ̀s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rǭ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǫ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | θư̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žɑ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | į̱̋s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žʊ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hɔ̀θ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰoːgʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰiːka''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰuːmo''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaraːṅ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰyʡəkʰ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaːtʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*10'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðoɣɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðüka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðumɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðaräṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðyhɑx || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðäθɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thòkhe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thìga || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thùmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | tharàj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thöʔäh || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thàθe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙüʝö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəjka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəwmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙareṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''ṙytö'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙeḣö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kajpe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰjuse''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kojme<br>*wojkape''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈawṗe<br>*njewkʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kjaṫe<br>*njewmowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈjukʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kiwʡe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ɽowtʰe'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | üse || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | müβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | wögäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwhyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwmüβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cuhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʎy<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kāpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gīrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɟurex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mūbex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kōmex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šōfex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | čaθex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | çugex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kyhex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ṙūdex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | girɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | žurɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čoβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čyh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | çuɣɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ḣodɛh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kæp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | g‘e || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | żow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mub || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kowm || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šowv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čað || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hyg || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kəɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*nɛːjzke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*waːmke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʈeːjhke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*maːnke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rajpke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*gohke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ŋijʡke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*duːħke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dohke'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nɛ̄́zke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wā́mke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́ke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | cḗke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mā́nke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rā̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ŋī̀ʔke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū́hke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nêzke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vámke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | búge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čîke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mánke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rɛ̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | gìke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nöjrge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wämge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čyʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mänge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hajbge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɣoʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nijge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʝuxge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðoʔge<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''badɛ'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ö̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čyge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | mä̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ävge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɣoge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nige || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʝuhge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oge<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Colours===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>'''Colours'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔuːkʰa''' || '''*pʰoːɬu''' || '''*χoːre''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''ā́lpo'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phṓwu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hṓre || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''kṓkri'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gḗʔɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''âpə'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ôrəɣi'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kôri'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jê<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''æwpul‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fowbul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | howrɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kowsr‘il‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | žel‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ūxa || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''godra'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hōr || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''ɕānko''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | oxar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''godrar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''huržir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''šãkor''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bōxri'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xōri || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔke || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bɔhŕ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɔŕ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''upe'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gehe<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hükä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gecä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''vōɣri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xōri || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔūxa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əʔtax'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | hōre || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''aʈpīʂo'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ūnesʔī''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uśerħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëʔtaħ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rosfä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ațpiśo || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | unesʔi<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | goddra || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źaanko <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*cọwħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rujm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȧjh''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cʊ̂ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rʊ̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǣ̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı̌ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hǣ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sǿ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rứm || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-isaːm''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ugʰoːd''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːloq''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isäm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βoɣri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isàm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''qû'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -elox || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mojsi<br>*kʰowlujsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṗajri<br>kʰowṗaji''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mösi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hüpä || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gūlūrix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | fārix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | golorih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | forih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | guly || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | fɛ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlbɔɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlneh''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlʂawʡ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*koːkrih''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*haːkrih''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lbɔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lšṑʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kṓkri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́kri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálβɔh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálšá || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kókri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ákri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälβɔň || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälneʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälʂaw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | güghiʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʔäghiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwhɔn || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwne || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwɕå || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gügi || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ägi<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Animals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" | <center>'''Animals'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*sopa''' || '''*jaŋe''' || '''*kæŋo''' || '''*t́uːkeː''' || '''*ŋuːʔeti''' || '''*raːɬaː''' || '''*χaːṕi''' || '''*luːʂu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jage || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kɑgo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tū́kḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gū́ʔeti || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rā́wā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hā́pi || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''pikasī́ti''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soβe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''tûče'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kaɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | túɣé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gôði || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | rǎ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | âβi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''îçrí''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soɸal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jažɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kægol‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | tučil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowθ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ræbæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hæɸ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''çæθ‘il‘''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | soba || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | jon || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kɛnu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šūgē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōdi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''kāɕa'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''sampō'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lūɕu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | sobar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jõnər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | kwẽnur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | foɣer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nudir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''kašar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''swõčir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rošur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | subɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | çɛgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | cūgē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bɛrsi'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rālā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xāšiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | lūšu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | huve || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔgej || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bejś'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lɔžo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | subä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cähi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ǵähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sühe || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bärsi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rara || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüsə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | suvɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | çɛɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣɛhär'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣānähi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣivāv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣukiv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lūžu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əlnaʂ'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kəgo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | t́ūkē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ḱihto'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''rərhi'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''pīðərū'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | lūʂəw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | xūɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βā || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣūr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βrānt || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | sans || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | osfe || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ylnaś || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | këmu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ërħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ćihto || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ryŕhi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | piťëŕu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | arśe<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | wooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | beeha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | uuhha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | rrooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | iihha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kaaśa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | sampoo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | piiha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qon''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̇h''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hu̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔọr''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xju̇jħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȧjɬ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjakrjı''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔıjkrjı'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hó || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ū̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕʊ̄̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pǣ̀b || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | á̱çrı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı̂çrı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ūṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | h́ȳ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bǣl || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | agŕı || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı́gŕı<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''myhʐa'' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ho̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕȳ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pɛ̄ð || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɑ̄̀gŕı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı́gŕı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡuː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰebeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰexə''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡaːr''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰənaːʡi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰybʰax''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰuːkif''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰiːgʰər'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛbe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛřɑ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhär || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɑnähi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣyβař || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣukif || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣüɣɑr<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔù || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khebhè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheṅä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔàr || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khänàʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khöphaṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khùgiβ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khìkhär<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔəw || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöby || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöqä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔer || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝäneʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəvaq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəwkib || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəjʝär<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*laje<br>*lajṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰewre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡune<br>*ʡunṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰowkʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡijk̇e<br>*pʰajrsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjoṗe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰawpe<br>*pojlṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kujṫe<br>*tjaʡṫij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | läty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βöwre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħune || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ühe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βärsi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šope || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bölty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güte<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lažex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bœrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hunθīx || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dūxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hīxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šofex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dōpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cahθīx<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lozɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | berɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ũfih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''foɣeh'' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ihɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɔβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ceh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | laž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bo || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ynð‘i || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | jix || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šov || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dowp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | cæð‘i<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*boːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dowɴɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*moːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kɛːwnɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*luːkɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*sɛjqɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*quːsɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːɴɖa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɔ̄̀nɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lū́kɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛ̄̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ū́ža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́ɟa <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɛ̌nğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lúkğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sèğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | úža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | páhğa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðowňɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | göwnɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʎugɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛjʝa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuɽa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäňɖa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hüɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ünɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | müɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gü̃ɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''šy'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | seʝa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čuʑa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''igʑi''<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || '''*6''' || '''*7''' || '''*8'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Template List===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Template list'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*1''' || '''*2''' || '''*3''' || '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 1 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 2 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 3 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 1|| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 2 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 3 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 4 <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=156648User:Bukkia/sandboxII2023-08-22T10:46:27Z<p>Bukkia: /* Special letters */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Lændixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
----<br />
* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
----<br />
* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
----<br />
* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ɕ ñ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ ǣ̃ æ̱̃ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
----<br />
* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʂ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=156647User:Bukkia/sandboxII2023-08-22T10:45:03Z<p>Bukkia: /* Special letters */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Lændixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
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* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
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* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
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* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
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* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ɕ ñ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ ǣ̃ æ̱̃ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
----<br />
* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ʔ ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʂ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=156389User:Bukkia/sandboxII2023-07-31T12:21:29Z<p>Bukkia: /* Special letters */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Lændixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
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* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
----<br />
* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
----<br />
* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ɕ ñ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ ǣ̃ æ̱̃ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
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* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
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* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ʔ ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
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* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=156352User:Bukkia/sandboxII2023-07-24T16:38:16Z<p>Bukkia: /* Vocabulary */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Lændixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
----<br />
* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
----<br />
* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
----<br />
* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ʎ ɕ ñ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ ǣ̃ æ̱̃ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
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* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ʔ ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIX&diff=156351User:Bukkia/sandboxIX2023-07-24T16:37:51Z<p>Bukkia: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Vocabulary==<br />
===Numbers===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" | <center>'''Numbers from 1 to 1000'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʂaːʔo''' || '''*ʔaki''' || '''*mikoː''' || '''*ŋoːɬe''' || '''*ṕaːŋe'''|| '''*tʰuːɬa'''|| '''*χaʂæ'''|| '''*ḱuʔe'''|| '''*ʈoːju'''|| '''*pʰeːʔo''' || '''*ɳaːt́u''' || '''*ɬiʔaː'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | šā́ʔo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔaki || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mikṓ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gṓwe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | pā́ge ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thū́wa ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hašɑ ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kuʔe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tsṓju ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phḗʔo ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ñā́tu ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wiʔā́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | miɣò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kù || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | sô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çê || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | náðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ěn<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šæf || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æx‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mixow || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowbɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pæžɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | uba || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | haša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kuj || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | coju || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | few || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ñæθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | vjæ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ɕōw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ogi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | migō || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōh || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | čōn || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θūha || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hoɕe || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | cōju || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fēw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ňōšu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | liā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ug || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | miɣwo || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nwoh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fwa || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hoše || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fu || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čwi || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňwož || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʂāhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛgiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gōli || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | šāgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xɛšɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʈōǰu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | pēhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | wiwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šaw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | egəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | məjgo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gɔĺ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | haǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tɔj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heže || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔǧo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pejo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňacco || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | iva<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xahə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hähü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mügo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sehi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | türä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xäsä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɕoçə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pehə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | naćə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | wüha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ṡāhu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɛɣiw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gōli || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šāɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xɛžɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tsōǧu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pihu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | viwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʂāʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔakiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | miəkō || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | gōle || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ṕāge || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðūla || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | haʂə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ḱəwʔe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʈōjəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fēʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ɳāt́əw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəʔā<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gaɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | zgū || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dāk || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | atsʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | trikxʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | rməq || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dākr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴɸə || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸək || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | žaβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | kx‘ruç<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | țeʔu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iʔyq || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | emqi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anäŕ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | fänu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | yťŕä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iħśü || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ʔeći || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atjö || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | poʔi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uncu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëțnyt<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | aargo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bunaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | leeso || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zante || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | gærne || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddiino || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | woolu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | miizo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | hæærtu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | laare || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źoohdi || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bbekko<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȯħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̣s''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*caw''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋuɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pın''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*tɛjħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qȧt''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mạn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*sju̇n''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬajn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*kjıp''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | có || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | guf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pı́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tə̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | má̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šű̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bæ̱̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | çı̱́p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ěn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hōṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cɔ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nuv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | déṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qād || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | śūn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | lǽn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ǵıb || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ḕn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱θ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sɑ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | wuβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tį́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šȳn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ðɛ́n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cı̄̀p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''-''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːku''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ysaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːṅi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-imeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːto''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːre''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːdʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-uːkʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-exoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ykoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːriː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ekö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ysä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -oṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ätɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -orɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äði || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -uxa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ɛřo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yko || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -erü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βjuha''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ègu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ösà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òji || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àdo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òre || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àthi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ùha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṅò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ögò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -èrì || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''é̱n''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yku || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əze || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -üṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imy || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eto || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ürö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṙi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əwça || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -öqü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əkü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yrəj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''-üha''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṫjes-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*moʈ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰijn-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjajr-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂewṗ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kakʰ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*njuʂ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*towʡ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pəjt-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lujm-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂowk̇-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*k̇ajʂ-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | česi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moɕi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βyni || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šäri || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂöpi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gahi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuʂi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | duħi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bydi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lümi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂuki || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | käʂi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moše || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bīne || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šāre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħœfe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kage || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | tūhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | pēte || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lūme || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħūxe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | xāħe<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šer || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mɔž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bĩ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čor || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔeβ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kaɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | juʔ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ty || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ped || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lõ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔoh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | he|| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | moš || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | b‘in || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šæ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ɔv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kag || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ňow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | tuɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | p‘et || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lun || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | x‘æ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*pɛːm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*laz-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ħuːd-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɖajr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂuʡ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*towŋ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kiːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐeːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*bɔp-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂujl-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*qijm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴɔrqijm-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ̄́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hū́d || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɟā̀r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šuʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | tū̀ŋ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kī́r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žḗr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šū̀l || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ī̀m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔrī̀m<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | xúð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ǧàr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | túg || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kír || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žér || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šùl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ìm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hɔrìm <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | böm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lar || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɖajh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | town || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kjih || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žeh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βɔb || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂujl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | çijm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňɔhçijm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | bö̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | lar || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ču || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɟä || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕu || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | tü̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ci || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | že || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hɔp || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕüw || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čĩ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nɔčĩ<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*100''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1000'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 100 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Kinship===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Kinship terms'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*papu''' || '''*mamu''' || '''*tatu''' || '''*lelu''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | papu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tatu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paβu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | le<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paɸul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taθul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lɛlul‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | pobu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | momu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | todu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''obušur'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | momur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | todur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rerur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | bɛbju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liʎu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bevvo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | memmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | deddo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liho<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bäb́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mäḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | däd́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | riŕə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | vɛvju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liʝu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | papəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | maməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | tatəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | leləw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βūβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɖīrɖ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īmʈʂʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gūβ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | tape || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anna || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atta || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rare<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | llærme || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | nasnaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | śærge || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddeernæ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ta''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ma''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qe''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*te'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | he || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | da || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | de<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kabʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rabʰa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kaβa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | raβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gapha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rapha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kava || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rava<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*rome''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lele''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pute''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈere'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | rome || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lele || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bude || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | romex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lelex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | putex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šerex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lɛlɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pudɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɛrɛh <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | om || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lel || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pyt || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | še<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*roshan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanhan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rosʐiw''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanʐiw''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rožū̀ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanžū̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | roží || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanží <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosɽiw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanɽiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | osã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oɕy || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑãʑy<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Body parts===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" | <center>'''Body parts'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔeːma''' || '''*lilaː''' || '''*rako''' || '''*tʰiːka''' || '''*χæɬuː''' || '''*keːmu''' || '''*phuːʈe''' || '''*ŋoṕeː''' || '''*χæro''' || '''*reːṕæ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔḗma || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lilā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thī́ka || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''wiʔḗma'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kḗmu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phū́tse || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gopḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hɑro || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rḗpɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''pát'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lě || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | híɣe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ǐme'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kému || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çús || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goβé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | árə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | réβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''parcɛl‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lilæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raxul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jixal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''vjemal‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | čemul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fucɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goɸil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hærul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | reɸal‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ēma || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lilā || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rogu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θīga || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛhū || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kēmu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fūc || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nočē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛru || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rēče<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jemar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rirar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | roɣur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjiɣar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''hušir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čemur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fočər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nošer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hwerur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řeše<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | giwtīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gušē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rēšɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjdəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ləja || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | təjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hošəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gejmmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gəjtəjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gužəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hero || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rejže<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''güdü'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | geḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gőhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guse || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | resä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gimju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giwtīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guži || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rižɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔēma || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəlā || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðīka || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kēməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fūʈe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | goṕē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | həro || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rēṕə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣiβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | truʂ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | nās || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ðām || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 9 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëħtu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | cirë || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | orek || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | oťik || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | xorup || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | qataj<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | peedæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tankaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tuurmo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zine || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | eestæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | baaršo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | irźee || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kuna || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | oosta || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | taha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rɔ̇w''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬwaħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*su̇j''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjaɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɴɛjc''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȯk''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjowħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*njȧɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjọm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔɛws'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bȁ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sʊ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | já̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nə̀c || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | jʊ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | áf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̱̋s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | βaṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sý || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎah || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | héc || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bōg || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎœ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | œ̀s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rǭ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǫ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | θư̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žɑ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | į̱̋s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žʊ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hɔ̀θ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰoːgʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰiːka''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰuːmo''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaraːṅ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰyʡəkʰ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaːtʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*10'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðoɣɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðüka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðumɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðaräṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðyhɑx || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðäθɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thòkhe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thìga || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thùmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | tharàj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thöʔäh || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thàθe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙüʝö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəjka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəwmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙareṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''ṙytö'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙeḣö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kajpe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰjuse''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kojme<br>*wojkape''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈawṗe<br>*njewkʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kjaṫe<br>*njewmowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈjukʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kiwʡe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ɽowtʰe'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | üse || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | müβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | wögäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwhyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwmüβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cuhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʎy<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kāpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gīrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɟurex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mūbex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kōmex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šōfex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | čaθex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | çugex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kyhex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ṙūdex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | girɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | žurɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čoβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čyh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | çuɣɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ḣodɛh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kæp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | g‘e || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | żow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mub || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kowm || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šowv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čað || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hyg || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kəɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*nɛːjzke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*waːmke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʈeːjhke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*maːnke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rajpke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*gohke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ŋijʡke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*duːħke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dohke'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nɛ̄́zke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wā́mke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́ke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | cḗke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mā́nke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rā̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ŋī̀ʔke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū́hke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nêzke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vámke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | búge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čîke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mánke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rɛ̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | gìke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nöjrge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wämge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čyʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mänge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hajbge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɣoʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nijge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʝuxge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðoʔge<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''badɛ'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ö̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čyge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | mä̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ävge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɣoge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nige || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʝuhge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oge<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Colours===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>'''Colours'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔuːkʰa''' || '''*pʰoːɬu''' || '''*χoːre''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''ā́lpo'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phṓwu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hṓre || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''kṓkri'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gḗʔɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''âpə'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ôrəɣi'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kôri'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jê<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''æwpul‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fowbul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | howrɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kowsr‘il‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | žel‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ūxa || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''godra'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hōr || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''ɕānko''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | oxar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''godrar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''huržir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''šãkor''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bōxri'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xōri || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔke || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bɔhŕ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɔŕ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''upe'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gehe<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hükä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gecä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''vōɣri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xōri || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔūxa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əʔtax'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | hōre || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''aʈpīʂo'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ūnesʔī''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uśerħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëʔtaħ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rosfä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ațpiśo || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | unesʔi<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | goddra || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źaanko <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*cọwħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rujm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȧjh''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cʊ̂ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rʊ̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǣ̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı̌ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hǣ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sǿ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rứm || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-isaːm''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ugʰoːd''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːloq''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isäm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βoɣri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isàm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''qû'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -elox || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mojsi<br>*kʰowlujsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṗajri<br>kʰowṗaji''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mösi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hüpä || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gūlūrix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | fārix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | golorih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | forih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | guly || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | fɛ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlbɔɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlneh''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlʂawʡ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*koːkrih''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*haːkrih''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lbɔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lšṑʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kṓkri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́kri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálβɔh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálšá || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kókri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ákri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälβɔň || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälneʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälʂaw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | güghiʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʔäghiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwhɔn || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwne || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwɕå || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gügi || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ägi<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Animals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" | <center>'''Animals'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*sopa''' || '''*jaŋe''' || '''*kæŋo''' || '''*t́uːkeː''' || '''*ŋuːʔeti''' || '''*raːɬaː''' || '''*χaːṕi''' || '''*luːʂu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jage || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kɑgo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tū́kḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gū́ʔeti || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rā́wā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hā́pi || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''pikasī́ti''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soβe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''tûče'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kaɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | túɣé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gôði || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | rǎ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | âβi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''îçrí''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soɸal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jažɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kægol‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | tučil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowθ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ræbæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hæɸ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''çæθ‘il‘''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | soba || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | jon || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kɛnu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šūgē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōdi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''kāɕa'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''sampō'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lūɕu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | sobar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jõnər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | kwẽnur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | foɣer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nudir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''kašar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''swõčir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rošur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | subɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | çɛgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | cūgē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bɛrsi'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rālā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xāšiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | lūšu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | huve || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔgej || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bejś'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lɔžo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | subä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cähi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ǵähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sühe || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bärsi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rara || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüsə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | suvɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | çɛɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣɛhär'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣānähi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣivāv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣukiv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lūžu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əlnaʂ'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kəgo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | t́ūkē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ḱihto'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''rərhi'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''pīðərū'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | lūʂəw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | xūɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βā || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣūr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βrānt || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | sans || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | osfe || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ylnaś || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | këmu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ërħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ćihto || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ryŕhi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | piťëŕu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | arśe<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | wooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | beeha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | uuhha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | rrooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | iihha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kaaśa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | sampoo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | piiha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qon''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̇h''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hu̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔọr''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xju̇jħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȧjɬ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjakrjı''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔıjkrjı'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hó || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ū̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕʊ̄̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pǣ̀b || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | á̱çrı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı̂çrı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ūṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | h́ȳ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bǣl || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | agŕı || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı́gŕı<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''myhʐa'' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ho̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕȳ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pɛ̄ð || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɑ̄̀gŕı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı́gŕı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡuː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰebeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰexə''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡaːr''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰənaːʡi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰybʰax''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰuːkif''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰiːgʰər'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛbe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛřɑ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhär || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɑnähi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣyβař || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣukif || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣüɣɑr<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔù || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khebhè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheṅä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔàr || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khänàʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khöphaṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khùgiβ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khìkhär<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔəw || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöby || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöqä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔer || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝäneʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəvaq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəwkib || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəjʝär<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*laje<br>*lajṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰewre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡune<br>*ʡunṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰowkʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡijk̇e<br>*pʰajrsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjoṗe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰawpe<br>*pojlṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kujṫe<br>*tjaʡṫij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | läty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βöwre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħune || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ühe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βärsi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šope || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bölty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güte<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lažex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bœrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hunθīx || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dūxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hīxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šofex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dōpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cahθīx<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lozɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | berɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ũfih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''foɣeh'' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ihɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɔβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ceh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | laž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bo || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ynð‘i || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | jix || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šov || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dowp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | cæð‘i<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*boːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dowɴɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*moːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kɛːwnɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*luːkɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*sɛjqɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*quːsɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːɴɖa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɔ̄̀nɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lū́kɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛ̄̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ū́ža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́ɟa <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɛ̌nğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lúkğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sèğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | úža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | páhğa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðowňɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | göwnɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʎugɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛjʝa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuɽa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäňɖa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hüɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ünɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | müɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gü̃ɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''šy'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | seʝa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čuʑa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''igʑi''<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || '''*6''' || '''*7''' || '''*8'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Template List===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Template list'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*1''' || '''*2''' || '''*3''' || '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 1 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 2 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 3 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 1|| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 2 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 3 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 4 <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=156350User:Bukkia/sandboxII2023-07-24T16:36:51Z<p>Bukkia: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Lændixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
----<br />
* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
----<br />
* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
----<br />
* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ʎ ɕ ñ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ ǣ̃ æ̱̃ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
----<br />
* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ʔ ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Numbers===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" | <center>'''Numbers from 1 to 1000'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʂaːʔo''' || '''*ʔaki''' || '''*mikoː''' || '''*ŋoːɬe''' || '''*ṕaːŋe'''|| '''*tʰuːɬa'''|| '''*χaʂæ'''|| '''*ḱuʔe'''|| '''*ʈoːju'''|| '''*pʰeːʔo''' || '''*ɳaːt́u''' || '''*ɬiʔaː'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | šā́ʔo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔaki || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mikṓ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gṓwe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | pā́ge ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thū́wa ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hašɑ ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kuʔe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tsṓju ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phḗʔo ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ñā́tu ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wiʔā́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | miɣò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kù || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | sô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çê || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | náðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ěn<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šæf || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æx‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mixow || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowbɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pæžɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | uba || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | haša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kuj || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | coju || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | few || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ñæθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | vjæ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ɕōw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ogi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | migō || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōh || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | čōn || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θūha || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hoɕe || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | cōju || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fēw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ňōšu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | liā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ug || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | miɣwo || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nwoh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fwa || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hoše || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fu || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čwi || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňwož || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʂāhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛgiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gōli || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | šāgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xɛšɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʈōǰu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | pēhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | wiwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šaw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | egəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | məjgo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gɔĺ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | haǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tɔj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heže || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔǧo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pejo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňacco || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | iva<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xahə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hähü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mügo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sehi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | türä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xäsä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɕoçə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pehə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | naćə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | wüha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ṡāhu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɛɣiw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gōli || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šāɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xɛžɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tsōǧu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pihu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | viwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʂāʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔakiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | miəkō || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | gōle || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ṕāge || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðūla || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | haʂə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ḱəwʔe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʈōjəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fēʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ɳāt́əw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəʔā<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gaɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | zgū || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dāk || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | atsʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | trikxʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | rməq || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dākr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴɸə || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸək || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | žaβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | kx‘ruç<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | țeʔu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iʔyq || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | emqi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anäŕ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | fänu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | yťŕä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iħśü || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ʔeći || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atjö || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | poʔi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uncu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëțnyt<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | aargo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bunaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | leeso || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zante || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | gærne || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddiino || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | woolu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | miizo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | hæærtu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | laare || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źoohdi || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bbekko<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȯħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̣s''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*caw''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋuɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pın''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*tɛjħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qȧt''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mạn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*sju̇n''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬajn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*kjıp''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | có || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | guf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pı́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tə̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | má̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šű̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bæ̱̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | çı̱́p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ěn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hōṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cɔ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nuv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | déṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qād || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | śūn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | lǽn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ǵıb || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ḕn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱θ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sɑ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | wuβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tį́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šȳn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ðɛ́n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cı̄̀p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''-''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːku''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ysaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːṅi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-imeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːto''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːre''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːdʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-uːkʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-exoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ykoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːriː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ekö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ysä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -oṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ätɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -orɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äði || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -uxa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ɛřo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yko || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -erü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βjuha''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ègu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ösà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òji || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àdo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òre || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àthi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ùha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṅò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ögò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -èrì || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''é̱n''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yku || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əze || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -üṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imy || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eto || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ürö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṙi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əwça || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -öqü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əkü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yrəj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''-üha''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṫjes-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*moʈ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰijn-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjajr-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂewṗ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kakʰ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*njuʂ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*towʡ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pəjt-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lujm-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂowk̇-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*k̇ajʂ-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | česi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moɕi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βyni || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šäri || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂöpi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gahi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuʂi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | duħi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bydi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lümi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂuki || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | käʂi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moše || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bīne || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šāre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħœfe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kage || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | tūhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | pēte || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lūme || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħūxe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | xāħe<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šer || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mɔž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bĩ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čor || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔeβ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kaɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | juʔ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ty || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ped || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lõ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔoh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | he|| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | moš || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | b‘in || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šæ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ɔv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kag || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ňow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | tuɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | p‘et || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lun || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | x‘æ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*pɛːm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*laz-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ħuːd-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɖajr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂuʡ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*towŋ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kiːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐeːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*bɔp-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂujl-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*qijm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴɔrqijm-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ̄́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hū́d || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɟā̀r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šuʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | tū̀ŋ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kī́r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žḗr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šū̀l || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ī̀m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔrī̀m<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | xúð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ǧàr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | túg || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kír || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žér || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šùl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ìm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hɔrìm <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | böm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lar || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɖajh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | town || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kjih || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žeh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βɔb || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂujl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | çijm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňɔhçijm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | bö̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | lar || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ču || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɟä || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕu || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | tü̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ci || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | že || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hɔp || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕüw || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čĩ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nɔčĩ<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*100''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1000'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 100 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Kinship===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Kinship terms'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*papu''' || '''*mamu''' || '''*tatu''' || '''*lelu''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | papu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tatu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paβu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | le<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paɸul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taθul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lɛlul‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | pobu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | momu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | todu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''obušur'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | momur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | todur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rerur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | bɛbju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liʎu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bevvo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | memmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | deddo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liho<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bäb́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mäḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | däd́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | riŕə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | vɛvju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liʝu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | papəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | maməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | tatəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | leləw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βūβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɖīrɖ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īmʈʂʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gūβ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | tape || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anna || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atta || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rare<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | llærme || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | nasnaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | śærge || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddeernæ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ta''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ma''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qe''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*te'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | he || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | da || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | de<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kabʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rabʰa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kaβa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | raβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gapha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rapha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kava || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rava<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*rome''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lele''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pute''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈere'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | rome || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lele || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bude || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | romex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lelex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | putex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šerex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lɛlɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pudɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɛrɛh <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | om || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lel || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pyt || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | še<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*roshan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanhan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rosʐiw''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanʐiw''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rožū̀ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanžū̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | roží || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanží <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosɽiw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanɽiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | osã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oɕy || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑãʑy<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Body parts===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" | <center>'''Body parts'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔeːma''' || '''*lilaː''' || '''*rako''' || '''*tʰiːka''' || '''*χæɬuː''' || '''*keːmu''' || '''*phuːʈe''' || '''*ŋoṕeː''' || '''*χæro''' || '''*reːṕæ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔḗma || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lilā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thī́ka || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''wiʔḗma'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kḗmu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phū́tse || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gopḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hɑro || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rḗpɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''pát'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lě || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | híɣe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ǐme'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kému || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çús || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goβé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | árə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | réβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''parcɛl‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lilæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raxul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jixal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''vjemal‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | čemul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fucɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goɸil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hærul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | reɸal‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ēma || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lilā || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rogu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θīga || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛhū || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kēmu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fūc || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nočē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛru || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rēče<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jemar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rirar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | roɣur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjiɣar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''hušir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čemur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fočər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nošer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hwerur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řeše<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | giwtīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gušē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rēšɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjdəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ləja || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | təjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hošəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gejmmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gəjtəjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gužəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hero || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rejže<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''güdü'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | geḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gőhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guse || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | resä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gimju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giwtīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guži || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rižɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔēma || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəlā || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðīka || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kēməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fūʈe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | goṕē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | həro || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rēṕə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣiβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | truʂ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | nās || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ðām || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 9 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëħtu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | cirë || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | orek || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | oťik || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | xorup || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | qataj<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | peedæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tankaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tuurmo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zine || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | eestæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | baaršo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | irźee || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kuna || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | oosta || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | taha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rɔ̇w''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬwaħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*su̇j''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjaɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɴɛjc''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȯk''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjowħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*njȧɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjọm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔɛws'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bȁ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sʊ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | já̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nə̀c || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | jʊ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | áf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̱̋s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | βaṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sý || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎah || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | héc || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bōg || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎœ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | œ̀s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rǭ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǫ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | θư̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žɑ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | į̱̋s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žʊ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hɔ̀θ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰoːgʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰiːka''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰuːmo''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaraːṅ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰyʡəkʰ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaːtʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*10'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðoɣɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðüka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðumɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðaräṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðyhɑx || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðäθɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thòkhe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thìga || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thùmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | tharàj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thöʔäh || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thàθe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙüʝö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəjka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəwmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙareṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''ṙytö'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙeḣö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kajpe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰjuse''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kojme<br>*wojkape''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈawṗe<br>*njewkʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kjaṫe<br>*njewmowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈjukʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kiwʡe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ɽowtʰe'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | üse || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | müβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | wögäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwhyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwmüβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cuhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʎy<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kāpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gīrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɟurex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mūbex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kōmex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šōfex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | čaθex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | çugex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kyhex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ṙūdex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | girɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | žurɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čoβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čyh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | çuɣɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ḣodɛh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kæp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | g‘e || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | żow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mub || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kowm || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šowv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čað || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hyg || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kəɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*nɛːjzke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*waːmke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʈeːjhke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*maːnke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rajpke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*gohke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ŋijʡke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*duːħke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dohke'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nɛ̄́zke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wā́mke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́ke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | cḗke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mā́nke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rā̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ŋī̀ʔke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū́hke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nêzke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vámke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | búge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čîke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mánke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rɛ̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | gìke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nöjrge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wämge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čyʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mänge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hajbge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɣoʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nijge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʝuxge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðoʔge<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''badɛ'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ö̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čyge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | mä̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ävge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɣoge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nige || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʝuhge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oge<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Colours===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>'''Colours'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔuːkʰa''' || '''*pʰoːɬu''' || '''*χoːre''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''ā́lpo'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phṓwu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hṓre || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''kṓkri'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gḗʔɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''âpə'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ôrəɣi'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kôri'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jê<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''æwpul‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fowbul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | howrɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kowsr‘il‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | žel‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ūxa || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''godra'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hōr || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''ɕānko''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | oxar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''godrar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''huržir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''šãkor''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bōxri'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xōri || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔke || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bɔhŕ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɔŕ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''upe'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gehe<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hükä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gecä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''vōɣri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xōri || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔūxa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əʔtax'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | hōre || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''aʈpīʂo'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ūnesʔī''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uśerħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëʔtaħ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rosfä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ațpiśo || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | unesʔi<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | goddra || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źaanko <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*cọwħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rujm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȧjh''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cʊ̂ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rʊ̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǣ̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı̌ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hǣ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sǿ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rứm || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-isaːm''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ugʰoːd''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːloq''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isäm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βoɣri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isàm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''qû'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -elox || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mojsi<br>*kʰowlujsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṗajri<br>kʰowṗaji''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mösi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hüpä || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gūlūrix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | fārix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | golorih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | forih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | guly || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | fɛ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlbɔɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlneh''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlʂawʡ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*koːkrih''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*haːkrih''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lbɔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lšṑʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kṓkri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́kri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálβɔh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálšá || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kókri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ákri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälβɔň || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälneʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälʂaw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | güghiʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʔäghiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwhɔn || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwne || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwɕå || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gügi || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ägi<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Animals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" | <center>'''Animals'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*sopa''' || '''*jaŋe''' || '''*kæŋo''' || '''*t́uːkeː''' || '''*ŋuːʔeti''' || '''*raːɬaː''' || '''*χaːṕi''' || '''*luːʂu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jage || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kɑgo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tū́kḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gū́ʔeti || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rā́wā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hā́pi || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''pikasī́ti''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soβe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''tûče'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kaɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | túɣé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gôði || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | rǎ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | âβi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''îçrí''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soɸal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jažɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kægol‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | tučil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowθ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ræbæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hæɸ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''çæθ‘il‘''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | soba || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | jon || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kɛnu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šūgē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōdi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''kāɕa'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''sampō'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lūɕu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | sobar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jõnər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | kwẽnur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | foɣer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nudir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''kašar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''swõčir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rošur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | subɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | çɛgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | cūgē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bɛrsi'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rālā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xāšiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | lūšu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | huve || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔgej || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bejś'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lɔžo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | subä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cähi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ǵähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sühe || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bärsi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rara || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüsə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | suvɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | çɛɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣɛhär'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣānähi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣivāv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣukiv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lūžu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əlnaʂ'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kəgo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | t́ūkē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ḱihto'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''rərhi'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''pīðərū'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | lūʂəw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | xūɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βā || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣūr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βrānt || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | sans || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | osfe || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ylnaś || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | këmu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ërħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ćihto || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ryŕhi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | piťëŕu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | arśe<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | wooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | beeha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | uuhha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | rrooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | iihha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kaaśa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | sampoo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | piiha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qon''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̇h''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hu̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔọr''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xju̇jħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȧjɬ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjakrjı''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔıjkrjı'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hó || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ū̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕʊ̄̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pǣ̀b || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | á̱çrı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı̂çrı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ūṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | h́ȳ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bǣl || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | agŕı || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı́gŕı<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''myhʐa'' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ho̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕȳ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pɛ̄ð || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɑ̄̀gŕı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı́gŕı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡuː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰebeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰexə''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡaːr''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰənaːʡi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰybʰax''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰuːkif''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰiːgʰər'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛbe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛřɑ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhär || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɑnähi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣyβař || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣukif || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣüɣɑr<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔù || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khebhè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheṅä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔàr || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khänàʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khöphaṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khùgiβ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khìkhär<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔəw || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöby || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöqä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔer || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝäneʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəvaq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəwkib || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəjʝär<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*laje<br>*lajṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰewre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡune<br>*ʡunṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰowkʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡijk̇e<br>*pʰajrsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjoṗe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰawpe<br>*pojlṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kujṫe<br>*tjaʡṫij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | läty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βöwre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħune || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ühe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βärsi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šope || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bölty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güte<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lažex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bœrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hunθīx || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dūxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hīxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šofex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dōpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cahθīx<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lozɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | berɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ũfih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''foɣeh'' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ihɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɔβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ceh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | laž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bo || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ynð‘i || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | jix || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šov || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dowp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | cæð‘i<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*boːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dowɴɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*moːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kɛːwnɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*luːkɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*sɛjqɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*quːsɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːɴɖa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɔ̄̀nɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lū́kɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛ̄̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ū́ža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́ɟa <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɛ̌nğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lúkğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sèğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | úža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | páhğa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðowňɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | göwnɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʎugɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛjʝa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuɽa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäňɖa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hüɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ünɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | müɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gü̃ɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''šy'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | seʝa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čuʑa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''igʑi''<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || '''*6''' || '''*7''' || '''*8'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Template List===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Template list'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*1''' || '''*2''' || '''*3''' || '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 1 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 2 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 3 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 1|| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 2 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 3 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 4 <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=156349User:Bukkia/sandboxII2023-07-24T16:36:10Z<p>Bukkia: /* List of languages */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Piti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Piti'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Kī́rtako<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Iðâɣ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Lændixu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** ancient Figo<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** modern Figo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Biwdiw<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Gəjlnigo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cärähə (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Viwdiwgu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Jeʂtəra<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Βaβar language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Βaβar (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Memniqiju language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Memniqiju<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Rebti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Æbbro<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Pı̇ħ language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Pı̇ħ'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Pı̀ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Bīṙ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Į̄mχɛ̱́† (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Axi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Dʰakʰi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Đaxi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Thahi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Ṙaçi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Alri language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Alri'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Nämty<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Foħθīri<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cažorih (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Hoð‘i (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Sākdi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Saːkdi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Rertu<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Žérði<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Eβmiʔ<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Ỹhɛ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Lændixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
----<br />
* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
----<br />
* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
----<br />
* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ʎ ɕ ñ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ ǣ̃ æ̱̃ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
----<br />
* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ʔ ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Numbers===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" | <center>'''Numbers from 1 to 1000'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʂaːʔo''' || '''*ʔaki''' || '''*mikoː''' || '''*ŋoːɬe''' || '''*ṕaːŋe'''|| '''*tʰuːɬa'''|| '''*χaʂæ'''|| '''*ḱuʔe'''|| '''*ʈoːju'''|| '''*pʰeːʔo''' || '''*ɳaːt́u''' || '''*ɬiʔaː'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | šā́ʔo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔaki || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mikṓ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gṓwe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | pā́ge ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thū́wa ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hašɑ ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kuʔe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tsṓju ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phḗʔo ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ñā́tu ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wiʔā́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | miɣò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kù || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | sô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çê || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | náðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ěn<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šæf || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æx‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mixow || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowbɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pæžɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | uba || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | haša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kuj || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | coju || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | few || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ñæθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | vjæ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ɕōw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ogi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | migō || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōh || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | čōn || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θūha || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hoɕe || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | cōju || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fēw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ňōšu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | liā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ug || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | miɣwo || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nwoh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fwa || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hoše || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fu || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čwi || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňwož || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʂāhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛgiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gōli || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | šāgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xɛšɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʈōǰu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | pēhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | wiwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šaw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | egəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | məjgo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gɔĺ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | haǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tɔj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heže || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔǧo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pejo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňacco || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | iva<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xahə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hähü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mügo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sehi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | türä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xäsä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɕoçə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pehə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | naćə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | wüha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ṡāhu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɛɣiw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gōli || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šāɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xɛžɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tsōǧu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pihu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | viwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʂāʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔakiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | miəkō || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | gōle || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ṕāge || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðūla || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | haʂə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ḱəwʔe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʈōjəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fēʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ɳāt́əw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəʔā<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gaɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | zgū || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dāk || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | atsʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | trikxʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | rməq || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dākr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴɸə || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸək || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | žaβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | kx‘ruç<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | țeʔu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iʔyq || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | emqi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anäŕ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | fänu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | yťŕä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iħśü || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ʔeći || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atjö || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | poʔi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uncu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëțnyt<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | aargo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bunaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | leeso || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zante || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | gærne || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddiino || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | woolu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | miizo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | hæærtu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | laare || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źoohdi || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bbekko<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȯħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̣s''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*caw''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋuɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pın''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*tɛjħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qȧt''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mạn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*sju̇n''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬajn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*kjıp''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | có || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | guf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pı́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tə̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | má̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šű̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bæ̱̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | çı̱́p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ěn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hōṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cɔ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nuv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | déṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qād || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | śūn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | lǽn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ǵıb || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ḕn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱θ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sɑ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | wuβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tį́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šȳn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ðɛ́n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cı̄̀p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''-''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːku''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ysaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːṅi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-imeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːto''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːre''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːdʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-uːkʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-exoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ykoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːriː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ekö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ysä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -oṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ätɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -orɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äði || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -uxa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ɛřo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yko || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -erü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βjuha''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ègu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ösà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òji || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àdo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òre || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àthi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ùha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṅò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ögò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -èrì || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''é̱n''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yku || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əze || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -üṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imy || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eto || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ürö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṙi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əwça || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -öqü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əkü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yrəj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''-üha''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṫjes-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*moʈ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰijn-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjajr-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂewṗ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kakʰ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*njuʂ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*towʡ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pəjt-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lujm-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂowk̇-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*k̇ajʂ-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | česi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moɕi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βyni || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šäri || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂöpi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gahi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuʂi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | duħi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bydi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lümi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂuki || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | käʂi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moše || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bīne || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šāre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħœfe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kage || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | tūhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | pēte || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lūme || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħūxe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | xāħe<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šer || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mɔž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bĩ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čor || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔeβ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kaɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | juʔ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ty || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ped || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lõ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔoh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | he|| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | moš || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | b‘in || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šæ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ɔv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kag || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ňow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | tuɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | p‘et || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lun || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | x‘æ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*pɛːm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*laz-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ħuːd-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɖajr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂuʡ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*towŋ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kiːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐeːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*bɔp-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂujl-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*qijm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴɔrqijm-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ̄́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hū́d || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɟā̀r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šuʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | tū̀ŋ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kī́r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žḗr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šū̀l || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ī̀m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔrī̀m<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | xúð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ǧàr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | túg || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kír || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žér || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šùl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ìm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hɔrìm <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | böm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lar || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɖajh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | town || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kjih || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žeh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βɔb || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂujl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | çijm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňɔhçijm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | bö̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | lar || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ču || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɟä || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕu || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | tü̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ci || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | že || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hɔp || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕüw || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čĩ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nɔčĩ<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*100''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1000'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 100 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Kinship===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Kinship terms'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*papu''' || '''*mamu''' || '''*tatu''' || '''*lelu''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | papu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tatu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paβu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | le<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paɸul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taθul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lɛlul‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | pobu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | momu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | todu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''obušur'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | momur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | todur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rerur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | bɛbju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liʎu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bevvo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | memmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | deddo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liho<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bäb́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mäḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | däd́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | riŕə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | vɛvju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liʝu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | papəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | maməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | tatəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | leləw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βūβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɖīrɖ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īmʈʂʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gūβ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | tape || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anna || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atta || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rare<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | llærme || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | nasnaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | śærge || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddeernæ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ta''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ma''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qe''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*te'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | he || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | da || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | de<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kabʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rabʰa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kaβa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | raβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gapha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rapha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kava || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rava<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*rome''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lele''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pute''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈere'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | rome || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lele || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bude || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | romex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lelex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | putex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šerex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lɛlɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pudɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɛrɛh <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | om || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lel || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pyt || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | še<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*roshan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanhan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rosʐiw''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanʐiw''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rožū̀ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanžū̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | roží || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanží <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosɽiw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanɽiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | osã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oɕy || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑãʑy<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Body parts===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" | <center>'''Body parts'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔeːma''' || '''*lilaː''' || '''*rako''' || '''*tʰiːka''' || '''*χæɬuː''' || '''*keːmu''' || '''*phuːʈe''' || '''*ŋoṕeː''' || '''*χæro''' || '''*reːṕæ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔḗma || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lilā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thī́ka || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''wiʔḗma'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kḗmu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phū́tse || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gopḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hɑro || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rḗpɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''pát'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lě || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | híɣe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ǐme'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kému || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çús || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goβé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | árə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | réβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''parcɛl‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lilæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raxul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jixal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''vjemal‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | čemul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fucɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goɸil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hærul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | reɸal‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ēma || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lilā || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rogu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θīga || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛhū || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kēmu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fūc || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nočē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛru || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rēče<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jemar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rirar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | roɣur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjiɣar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''hušir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čemur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fočər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nošer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hwerur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řeše<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | giwtīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gušē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rēšɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjdəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ləja || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | təjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hošəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gejmmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gəjtəjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gužəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hero || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rejže<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''güdü'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | geḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gőhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guse || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | resä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gimju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giwtīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guži || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rižɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔēma || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəlā || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðīka || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kēməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fūʈe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | goṕē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | həro || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rēṕə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣiβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | truʂ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | nās || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ðām || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 9 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëħtu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | cirë || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | orek || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | oťik || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | xorup || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | qataj<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | peedæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tankaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tuurmo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zine || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | eestæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | baaršo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | irźee || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kuna || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | oosta || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | taha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rɔ̇w''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬwaħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*su̇j''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjaɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɴɛjc''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȯk''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjowħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*njȧɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjọm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔɛws'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bȁ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sʊ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | já̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nə̀c || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | jʊ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | áf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̱̋s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | βaṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sý || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎah || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | héc || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bōg || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎœ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | œ̀s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rǭ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǫ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | θư̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žɑ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | į̱̋s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žʊ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hɔ̀θ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰoːgʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰiːka''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰuːmo''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaraːṅ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰyʡəkʰ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaːtʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*10'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðoɣɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðüka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðumɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðaräṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðyhɑx || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðäθɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thòkhe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thìga || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thùmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | tharàj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thöʔäh || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thàθe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙüʝö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəjka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəwmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙareṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''ṙytö'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙeḣö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kajpe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰjuse''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kojme<br>*wojkape''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈawṗe<br>*njewkʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kjaṫe<br>*njewmowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈjukʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kiwʡe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ɽowtʰe'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | üse || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | müβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | wögäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwhyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwmüβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cuhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʎy<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kāpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gīrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɟurex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mūbex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kōmex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šōfex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | čaθex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | çugex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kyhex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ṙūdex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | girɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | žurɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čoβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čyh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | çuɣɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ḣodɛh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kæp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | g‘e || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | żow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mub || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kowm || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šowv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čað || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hyg || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kəɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*nɛːjzke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*waːmke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʈeːjhke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*maːnke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rajpke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*gohke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ŋijʡke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*duːħke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dohke'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nɛ̄́zke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wā́mke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́ke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | cḗke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mā́nke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rā̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ŋī̀ʔke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū́hke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nêzke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vámke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | búge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čîke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mánke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rɛ̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | gìke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nöjrge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wämge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čyʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mänge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hajbge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɣoʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nijge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʝuxge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðoʔge<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''badɛ'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ö̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čyge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | mä̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ävge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɣoge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nige || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʝuhge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oge<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Colours===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>'''Colours'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔuːkʰa''' || '''*pʰoːɬu''' || '''*χoːre''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''ā́lpo'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phṓwu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hṓre || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''kṓkri'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gḗʔɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''âpə'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ôrəɣi'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kôri'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jê<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''æwpul‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fowbul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | howrɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kowsr‘il‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | žel‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ūxa || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''godra'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hōr || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''ɕānko''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | oxar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''godrar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''huržir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''šãkor''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bōxri'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xōri || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔke || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bɔhŕ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɔŕ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''upe'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gehe<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hükä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gecä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''vōɣri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xōri || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔūxa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əʔtax'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | hōre || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''aʈpīʂo'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ūnesʔī''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uśerħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëʔtaħ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rosfä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ațpiśo || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | unesʔi<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | goddra || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źaanko <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*cọwħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rujm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȧjh''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cʊ̂ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rʊ̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǣ̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı̌ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hǣ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sǿ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rứm || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-isaːm''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ugʰoːd''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːloq''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isäm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βoɣri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isàm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''qû'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -elox || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mojsi<br>*kʰowlujsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṗajri<br>kʰowṗaji''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mösi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hüpä || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gūlūrix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | fārix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | golorih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | forih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | guly || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | fɛ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlbɔɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlneh''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlʂawʡ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*koːkrih''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*haːkrih''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lbɔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lšṑʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kṓkri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́kri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálβɔh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálšá || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kókri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ákri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälβɔň || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälneʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälʂaw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | güghiʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʔäghiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwhɔn || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwne || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwɕå || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gügi || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ägi<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Animals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" | <center>'''Animals'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*sopa''' || '''*jaŋe''' || '''*kæŋo''' || '''*t́uːkeː''' || '''*ŋuːʔeti''' || '''*raːɬaː''' || '''*χaːṕi''' || '''*luːʂu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jage || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kɑgo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tū́kḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gū́ʔeti || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rā́wā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hā́pi || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''pikasī́ti''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soβe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''tûče'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kaɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | túɣé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gôði || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | rǎ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | âβi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''îçrí''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soɸal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jažɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kægol‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | tučil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowθ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ræbæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hæɸ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''çæθ‘il‘''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | soba || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | jon || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kɛnu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šūgē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōdi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''kāɕa'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''sampō'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lūɕu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | sobar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jõnər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | kwẽnur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | foɣer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nudir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''kašar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''swõčir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rošur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | subɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | çɛgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | cūgē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bɛrsi'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rālā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xāšiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | lūšu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | huve || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔgej || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bejś'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lɔžo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | subä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cähi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ǵähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sühe || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bärsi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rara || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüsə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | suvɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | çɛɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣɛhär'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣānähi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣivāv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣukiv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lūžu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əlnaʂ'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kəgo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | t́ūkē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ḱihto'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''rərhi'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''pīðərū'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | lūʂəw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | xūɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βā || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣūr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βrānt || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | sans || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | osfe || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ylnaś || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | këmu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ërħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ćihto || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ryŕhi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | piťëŕu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | arśe<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | wooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | beeha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | uuhha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | rrooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | iihha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kaaśa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | sampoo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | piiha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qon''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̇h''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hu̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔọr''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xju̇jħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȧjɬ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjakrjı''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔıjkrjı'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hó || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ū̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕʊ̄̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pǣ̀b || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | á̱çrı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı̂çrı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ūṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | h́ȳ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bǣl || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | agŕı || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı́gŕı<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''myhʐa'' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ho̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕȳ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pɛ̄ð || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɑ̄̀gŕı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı́gŕı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡuː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰebeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰexə''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡaːr''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰənaːʡi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰybʰax''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰuːkif''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰiːgʰər'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛbe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛřɑ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhär || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɑnähi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣyβař || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣukif || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣüɣɑr<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔù || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khebhè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheṅä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔàr || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khänàʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khöphaṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khùgiβ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khìkhär<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔəw || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöby || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöqä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔer || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝäneʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəvaq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəwkib || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəjʝär<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*laje<br>*lajṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰewre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡune<br>*ʡunṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰowkʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡijk̇e<br>*pʰajrsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjoṗe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰawpe<br>*pojlṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kujṫe<br>*tjaʡṫij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | läty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βöwre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħune || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ühe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βärsi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šope || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bölty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güte<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lažex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bœrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hunθīx || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dūxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hīxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šofex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dōpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cahθīx<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lozɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | berɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ũfih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''foɣeh'' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ihɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɔβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ceh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | laž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bo || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ynð‘i || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | jix || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šov || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dowp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | cæð‘i<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*boːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dowɴɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*moːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kɛːwnɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*luːkɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*sɛjqɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*quːsɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːɴɖa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɔ̄̀nɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lū́kɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛ̄̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ū́ža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́ɟa <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɛ̌nğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lúkğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sèğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | úža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | páhğa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðowňɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | göwnɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʎugɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛjʝa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuɽa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäňɖa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hüɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ünɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | müɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gü̃ɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''šy'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | seʝa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čuʑa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''igʑi''<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || '''*6''' || '''*7''' || '''*8'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Template List===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Template list'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*1''' || '''*2''' || '''*3''' || '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 1 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 2 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 3 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 1|| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 2 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 3 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 4 <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxII&diff=156348User:Bukkia/sandboxII2023-07-24T16:35:53Z<p>Bukkia: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Piti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Piti'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Kī́rtako<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Iðâɣ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Lændixu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** ancient Figo<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** modern Figo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Biwdiw<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Gəjlnigo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cärähə (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Viwdiwgu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Jeʂtəra<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Βaβar language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Βaβar (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Memniqiju language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Memniqiju<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Rebti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Æbbro<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Pı̇ħ language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Pı̇ħ'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Pı̀ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Bīṙ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Į̄mχɛ̱́† (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Axi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Dʰakʰi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Đaxi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Thahi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Ṙaçi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Alri language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Alri'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Nämty<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Foħθīri<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cažorih (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Hoð‘i (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Sākdi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Saːkdi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Rertu<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Žérði<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Eβmiʔ<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Ỹhɛ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
==Special letters==<br />
* '''Proto-Piti''': ʔ ŋ ɬ ṕ ḱ t́ ɳ ʂ ʈ χ ʰ æ ː<br />
* '''Kī́rtako''': ʔ š ñ ɣ ā́ ḗ ī́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ḕ ī̀ ṑ ū̀ ɑ<br />
* '''Iðâɣ''': š ð ɣ ɸ β ç č ə à á â ǎ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Lændixu''': ñ ʎ θ ɸ č ž š ç æ ɛ ‘ <br />
* '''ancient Figo''': ɕ č š θ ň ə ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''modern Figo''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř θ ɣ ə ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Biwdiw''': ʈ ʂ š ž č ç ǰ ň ʎ ɛ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Gəjlnigo''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ĺ ś ź v́ h́ č ǧ ǰ š ž ň ʎ ə ɔ<br />
* '''Cärähə''': ṕ ḱ t́ b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś h́ x́ ǰ ç ɟ ɕ ī ə ä ü ő ö<br />
* '''Viwdiwgu''': č ǧ š ž ň ɣ ç ʝ ṡ ɛ ä ü ő ö ə ā ī ō ū<br />
* '''Jeʂtəra''': ʔ ṕ ḱ t́ ʂ ʈ ð ɳ ə ā ē ī ō ū<br />
----<br />
* '''Βaβar''': β ɸ ð ɣ ç ɟ š ž ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ kxʼ tsʼ ʈʂʼ tɬʼ ā ī ū ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Memniq''': ʔ ħ ť ț ç š ž ŕ ś ć ä ö ë<br />
----<br />
* '''Æbbro''': š ž ś ź æ<br />
----<br />
* '''Pı̇ħ''': ʔ ŋ ħ ɬ ɸ ɴ ɛ ı ɔ ȧ ạ ɛ̇ ɛ̣ ė ẹ ı̇ ı̣ ɔ̇ ɔ̣ ȯ ọ u̇ ụ<br />
* '''Pı̀''': ç š č ʎ ɕ ñ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ æ ǣ æ̱ ǽ ǽ̱ æ̀ ǣ̀ æ̱̋ ǣ̏ æ̱̏ æ̂ ǣ̂ æ̱̂ æ̌ ǣ̌ æ̱̌ ǣ̃ æ̱̃ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ ɪ ɪ̄ ɪ̱ ɪ́ ɪ̱́ ɪ̀ ɪ̄̀ ɪ̱̋ ɪ̄̏ ɪ̱̏ ɪ̂ ɪ̄̂ ɪ̱̂ ɪ̌ ɪ̄̌ ɪ̱̌ ɪ̄̃ ɪ̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ʊ ʊ̄ ʊ̱ ʊ́ ʊ̱́ ʊ̀ ʊ̄̀ ʊ̱̋ ʊ̄̏ ʊ̱̏ ʊ̂ ʊ̄̂ ʊ̱̂ ʊ̌ ʊ̄̌ ʊ̱̌ ʊ̄̃ ʊ̱̃<br />
* '''Bīṙ''': b́ ǵ d́ ć ḿ ń ŕ ś ź h́ v́ ć ʎ ṙ β ā a̱ a á̱ á ā̀ à ǣ æ̱ æ ǽ̱ ǽ ǣ̀ æ̀ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ ɛ̱́ ɛ́ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̀ ē e̱ e é̱ é ḕ è ı̄ ı̱ ı ı̱́ ı́ ı̄̀ ı̀ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ ɔ̱́ ɔ́ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̀ ō o̱ o ó̱ ó ṑ ò œ̄ œ̱ œ œ̱́ œ́ œ̄̀ œ̀ ū u̱ u ú̱ ú ū̀ ù ȳ y̱ y ý̱ ý ȳ̀ ỳ<br />
* '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''': ḿ ń ŕ š ž č ǧ ř β θ ð ɕ ʝ ɟ ç ʂ ʐ χ a ā a̱ á á̱ à ā̀ a̱̋ ā̏ ȁ̱ â ā̂ â̱ ǎ ā̌ ǎ̱ ā̃ ã̱ ɑ ɑ̄ ɑ̱ ɑ́ ɑ̱́ ɑ̀ ɑ̄̀ ɑ̱̋ ɑ̄̏ ɑ̱̏ ɑ̂ ɑ̄̂ ɑ̱̂ ɑ̌ ɑ̄̌ ɑ̱̌ ɑ̄̃ ɑ̱̃ ɛ ɛ̄ ɛ̱ ɛ́ ɛ̱́ ɛ̀ ɛ̄̀ ɛ̱̋ ɛ̄̏ ɛ̱̏ ɛ̂ ɛ̄̂ ɛ̌ ɛ̱̂ ɛ̄̌ ɛ̱̌ ɛ̄̃ ɛ̱̃ e ē e̱ é é̱ è ḕ e̱̋ ē̏ ȅ̱ ê ē̂ ê̱ ě ē̌ ě̱ ē̃ ẽ̱ ə ə̄ ə̱ ə́ ə̱́ ə̀ ə̄̀ ə̱̋ ə̄̏ ə̱̏ ə̂ ə̄̂ ə̱̂ ə̌ ə̄̌ ə̱̌ ə̄̃ ə̱̃ ı ı̄ ı̱ ı́ ı̱́ ı̀ ı̄̀ ı̱̋ ı̄̏ ı̱̏ ı̂ ı̄̂ ı̱̂ ı̌ ı̄̌ ı̱̌ ı̄̃ ı̱̃ į į̄ į̱ į́ į̱́ į̀ į̄̀ į̱̋ į̄̏ į̱̏ į̂ į̄̂ į̱̂ į̌ į̄̌ į̱̌ į̄̃ į̱̃ ɔ ɔ̄ ɔ̱ ɔ́ ɔ̱́ ɔ̀ ɔ̄̀ ɔ̱̋ ɔ̄̏ ɔ̱̏ ɔ̂ ɔ̄̂ ɔ̱̂ ɔ̌ ɔ̄̌ ɔ̱̌ ɔ̄̃ ɔ̱̃ o ō o̱ ó ó̱ ò ṑ ő̱ ō̏ ȍ̱ ô ō̂ ô̱ ǒ ō̌ ǒ̱ ō̃ õ̱ ǫ ǭ ǫ̱ ǫ́ ǫ̱́ ǫ̀ ǭ̀ ǫ̱̋ ǭ̏ ǫ̱̏ ǫ̂ ǭ̂ ǫ̱̂ ǫ̌ ǭ̌ ǫ̱̌ ǭ̃ ǫ̱̃ ø ø̄ ø̱ ǿ ǿ̱ ø̀ ø̄̀ ø̱̋ ø̄̏ ø̱̏ ø̂ ø̄̂ ø̱̂ ø̌ ø̄̌ ø̱̌ ø̄̃ ø̱̃ u ū u̱ ú ú̱ ù ū̀ ű̱ ū̏ ȕ̱ û ū̂ û̱ ǔ ū̌ ǔ̱ ū̃ ũ̱ ư ư̄ ư̱ ứ ứ̱ ừ ư̄̀ ư̱̋ ư̄̏ ư̱̏ ư̂ ư̄̂ ư̱̂ ư̌ ư̄̌ ư̱̌ ư̄̃ ữ̱ y ȳ y̱ ý ý̱ ỳ ȳ̀ y̱̋ ȳ̏ y̱̏ ŷ ȳ̂ ŷ̱ y̌ ȳ̌ y̱̌ ȳ̃ ỹ̱<br />
----<br />
* '''Dʰakʰi''': ʡ ṅ ʰ ə ː<br />
* '''Ðaxi''': š ž č ǧ ç ň ř ʎ ɫ ɕ ʑ θ ð ɣ ɸ β ṙ ṅ ġ ɛ ɔ ä ü ö ɑ<br />
* '''Thahi''': ʔ θ β ṅ à á á̱ â â̱ è é é̱ ê ê̱ ì í í̱ î î̱ ò ó ó̱ ô ô̱ ù ú ú̱ û û̱ ä ä́ ä̱́ ö ö́ ö̱́<br />
* '''Ṙaçi''': ʔ ɬ ň š ž č ǧ ɕ ç ʝ ṙ ḣ ṅ ġ ḃ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ɽ̇ ɭ ʂ ʐ ɟ ä ö ü ə<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Alri''': ʡ ṗ k̇ ṫ ʈ ʂ ɽ ʰ ə<br />
* '''Nämty''': ʔ ħ β ň š č ɕ ç ɟ ʎ ä ë ö ü ɑ<br />
* '''Foħθīri''': ħ θ ň š ž č ğ ɕ ç ģ ɟ ṙ æ œ ā ē ī ō ū<br />
* '''Cažorih''': ʔ š ž č ğ ç ģ ḣ ɣ β ə ɛ ɔ ã ɛ̃ ẽ ĩ ɔ̃ õ ũ ə̃<br />
* '''Hoð‘i''': ð ň š ž č ģ ɟ ż ṙ ɣ æ ɛ ɔ ə ‘<br />
----<br />
* '''Proto-Saːkdi''': ʡ ħ ŋ ɴ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɑ ɛ ɔ ː<br />
* '''Rertu''': ʔ ɟ ŋ š ž ɑ ɛ ɔ ā́ ɑ̄́ ɛ̄́ ḗ ī́ ɔ̄́ ṓ ū́ ā̀ ɑ̄̀ ɛ̄̀ ḕ ī̀ ɔ̄̀ ṑ ū̀<br />
* '''Žérði''': ð ɣ ɸ β ç š ž č ğ ɑ ɛ ɔ à á â ǎ ɑ̀ ɑ́ ɑ̂ ɑ̌ ɛ̀ ɛ́ ɛ̂ ɛ̌ è é ê ě ì í î ǐ ɔ̀ ɔ́ ɔ̌ ɔ̂ ò ó ô ǒ ù ú û ǔ<br />
* '''Eβmiʔ''': ʔ ň š ž č ğ ʎ ð ɣ ɸ β ç ʝ ʂ ʈ ɖ ɽ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü<br />
* '''Ỹhɛ''': š ž č ğ ɟ ɣ ç ʝ ɕ ʑ ɑ ä å ɛ ɔ ö ü ã ɑ̃ ä̃ å̃ ɛ̃ ẽ ɔ̃ ĩ õ ö̃ ũ ü̃ ỹ<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Numbers===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" | <center>'''Numbers from 1 to 1000'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʂaːʔo''' || '''*ʔaki''' || '''*mikoː''' || '''*ŋoːɬe''' || '''*ṕaːŋe'''|| '''*tʰuːɬa'''|| '''*χaʂæ'''|| '''*ḱuʔe'''|| '''*ʈoːju'''|| '''*pʰeːʔo''' || '''*ɳaːt́u''' || '''*ɬiʔaː'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | šā́ʔo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔaki || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mikṓ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gṓwe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | pā́ge ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thū́wa ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hašɑ ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kuʔe ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tsṓju ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phḗʔo ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ñā́tu ||style="background-color:#FFD482;" | wiʔā́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áɣi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | miɣò || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pâ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | áša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kù || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | sô || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çê || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | náðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ěn<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | šæf || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | æx‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mixow || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowbɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | pæžɛ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | uba || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | haša || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kuj || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | coju || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | few || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ñæθu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | vjæ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ɕōw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ogi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | migō || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōh || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | čōn || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θūha || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hoɕe || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | cōju || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fēw || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ňōšu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | liā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwov || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ug || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | miɣwo || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nwoh || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | šwõ || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fwa || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hoše || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fu || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čwi || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjev || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňwož || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʂāhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hɛgiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gōli || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | šāgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xɛšɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ʈōǰu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | pēhu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | wiwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šaw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | egəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | məjgo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gɔĺ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | haǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tɔj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heže || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔǧo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pejo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňacco || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | iva<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xahə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hähü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mügo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sehi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | türä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xäsä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɕoçə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pehə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | naćə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | wüha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ṡāhu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɛɣiw || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | miwgō || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gōli || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | šāɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tūlɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xɛžɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | čuhi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tsōǧu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | pihu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ňācju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | viwhā<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʂāʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔakiə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | miəkō || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | gōle || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ṕāge || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðūla || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | haʂə || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ḱəwʔe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʈōjəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fēʔo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ɳāt́əw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəʔā<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gaɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | zgū || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dāk || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | atsʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | trikxʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | rməq || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | dākr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īɴɸə || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɸək || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | žaβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | kx‘ruç<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | țeʔu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iʔyq || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | emqi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anäŕ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | fänu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | yťŕä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | iħśü || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ʔeći || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atjö || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | poʔi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uncu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëțnyt<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | aargo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bunaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | leeso || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zante || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | gærne || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddiino || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | woolu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | miizo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | hæærtu || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | laare || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źoohdi || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | bbekko<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȯħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̣s''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*caw''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ŋuɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pın''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*tɛjħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qȧt''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mạn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*sju̇n''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬajn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*kjıp''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | có || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | guf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pı́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tə̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | má̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šű̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bæ̱̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | çı̱́p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ěn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hōṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cɔ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nuv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | déṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qād || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | śūn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | lǽn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ǵıb || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''ḕn''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̱θ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sɑ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | wuβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pın || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | tį́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χāt || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | šȳn || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ðɛ́n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cı̄̀p || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''-''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːku''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ysaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːṅi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-imeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːto''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-oːre''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːdʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-uːkʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-exoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ykoː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-eːriː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ekö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ysä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -oṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ätɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -orɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äði || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -uxa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ɛřo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yko || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -erü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βjuha''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ègu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ösà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òji || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àdo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -òre || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àthi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ùha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṅò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ögò || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -èrì || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''é̱n''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yku || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əze || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -üṅi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -imy || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eto || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -ürö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -eṙi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əwça || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -öqü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -əkü || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -yrəj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''-üha''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṫjes-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*moʈ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰijn-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjajr-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂewṗ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kakʰ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*njuʂ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*towʡ-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pəjt-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lujm-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʂowk̇-''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*k̇ajʂ-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | česi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moɕi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βyni || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šäri || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂöpi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gahi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuʂi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | duħi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bydi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lümi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʂuki || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | käʂi<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | moše || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bīne || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šāre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħœfe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kage || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňuħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | tūhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | pēte || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lūme || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħūxe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | xāħe<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šer || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mɔž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bĩ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čor || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔeβ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kaɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | juʔ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ty || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ped || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lõ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ʔoh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hoʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | he|| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | moš || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | b‘in || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šæ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ɔv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kag || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ňow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | tuɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | p‘et || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lun || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | x‘æ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*pɛːm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*laz-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ħuːd-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɖajr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂuʡ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*towŋ-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kiːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐeːr-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*bɔp-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʂujl-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*qijm-''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴɔrqijm-'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ̄́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hū́d || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɟā̀r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šuʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | tū̀ŋ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kī́r || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žḗr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šū̀l || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ī̀m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɔrī̀m<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pɛ́m || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | laz || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | xúð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ǧàr || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | túg || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kír || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žér || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bɔp || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | šùl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ìm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hɔrìm <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | böm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lar || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuð || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɖajh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂu || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | town || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kjih || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žeh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βɔb || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʂujl || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | çijm || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňɔhçijm<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | bö̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | lar || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ču || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɟä || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕu || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | tü̃ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ci || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | že || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hɔp || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɕüw || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čĩ || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nɔčĩ<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''1''</center> || <center>''2''</center> || <center>''3''</center> || <center>''4''</center> || <center>''5''</center> || <center>''6''</center> || <center>''7''</center> || <center>''8''</center> || <center>''9''</center> || <center>''10''</center> || <center>''100''</center> || <center>''1000''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="13" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*100''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1000'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 100 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1000<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Kinship===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Kinship terms'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*papu''' || '''*mamu''' || '''*tatu''' || '''*lelu''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | papu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tatu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paβu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taðu || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | le<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | paɸul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | mamul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | taθul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lɛlul‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | pobu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | momu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | todu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lelu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''obušur'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | momur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | todur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rerur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | bɛbju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liʎu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bevvo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | memmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | deddo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liho<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | bäb́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mäḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | däd́ə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | riŕə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | vɛvju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | mɛmju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | dɛdju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liʝu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | papəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | maməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | tatəw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | leləw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βūβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɖīrɖ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | īmʈʂʼ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | gūβ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | tape || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | anna || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | atta || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rare<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | llærme || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | nasnaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | śærge || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | ddeernæ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ta''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ma''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qe''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*te'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | he || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | da || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | de<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ta || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ma || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χe || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | te<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rimaː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*kabʰa''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*rabʰa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kaβa || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | raβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rimà || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | gapha || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rapha<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rime || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kava || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | rava<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*rome''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*lele''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pute''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈere'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | rome || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lele || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bude || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɕere<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | romex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lelex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | putex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šerex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lɛlɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pudɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɛrɛh <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | om || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lel || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | pyt || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | še<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*roshan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanhan''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rosʐiw''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʐanʐiw''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rožū̀ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanžū̀<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rosan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | roží || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | žanží <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanʔan || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hosɽiw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɽanɽiw<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | osã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑã || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oɕy || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʑãʑy<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''father''</center> || <center>''mother''</center> || <center>''brother''</center> || <center>''sister''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Body parts===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" | <center>'''Body parts'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔeːma''' || '''*lilaː''' || '''*rako''' || '''*tʰiːka''' || '''*χæɬuː''' || '''*keːmu''' || '''*phuːʈe''' || '''*ŋoṕeː''' || '''*χæro''' || '''*reːṕæ'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ʔḗma || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | lilā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | thī́ka || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''wiʔḗma'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kḗmu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phū́tse || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gopḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hɑro || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rḗpɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''pát'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lě || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | híɣe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ǐme'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kému || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çús || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goβé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | árə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | réβa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''parcɛl‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | lilæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | raxul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jixal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''vjemal‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | čemul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fucɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | goɸil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hærul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | reɸal‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ēma || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lilā || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rogu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | θīga || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛhū || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kēmu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | fūc || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nočē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hɛru || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | rēče<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jemar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rirar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | roɣur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fjiɣar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''hušir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | čemur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | fočər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nošer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | hwerur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | řeše<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | tīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēmju || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | giwtīgɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gušē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rēšɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''gəjdəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ləja || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | təjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hošəj'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gejmmo || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gəjtəjge || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gužəj || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hero || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rejže<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''güdü'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärü || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | geḿə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gőhä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guse || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | x́ärə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | resä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''giwdiw'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | liwlā || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | tīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛlū || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gimju || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giwtīɣɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | guži || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xjɛru || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rižɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔēma || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | liəlā || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rako || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ðīka || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kēməw || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | fūʈe || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | goṕē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | həro || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | rēṕə<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣiβ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | truʂ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | nās || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ðām || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 9 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëħtu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | cirë || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | orek || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | oťik || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | xorup || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | qataj<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | peedæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tankaa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | tuurmo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | zine || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | eestæ || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | baaršo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | irźee || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kuna || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | oosta || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | taha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rɔ̇w''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬwaħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*su̇j''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjaɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɴɛjc''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȯk''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ɬjowħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*njȧɸ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjọm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔɛws'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rō || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bȁ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sʊ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | já̱n || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | nə̀c || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | jʊ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | áf || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̱̋s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rṑ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | βaṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sý || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎah || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | héc || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bōg || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ʎœ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāv || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | œ̀s<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rǭ̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǫ̱̋ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | θư̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žɑ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | į̱̋s || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pōk || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | žʊ̄̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ńāβ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ø̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hɔ̀θ<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰoːgʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰiːka''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰuːmo''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaraːṅ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰyʡəkʰ''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*dʰaːtʰe''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*10'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðoɣɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðüka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðumɔ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðaräṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðyhɑx || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ðäθɛ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thòkhe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thìga || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thùmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | tharàj || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thöʔäh || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | thàθe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙüʝö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəjka || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙəwmo || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙareṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''ṙytö'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ṙeḣö || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 7 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 8 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 9 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 10<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kajpe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰjuse''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kojme<br>*wojkape''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈawṗe<br>*njewkʰijre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kjaṫe<br>*njewmowpʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʈjukʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kiwʡe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ɽowtʰe'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | üse || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | müβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | wögäbe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwhyre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ňöwmüβe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cuhe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güħe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ʎy<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kāpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gīrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ɟurex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mūbex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kōmex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šōfex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | čaθex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | çugex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | kyhex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ṙūdex<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | girɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | žurɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kõh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čoβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čyh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | çuɣɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ḣodɛh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kæp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | g‘e || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | żow || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | mub || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kowm || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šowv || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čað || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | hyg || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | kəɣ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | rud<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*nɛːjzke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*waːmke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*buːgke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ʈeːjhke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*maːnke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*rajpke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*gohke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ŋijʡke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*duːħke''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dohke'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nɛ̄́zke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wā́mke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bū́ke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | cḗke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mā́nke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rā̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ŋī̀ʔke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū́hke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nêzke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vámke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | búge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čîke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mánke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | rɛ̀pke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | goke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | gìke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhke || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | doke<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nöjrge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | wämge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čyʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mänge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hajbge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ɣoʔge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | nijge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʝuxge || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðoʔge<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''badɛ'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ö̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | vuɣe || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čyge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | mä̃ge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ävge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ɣoge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | nige || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ʝuhge || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | oge<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''head''</center> || <center>''hand''</center> || <center>''eye''</center> || <center>''foot''</center> || <center>''neck''</center> || <center>''arm''</center> || <center>''leg''</center> || <center>''knee''</center> || <center>''bone''</center> || <center>''body''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="11" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*9''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*10''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 6 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 7 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 8 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 9 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 10<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Colours===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>'''Colours'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*ʔuːkʰa''' || '''*pʰoːɬu''' || '''*χoːre''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' || '''*ŋeːʔæ''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''ā́lpo'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | phṓwu || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hṓre || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''kṓkri'' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gḗʔɑ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''âpə'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | çû || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''ôrəɣi'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kôri'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jê<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''æwpul‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | fowbul‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | howrɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''kowsr‘il‘'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | žel‘<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ūxa || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''godra'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | hōr || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''ɕānko''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | oxar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''godrar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''huržir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ňer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''šãkor''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bōxri'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xōri || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gēçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ɔke || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bɔhŕ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hɔŕ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''upe'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gehe<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hükä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xori || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupä'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gecä<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | hūkɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''vōɣri'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | xōri || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''hupɛ'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | giçɛ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ʔūxa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əʔtax'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | hōre || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''aʈpīʂo'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ūnesʔī''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | uśerħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ëʔtaħ || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | rosfä || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ațpiśo || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | unesʔi<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | goddra || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | źaanko <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*cọwħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*rujm''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xȧjh''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qı̇jn'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | cʊ̂ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rʊ̀m || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xǣ̏ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı̌ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hǣ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | sǿ̱ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | rứm || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | xɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χı̄n<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-isaːm''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-ugʰoːd''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*-aːloq''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isäm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''βoɣri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -äloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -isàm || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''qû'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -àloq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ''boxri'' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | -elox || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*mojsi<br>*kʰowlujsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ṗajri<br>kʰowṗaji''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*5'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | mösi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hüpä || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | gūlūrix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | fārix || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | golorih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | forih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | guly || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | fɛ || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 5<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlbɔɴ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlneh''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*ɴaːlʂawʡ''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*koːkrih''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*haːkrih''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lbɔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́lšṑʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kṓkri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ā́kri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálβɔh || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálne || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | hálšá || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kókri || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ákri<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälβɔň || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälneʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ňälʂaw || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | güghiʔ || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʔäghiʔ<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwhɔn || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwne || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | näwɕå || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gügi || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ägi<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''white''</center> || <center>''black''</center> || <center>''red''</center> || <center>''yellow''</center> || <center>''green''</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="6" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Animals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" | <center>'''Animals'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*sopa''' || '''*jaŋe''' || '''*kæŋo''' || '''*t́uːkeː''' || '''*ŋuːʔeti''' || '''*raːɬaː''' || '''*χaːṕi''' || '''*luːʂu'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | jage || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | kɑgo || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | tū́kḗ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | gū́ʔeti || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | rā́wā́ || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | hā́pi || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | ''pikasī́ti''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soβe || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''tûče'' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kaɣə || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | túɣé || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gôði || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | rǎ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | âβi || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''îçrí''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | soɸal‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | jažɛl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | kægol‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | tučil‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | gowθ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ræbæl‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | hæɸ‘il‘ || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | ''çæθ‘il‘''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | soba || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | jon || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | kɛnu || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | šūgē || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | nōdi || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''kāɕa'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | ''sampō'' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | lūɕu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | sobar || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | jõnər || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | kwẽnur || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | foɣer || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | nudir || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''kašar'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | ''swõčir'' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | rošur<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | subɛ || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | çɛgi || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | cūgē || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | ''bɛrsi'' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | rālā || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | xāšiw || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | lūšu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | huve || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | heǵ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gego || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cɔgej || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bejś'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ra || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lɔžo<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | subä || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | cähi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ǵähə || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | sühe || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''bärsi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rara || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 7 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | rüsə<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | suvɛ || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | çɛɣi || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | gjɛgu || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣɛhär'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣānähi'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣivāv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | ''ɣukiv'' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | lūžu<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | sopa || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''əlnaʂ'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | kəgo || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | t́ūkē || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''ḱihto'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''rərhi'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | ''pīðərū'' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | lūʂəw<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | xūɸ || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βā || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | ɣūr || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | βrānt || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | sans || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 6 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 7 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 8<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | osfe || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ylnaś || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | këmu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ërħi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ćihto || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | ryŕhi || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | piťëŕu || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | arśe<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | wooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | beeha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | uuhha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | rrooha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | iihha || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | kaaśa || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | sampoo || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | piiha<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*qon''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*mɛ̇h''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hu̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔọr''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*xju̇jħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*pȧjɬ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*hjakrjı''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*ʔıjkrjı'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hó || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄̀ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ū̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕʊ̄̃ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pǣ̀b || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | á̱çrı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı̂çrı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | qon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ūṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | o̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | h́ȳ̀ṙ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | bǣl || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | agŕı || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ı́gŕı<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | χon || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | mɛ̄ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ''myhʐa'' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ho̱r || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɕȳ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | pɛ̄ð || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | ɑ̄̀gŕı̱́ || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | hı́gŕı̱́<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡuː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰebeː''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰexə''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰeʡaːr''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰənaːʡi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰybʰax''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰuːkif''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*gʰiːgʰər'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhu || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛbe || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛřɑ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɛhär || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣɑnähi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣyβař || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣukif || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ɣüɣɑr<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔù || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khebhè || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheṅä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | kheʔàr || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khänàʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khöphaṅ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khùgiβ || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | khìkhär<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔəw || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöby || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöqä || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝöʔer || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝäneʔi || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəvaq || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəwkib || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | ʝəjʝär<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*laje<br>*lajṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*pʰewre''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡune<br>*ʡunṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰowkʰe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*ʡijk̇e<br>*pʰajrsi''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*sjoṗe''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*tʰawpe<br>*pojlṫij''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*kujṫe<br>*tjaʡṫij'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | läty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βöwre || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ħune || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | ühe || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | βärsi || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šope || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bölty || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | güte<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | lažex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | bœrex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hunθīx || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dūxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | hīxex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | šofex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | dōpex || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | cahθīx<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | lozɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | berɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ũfih || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ''foɣeh'' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ihɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | čɔβɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dobɛh || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ceh<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | laž || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | bo || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | ynð‘i || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dux || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | jix || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | šov || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | dowp || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | cæð‘i<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*boːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*dowɴɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*moːrɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*kɛːwnɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*luːkɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*sɛjqɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*quːsɖa''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*paːɴɖa'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dū̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mṓrɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɔ̄̀nɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lū́kɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛ̄̀ɟa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ū́ža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | pā́ɟa <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | dúhğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mórğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | kɛ̌nğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | lúkğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sèğa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | úža || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | páhğa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | βühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ðowňɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | mühɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | göwnɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | ʎugɖa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | sɛjʝa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | čuɽa || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | bäňɖa<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | hüɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ünɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | müɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | gü̃ɟa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''šy'' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | seʝa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | čuʑa || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | ''igʑi''<br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''dog''</center> || <center>''sheep''</center> || <center>''wolf''</center> || <center>''bear''</center> || <center>''horse''</center> || <center>''fox''</center> || <center>''bird''</center> || <center>''fish''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="9" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*5''' || '''*6''' || '''*7''' || '''*8'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 5 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*6''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*7''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*8'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Template List===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" | <center>'''Template list'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Piti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| '''Proto-Piti''' || '''*1''' || '''*2''' || '''*3''' || '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFD482;" | '''Kī́rtako''' || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFD482;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Iðâɣ''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFF3D7;"| '''Lændixu''' || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFF3D7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#83FF82;"| '''ancient Figo''' || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 1 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 2 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 3 || style="background-color:#83FF82;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;"| '''modern Figo''' || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 1|| style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 2 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 3 || style="background-color:#D9FFCD;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#BDF6F9;"| '''Biwdiw''' || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#BDF6F9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Gəjlnigo''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|- <br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Cärähə''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#EBFFF7;"| '''Viwdiwgu''' || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 1 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 2 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 3 || style="background-color:#EBFFF7;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFBBE9;"| '''Jeʂtəra''' || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFBBE9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Βaβar languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E1E1E1;"| '''Βaβar''' || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E1E1E1;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Memniqiju languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FCFF91;"| '''Memniq''' || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FCFF91;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Rebti languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E6B8AF;"| '''Æbbro''' || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E6B8AF;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Pı̇ħ languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF3636;"| '''Pı̇ħ''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF3636;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Pı̀''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Bīṙ''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9999;"| '''Į̄mχɛ̱́''' || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9999;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Axi languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#6CB8FF;"| '''Dʰakʰi''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#6CB8FF;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Đaxi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Thahi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#ABD6FE;"| '''Ṙaçi''' || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#ABD6FE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Alri languages'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#49C67C;"| '''Proto-Alri''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#49C67C;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Nämty''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#B8FFD5;"| '''Foħθīri''' || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 1 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 2 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 3 || style="background-color:#B8FFD5;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Cažorih''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#E2FFEE;"| '''Hoð‘i''' || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 1 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 2 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 3 || style="background-color:#E2FFEE;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''Sākdi family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF38F3;"| '''Proto-Saːkdi''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FF38F3;" | '''*4'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Rertu''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Žérði''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FF9DF9;"| '''Eβmiʔ''' || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FF9DF9;" | 4<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFCFFC;"| '''Ỹhɛ''' || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFCFFC;" | 4 <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>''term1''</center> || <center>''term2''</center> || <center>''term3''</center> || <center>''term4''</center> <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="5" style="background-color:black;" | {{color|white|'''''New family'''''}}<br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New p-language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*1''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*2''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*3''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | '''*4''' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"| '''New language''' || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 1 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 2 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 3 || style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" | 4<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==List of languages==<br />
'''Piti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Piti'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Kī́rtako<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Iðâɣ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Lændixu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** ancient Figo<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** modern Figo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Biwdiw<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Gəjlnigo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cärähə (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Viwdiwgu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Jeʂtəra<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Βaβar language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Βaβar (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Memniqiju language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Memniqiju<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Rebti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Æbbro<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Pı̇ħ language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Pı̇ħ'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Pı̀ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Bīṙ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Į̄mχɛ̱́† (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Axi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Dʰakʰi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Đaxi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Thahi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Ṙaçi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Alri language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Alri'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Nämty<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Foħθīri<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cažorih (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Hoð‘i (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Sākdi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Saːkdi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Rertu<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Žérði<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Eβmiʔ<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Ỹhɛ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156269User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-12T10:33:07Z<p>Bukkia: /* phɑw */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, ''-ly'', to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally, the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== fes ===<br />
The postposition '''fes''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
<br />
It conveys, firstly, conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu fes ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with class II nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It additionally conveys the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu ertuɕu urōšəgaxe fes ruhāniga imēhow<br />
<small>I will catch the mouse without your help</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
=== kōw ===<br />
The postposition '''kōw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed, or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɛštuɕu mōšodilinu ɕučōdeguhe tirōsašahe kōw imēhešon<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the ending point of a motion of any kind; this function is expressed by the dative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== few ===<br />
The postposition '''few''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɛštuɕu cecəli ɛšluɕu sōharīdiɕu few hōlumɛcar egmirem fɛnəseš<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertuɕu mōšodi oltuɕu pobuɕu few ogērō ɛneš<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
In this function, this postposition may be omitted. This is common in texts of earlier period, while it happens rather infrequently in the texts of the classical period.<br />
ertuɕu mōšodi oltuɕu pobuɕu ogērō ɛneš<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɛn.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156248User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-04T18:53:22Z<p>Bukkia: /* Adverbs */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, ''-ly'', to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally, the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== fes ===<br />
The postposition '''fes''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
<br />
It conveys, firstly, conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu fes ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with class II nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It additionally conveys the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu ertuɕu urōšəgaxe fes ruhāniga imēhow<br />
<small>I will catch the mouse without your help</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
=== kōw ===<br />
The postposition '''kōw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed, or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɛštuɕu mōšodilinu ɕučōdeguhe tirōsašahe kōw imēhešon<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the ending point of a motion of any kind; this function is expressed by the dative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
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===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
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gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
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The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
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=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
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The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
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==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
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Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
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==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
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==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
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As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156243User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T21:27:51Z<p>Bukkia: /* kṓw */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally, the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== fes ===<br />
The postposition '''fes''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
<br />
It conveys, firstly, conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu fes ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with class II nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It additionally conveys the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu ertuɕu urōšəgaxe fes ruhāniga imēhow<br />
<small>I will catch the mouse without your help</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
=== kōw ===<br />
The postposition '''kōw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed, or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɛštuɕu mōšodilinu ɕučōdeguhe tirōsašahe kōw imēhešon<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the ending point of a motion of any kind; this function is expressed by the dative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156242User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T21:27:35Z<p>Bukkia: /* kōw */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally, the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== fes ===<br />
The postposition '''fes''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
<br />
It conveys, firstly, conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu fes ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with class II nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It additionally conveys the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu ertuɕu urōšəgaxe fes ruhāniga imēhow<br />
<small>I will catch the mouse without your help</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
=== kōw ===<br />
The postposition '''kōw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed, or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɛštuɕu mōšodilinu ɕučōdeguhe tirōsašahe kōw imēhešon<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the ending point of a motion of any kind; this function is expressed by the dative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
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gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
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*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
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gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
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=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
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The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
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=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
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The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
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==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
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==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
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=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
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Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
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==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
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It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
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==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
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It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
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As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
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Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
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As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
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=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
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Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
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In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
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==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
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When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
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==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156241User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T21:27:10Z<p>Bukkia: /* phes */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally, the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== fes ===<br />
The postposition '''fes''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
<br />
It conveys, firstly, conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu fes ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with class II nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It additionally conveys the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu ertuɕu urōšəgaxe fes ruhāniga imēhow<br />
<small>I will catch the mouse without your help</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
=== kōw ===<br />
The postposition '''kōw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of direction. It specifies a ''location'' or an ''entity'', towards which a movement is aimed, or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɛštuɕu mōšodilinu ɕučōdeguhe tirōsašahe kōw imēhešon<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the ending point of a motion of any kind; this function is expressed by the dative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156240User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T21:23:49Z<p>Bukkia: /* ēh */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally, the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156239User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T21:23:36Z<p>Bukkia: /* sū */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally, the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156238User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T21:23:26Z<p>Bukkia: /* sū */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156237User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T21:22:54Z<p>Bukkia: /* xodixe */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=K%C4%AB%CC%81rtako_morphology&diff=156234Kī́rtako morphology2023-07-03T18:11:36Z<p>Bukkia: /* kī́g */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{main|Kī́rtako}}<br />
This page gives an extensive description of '''Kī́rtako morphological''' features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in Kī́rtako language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ɑ-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or first class and inanimate nouns or second class. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''1<sup>st</sup> class''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''2<sup>nd</sup> class''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class.<br />
<br />
For example, the word sɑño, ''light'', shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, as the noun ñowe, ''love'', depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''' and '''plural'''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Kī́rtako nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''9 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1<sup>st</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Ablative''' || <small>This case marks primarily a natural and unintentional belonging (for example, ''body parts''), without any sign of will of possession, or an inverse belonging. It also marks the point of origin of a movement (''motion from a place''). It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks an intentional possession, from subjects with a clear and active will. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1<sup>st</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. It can also mark the final point of a movement (''motion toward a place''), and, in a broad sense, the final purpose of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Abessive''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing an action or being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive, genitive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, abessive, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" | <center>''1<sup>st</sup> class''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''2<sup>nd</sup> class''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -noli || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -no || - || -no<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || -šu || -nošu || -šu || -nošu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ra || -nora || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -ɣɑ || -noɣɑ || -ɣɑ || -noɣɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -khu || -nokhu || -khu || -nokhu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || -khɑ || -nokhɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || -gil || -nogil<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || -tsar || -notsar<br />
|}<br />
Some examples are shown below: a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, papu, ''father'', and a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun, sṓgo, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" | <center>papu</center> || colspan="2" | <center>sṓgo</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || papuli || papunoli || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || papu || papuno || sṓgo || sṓgono<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || papušu || papunošu || sṓgošu || sṓgonošu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || papura || papunora || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || papuɣɑ || papunoɣɑ || sṓgoɣɑ || sṓgonoɣɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || papukhu || papunokhu || sṓgokhu || sṓgonokhu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || sṓgokhɑ || sṓgonokhɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || sṓgogil || sṓgonogil<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || sṓgotsar || sṓgonotsar<br />
|}<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, while the endings for the primary main cases cannot be added to a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́ wī́ro<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
wī́ro jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
As the verbal copula, ʔɑñɑme, ''to be'', can be omitted when the subject is expressed in the clause, the attributive or predicative role of an adjective can be inferred only by its own position.<br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́ra wī́rora rḗʔo sṓgo pinkotsar wɑkitsar mḗʔis<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: rḗʔo, ''new''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" | <center>rḗʔo</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || rḗʔoli || rḗʔonoli<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || rḗʔo|| rḗʔono<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || rḗʔošu || rḗʔonošu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || rḗʔora || rḗʔonora<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || rḗʔoɣɑ || rḗʔonoɣɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || rḗʔokhu || rḗʔonokhu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || rḗʔokhɑ || rḗʔonokhɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || rḗʔogil || rḗʔonogil<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || rḗʔotsar || rḗʔonotsar<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have two comparison forms, comparative and superlative. They are formed by adding the following endings:<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rṓ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''superlative''</small></center> || -rṓtu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These endings are always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''ablative'' case and is followed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
wī́ro ʔṓnašu phɑw jṓpā́rṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna owtunošu phɑw jṓpā́rṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the first two persons (1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup>) and the 3<sup>rd</sup> person.<br />
<br />
Both the first and the second person have indeed two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots. On the other hand, the third person has only one root.<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || owtu || ertu || ɑktuli || owtuno || ertuno || ɑktunoli<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jo || nɑ || ɑktu || jono || nɑno || ɑktuno<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || owtušu || ertušu || rowspan="2" | ɑktušu || owtunošu || ertunošu || rowspan="2" | ɑktunošu<br />
|-<br />
| jošu || nɑšu || jonošu || nɑnošu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || owtura || ertura || rowspan="2" | ɑktura || owtunora || ertunora || rowspan="2" | ɑktunora<br />
|-<br />
| jora || nɑra || jonora || nɑnora <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || joɣɑ || nɑɣɑ || ɑktuɣɑ || jonoɣɑ || nɑnoɣɑ || ɑktunoɣɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jokhu || nɑkhu || ɑktukhu || jonokhu || nɑnokhu || ɑktunokhu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɑktukhɑ || || || ɑktunokhɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || ɑktugil || || || ɑktunogil<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɑktutsar || || || ɑktunotsar<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for 1<sup>st</sup> class entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the 1<sup>st</sup> or the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.<br />
<br />
In the pre-classical period another form for the third person, nigtu, is also used. This form is used in an obviative relationship with the form ɑktu, but it has already disappeared in the classical period.<br />
<br />
1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> person pronouns have two forms in the ablative and in the genitive case. These forms are distinguished between ''broad forms'' (owtušu, ertušu,...) and ''narrow forms'' (jošu, nɑšu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''ablative''' case:<br />
**''Broad form'': it is used as the ablative form of the pronoun, in the main meanings of the case and with postpositions. It is also used to mark belonging (according to the role of the ablative case), playing the role of an indeclinable possessive adjective or pronoun.<br />
ertunošu papu ʔalolī́ponow<br />
<small>we saw your father</small><br />
<br />
**''Narrow form'': it is mostly used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences.<br />
nɑšu hṓthī́niñɑme ʔaʔī́sow<br />
<small>I wasn't looking for you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Broad form'': it is used to mark strictly possession, playing the role of an indeclinable possessive adjective or pronoun..<br />
ertunora sṓgo ʔalolī́ponow<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Narrow form'': it is mostly used with postpositions.<br />
nɑra ʔḕ kogiwow<br />
<small>I'm going to come with you</small><br />
<br />
Especially in the genitive case these roles are not unchangeably fixed, but they can shift meaning during the entire history of the language: is it indeed not impossibile to find the narrow forms with a possessive role in the later period.<br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɑktuko<br />
*''this'': niktuko<br />
<br />
Demonstrative pronouns exhibit, instead, different forms:<br />
*''that one'': ɑwo<br />
*''this one'': niwo<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': šɑ<br />
*''who'': šā́<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
šā́ɣɑ om pike ʔakowɑker<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
However, while the animate class pronoun keeps its original meaning when declined, the inanimate class pronouns usually acquire new meanings, depending on the selected case:<br />
* šɑtsar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
* šɑɣɑ: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
* šɑšu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
* šɑkhu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
All forms can, nevertheless, keep their original meaning of “what”:<br />
<br />
šɑšu lolī́piñame om ʔaʔī́ser<br />
<small>what didn’t you see?</small><br />
The various meanings of the declined forms can be usually inferred by the context of the sentence.<br />
<br />
There are also other interrogative adjectives and pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
* šā́ko: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
* šɑko: which (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
* šɑjuʔṓ: when<br />
* šā́mine: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
* šā́mineko: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
* šɑmine: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
* šɑmineko: how much / many (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
* šɑmɑgi: how<br />
Example:<br />
<br />
šā́minekono gū́ʔetino totirer<br />
<small>how many horses do you own?</small><br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
šā́ɣɑ gū́ om tsɑgewuger<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī́<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the 1<sup>st</sup> or the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jḗʔo: every<br />
* mṓwū́: some, any<br />
* hḗsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mṓwū́ is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mowū́. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jḗʔo wɑki<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*pā́mo: much, many, a lot<br />
*sī́pā́: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''ablative''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
pā́mo mā́sonošu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sī́pā́ pikešu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
pā́moli wī́ronošu rā́no mṓtsatɑt<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*jḗšɑ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*jḗšā́: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*jḗphū́ka: everyone, each one (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*jḗrā́ʔi: everything, each thing (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*jḗjuʔṓ: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jḗjuʔṓɣɑ: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́šɑ: something (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́šā́: someone, somebody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́phū́ka: someone, somebody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́rā́ʔi: something (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́pošɑ: something (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́pošā́: someone, somebody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́juʔṓ: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́pojuʔṓ: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hḗšɑ: nothing (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*hḗšā́: no one, nobody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*hḗphū́ka: no one, nobody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*hḗrā́ʔi: nothing (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*hḗjuʔṓ: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ʔū́mtu, ''inside'', or ʔḗhlo, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
Generally, adjectives can be used as adverbs by simply putting them before the verb in their undeclined form (which works well also with temporal indefinite adjectives).<br />
<br />
Another way to derive an adverbial form from an adjectives is the construction ADJ-tsar mɑgitsar, which means ''in a ADJ way'', ''AGG-ly''. This construction has, however, a strongly marked meaning and usage.<br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: šā́ʔo<br />
* 2: ʔaki<br />
* 3: mikṓ<br />
* 4: gṓwe<br />
* 5: pā́ge<br />
* 6: thū́wa<br />
* 7: hašɑ<br />
* 8: kuʔe<br />
* 9: tsṓju<br />
*10: phḗʔo<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + phḗʔo + nā́. Examples:<br />
*11: šā́ʔophḗʔonā́<br />
*15: pā́gephḗʔonā́<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ñā́tu<br />
*1000: wiʔā́<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + re + phḗʔo/ ñā́tu/wiʔā́:<br />
*30: mikṓrephḗʔo<br />
*600: thū́wareñā́tu<br />
*9000: tsṓjurewiʔā́<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: wiʔā́ tsṓjureñā́tu kuʔerephḗʔo pā́ge<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -ko to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: šā́ʔoko<br />
*5<sup>th</sup>: pā́geko<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ʔakirephḗʔo pā́geko<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the Kī́rtako language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like kī́g).<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔḕ || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hā́k || + ablative || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɑl || + ablative || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū̀ || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | kī́g || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + ablative || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phes || + ablative || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kṓw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phɑw || + ablative || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɑg || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| gū́ || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pḗr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roš || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| wū́g || + ablative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pṓtu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''ablative'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156233User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T18:11:11Z<p>Bukkia: /* xodixe */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156232User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T18:10:35Z<p>Bukkia: /* xodixe */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156231User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T18:10:07Z<p>Bukkia: /* kī́g */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== xodixe ===<br />
The postposition '''xodixe''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.<br />
<br />
In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only ''locative'' meaning.<br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156230User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-03T18:00:45Z<p>Bukkia: /* sū̀ */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū ===<br />
The postposition '''sū''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for his friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
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As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156211User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-01T14:31:20Z<p>Bukkia: /* jɑl */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɛl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɛl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
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Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
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==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
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It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
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khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
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==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
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It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
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owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
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ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
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As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
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Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
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==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
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khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
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owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
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ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
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ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
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khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
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ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
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wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
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owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
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ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
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khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
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As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
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=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
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Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
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In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
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==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
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Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
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When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
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==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
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Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
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khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
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The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
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When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
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==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
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Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
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When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
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==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
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Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
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When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
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==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
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== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
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When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
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== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
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In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
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In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
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== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
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== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
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The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
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== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156210User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-01T14:27:53Z<p>Bukkia: /* hā́k */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hōš ===<br />
The postposition '''hōš''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.<br />
sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''genitive'' case alone.<br />
sōnuɕu ēmihəgow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156209User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-01T14:23:52Z<p>Bukkia: /* ʔḕ */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ēh ===<br />
The postposition '''ēh ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156208User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-01T14:21:37Z<p>Bukkia: /* General list of postpositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ūm || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sah || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| limtu || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || under<br />
|-<br />
| nit || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pin || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || near<br />
|-<br />
| fōr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| ɕom || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || behind<br />
|-<br />
| īr || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || around<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + locative/passive/dative/genitive || between, among<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156207User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-01T14:17:54Z<p>Bukkia: /* General list of postpositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɛn || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| nū || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čēr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| čērlu || + dative || beyond, on the other side of<br />
|-<br />
| fun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roɕ || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| šīn || + genitive || between, among, in the middle of<br />
|-<br />
| lūn || + dative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōlu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156206User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-01T14:14:12Z<p>Bukkia: /* General list of postpositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ēh || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hōš || + genitive || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɛl || + genitive || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | xodixe || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | fes || + instrumental || without, without using (<small>marking absence of instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence - class I</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kōw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| few || + genitive || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɑg || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| gū́ || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pḗr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roš || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| wū́g || + ablative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pṓtu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument - class II</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting - class I</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156205User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-01T14:10:40Z<p>Bukkia: /* General list of postpositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔḕ || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hā́k || + ablative || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɑl || + ablative || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū̀ || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | kī́g || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + ablative || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phes || + ablative || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kṓw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phɑw || + ablative || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɑg || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| gū́ || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pḗr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roš || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| wū́g || + ablative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pṓtu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | šīn<sup><small>1</small></sup> || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + genitive || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156204User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-01T14:09:22Z<p>Bukkia: /* General list of postpositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔḕ || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hā́k || + ablative || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɑl || + ablative || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū̀ || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | kī́g || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + ablative || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phes || + ablative || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kṓw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phɑw || + ablative || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɑg || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| gū́ || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pḗr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roš || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| wū́g || + ablative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pṓtu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.</small><br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''genitive'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156200User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-07-01T12:55:21Z<p>Bukkia: /* Postpositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔḕ || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hā́k || + ablative || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɑl || + ablative || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū̀ || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | kī́g || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + ablative || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phes || + ablative || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kṓw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phɑw || + ablative || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɑg || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| gū́ || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pḗr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roš || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| wū́g || + ablative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pṓtu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''ablative'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=K%C4%AB%CC%81rtako_morphology&diff=156199Kī́rtako morphology2023-07-01T12:54:16Z<p>Bukkia: /* Postpositions */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{main|Kī́rtako}}<br />
This page gives an extensive description of '''Kī́rtako morphological''' features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in Kī́rtako language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns, mostly loanwords, may unusually end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ɑ-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or first class and inanimate nouns or second class. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''1<sup>st</sup> class''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''2<sup>nd</sup> class''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class.<br />
<br />
For example, the word sɑño, ''light'', shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, as the noun ñowe, ''love'', depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are two morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''' and '''plural'''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Kī́rtako nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''9 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1<sup>st</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Ablative''' || <small>This case marks primarily a natural and unintentional belonging (for example, ''body parts''), without any sign of will of possession, or an inverse belonging. It also marks the point of origin of a movement (''motion from a place''). It is also used to mark the direct object of an infinitival form of a verb, marking thus the direct object of the negated form of a transitive verb.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks an intentional possession, from subjects with a clear and active will. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 1<sup>st</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. It can also mark the final point of a movement (''motion toward a place''), and, in a broad sense, the final purpose of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Abessive''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are absent while performing an action or being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive, genitive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, abessive, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" | <center>''1<sup>st</sup> class''</center> || colspan="2" | <center>''2<sup>nd</sup> class''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -noli || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -no || - || -no<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || -šu || -nošu || -šu || -nošu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ra || -nora || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -ɣɑ || -noɣɑ || -ɣɑ || -noɣɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -khu || -nokhu || -khu || -nokhu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || -khɑ || -nokhɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || -gil || -nogil<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || -tsar || -notsar<br />
|}<br />
Some examples are shown below: a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, papu, ''father'', and a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun, sṓgo, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" | <center>papu</center> || colspan="2" | <center>sṓgo</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || papuli || papunoli || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || papu || papuno || sṓgo || sṓgono<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || papušu || papunošu || sṓgošu || sṓgonošu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || papura || papunora || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || papuɣɑ || papunoɣɑ || sṓgoɣɑ || sṓgonoɣɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || papukhu || papunokhu || sṓgokhu || sṓgonokhu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || sṓgokhɑ || sṓgonokhɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || sṓgogil || sṓgonogil<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || sṓgotsar || sṓgonotsar<br />
|}<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, while the endings for the primary main cases cannot be added to a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́ wī́ro<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
wī́ro jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
As the verbal copula, ʔɑñɑme, ''to be'', can be omitted when the subject is expressed in the clause, the attributive or predicative role of an adjective can be inferred only by its own position.<br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́ra wī́rora rḗʔo sṓgo pinkotsar wɑkitsar mḗʔis<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: rḗʔo, ''new''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2" | <center>rḗʔo</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || rḗʔoli || rḗʔonoli<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || rḗʔo|| rḗʔono<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || rḗʔošu || rḗʔonošu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || rḗʔora || rḗʔonora<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || rḗʔoɣɑ || rḗʔonoɣɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || rḗʔokhu || rḗʔonokhu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || rḗʔokhɑ || rḗʔonokhɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || rḗʔogil || rḗʔonogil<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || rḗʔotsar || rḗʔonotsar<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have two comparison forms, comparative and superlative. They are formed by adding the following endings:<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rṓ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''superlative''</small></center> || -rṓtu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
These endings are always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''ablative'' case and is followed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
wī́ro ʔṓnašu phɑw jṓpā́rṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna owtunošu phɑw jṓpā́rṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the first two persons (1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup>) and the 3<sup>rd</sup> person.<br />
<br />
Both the first and the second person have indeed two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots. On the other hand, the third person has only one root.<br />
<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || owtu || ertu || ɑktuli || owtuno || ertuno || ɑktunoli<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jo || nɑ || ɑktu || jono || nɑno || ɑktuno<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''ablative''</small></center> || owtušu || ertušu || rowspan="2" | ɑktušu || owtunošu || ertunošu || rowspan="2" | ɑktunošu<br />
|-<br />
| jošu || nɑšu || jonošu || nɑnošu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || owtura || ertura || rowspan="2" | ɑktura || owtunora || ertunora || rowspan="2" | ɑktunora<br />
|-<br />
| jora || nɑra || jonora || nɑnora <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || joɣɑ || nɑɣɑ || ɑktuɣɑ || jonoɣɑ || nɑnoɣɑ || ɑktunoɣɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jokhu || nɑkhu || ɑktukhu || jonokhu || nɑnokhu || ɑktunokhu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɑktukhɑ || || || ɑktunokhɑ<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''abessive''</small></center> || || || ɑktugil || || || ɑktunogil<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɑktutsar || || || ɑktunotsar<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for 1<sup>st</sup> class entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the 1<sup>st</sup> or the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.<br />
<br />
In the pre-classical period another form for the third person, nigtu, is also used. This form is used in an obviative relationship with the form ɑktu, but it has already disappeared in the classical period.<br />
<br />
1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> person pronouns have two forms in the ablative and in the genitive case. These forms are distinguished between ''broad forms'' (owtušu, ertušu,...) and ''narrow forms'' (jošu, nɑšu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''ablative''' case:<br />
**''Broad form'': it is used as the ablative form of the pronoun, in the main meanings of the case and with postpositions. It is also used to mark belonging (according to the role of the ablative case), playing the role of an indeclinable possessive adjective or pronoun.<br />
ertunošu papu ʔalolī́ponow<br />
<small>we saw your father</small><br />
<br />
**''Narrow form'': it is mostly used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences.<br />
nɑšu hṓthī́niñɑme ʔaʔī́sow<br />
<small>I wasn't looking for you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Broad form'': it is used to mark strictly possession, playing the role of an indeclinable possessive adjective or pronoun..<br />
ertunora sṓgo ʔalolī́ponow<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Narrow form'': it is mostly used with postpositions.<br />
nɑra ʔḕ kogiwow<br />
<small>I'm going to come with you</small><br />
<br />
Especially in the genitive case these roles are not unchangeably fixed, but they can shift meaning during the entire history of the language: is it indeed not impossibile to find the narrow forms with a possessive role in the later period.<br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɑktuko<br />
*''this'': niktuko<br />
<br />
Demonstrative pronouns exhibit, instead, different forms:<br />
*''that one'': ɑwo<br />
*''this one'': niwo<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': šɑ<br />
*''who'': šā́<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
šā́ɣɑ om pike ʔakowɑker<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
However, while the animate class pronoun keeps its original meaning when declined, the inanimate class pronouns usually acquire new meanings, depending on the selected case:<br />
* šɑtsar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
* šɑɣɑ: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
* šɑšu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
* šɑkhu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
All forms can, nevertheless, keep their original meaning of “what”:<br />
<br />
šɑšu lolī́piñame om ʔaʔī́ser<br />
<small>what didn’t you see?</small><br />
The various meanings of the declined forms can be usually inferred by the context of the sentence.<br />
<br />
There are also other interrogative adjectives and pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
* šā́ko: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
* šɑko: which (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
* šɑjuʔṓ: when<br />
* šā́mine: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
* šā́mineko: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
* šɑmine: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
* šɑmineko: how much / many (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
* šɑmɑgi: how<br />
Example:<br />
<br />
šā́minekono gū́ʔetino totirer<br />
<small>how many horses do you own?</small><br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
šā́ɣɑ gū́ om tsɑgewuger<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī́<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to the 1<sup>st</sup> or the 2<sup>nd</sup> class.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jḗʔo: every<br />
* mṓwū́: some, any<br />
* hḗsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mṓwū́ is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mowū́. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jḗʔo wɑki<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*pā́mo: much, many, a lot<br />
*sī́pā́: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''ablative''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
pā́mo mā́sonošu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sī́pā́ pikešu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
pā́moli wī́ronošu rā́no mṓtsatɑt<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*jḗšɑ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*jḗšā́: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*jḗphū́ka: everyone, each one (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*jḗrā́ʔi: everything, each thing (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*jḗjuʔṓ: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jḗjuʔṓɣɑ: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́šɑ: something (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́šā́: someone, somebody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́phū́ka: someone, somebody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́rā́ʔi: something (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́pošɑ: something (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́pošā́: someone, somebody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́juʔṓ: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mṓwū́pojuʔṓ: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hḗšɑ: nothing (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*hḗšā́: no one, nobody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*hḗphū́ka: no one, nobody (<small>animate - 1<sup>st</sup> class</small>)<br />
*hḗrā́ʔi: nothing (<small>inanimate - 2<sup>nd</sup> class</small>)<br />
*hḗjuʔṓ: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ʔū́mtu, ''inside'', or ʔḗhlo, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
Generally, adjectives can be used as adverbs by simply putting them before the verb in their undeclined form (which works well also with temporal indefinite adjectives).<br />
<br />
Another way to derive an adverbial form from an adjectives is the construction ADJ-tsar mɑgitsar, which means ''in a ADJ way'', ''AGG-ly''. This construction has, however, a strongly marked meaning and usage.<br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: šā́ʔo<br />
* 2: ʔaki<br />
* 3: mikṓ<br />
* 4: gṓwe<br />
* 5: pā́ge<br />
* 6: thū́wa<br />
* 7: hašɑ<br />
* 8: kuʔe<br />
* 9: tsṓju<br />
*10: phḗʔo<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + phḗʔo + nā́. Examples:<br />
*11: šā́ʔophḗʔonā́<br />
*15: pā́gephḗʔonā́<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ñā́tu<br />
*1000: wiʔā́<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + re + phḗʔo/ ñā́tu/wiʔā́:<br />
*30: mikṓrephḗʔo<br />
*600: thū́wareñā́tu<br />
*9000: tsṓjurewiʔā́<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: wiʔā́ tsṓjureñā́tu kuʔerephḗʔo pā́ge<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -ko to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: šā́ʔoko<br />
*5<sup>th</sup>: pā́geko<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ʔakirephḗʔo pā́geko<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the Kī́rtako language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postpositions are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like kī́g).<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔḕ || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hā́k || + ablative || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɑl || + ablative || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū̀ || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | kī́g || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + ablative || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phes || + ablative || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kṓw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phɑw || + ablative || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɑg || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| gū́ || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pḗr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roš || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| wū́g || + ablative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pṓtu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''ablative'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Ancient_Figo_phonology&diff=156190Ancient Figo phonology2023-06-30T10:09:41Z<p>Bukkia: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{main|Ancient Figo}}<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of '''ancient Figo phonological''' features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Ancient_Figo_phonology&diff=156189Ancient Figo phonology2023-06-30T10:09:24Z<p>Bukkia: /* Diphthongs */</p>
<hr />
<div>This chapter gives an extensive description of '''ancient Figo phonological''' features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=Ancient_Figo_phonology&diff=156188Ancient Figo phonology2023-06-30T10:08:28Z<p>Bukkia: Created page with "This chapter gives an extensive description of '''ancient Figo phonological''' features. ==Consonants== The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged..."</p>
<hr />
<div>This chapter gives an extensive description of '''ancient Figo phonological''' features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.</div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia&diff=156187User:Bukkia2023-06-30T10:08:15Z<p>Bukkia: /* Piti world */</p>
<hr />
<div>{|style="margin-left:1em; border:1px solid #000000; background-color:#f2f2f2; padding:2px; float:right;" <br />
|style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ccf;text-align: center; font-size:85%;" | Sandboxes<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandbox|Sandbox I]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxII|Sandbox II]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxIII|Sandbox III]] <br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxIV|Sandbox IV]] <br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxV|Sandbox V]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxVI|Sandbox VI]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxVII|Sandbox VII]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxVIII|Sandbox VIII]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/sandboxIX|Sandbox IX]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ccf;text-align: center; font-size:85%;" | Fonts<br />
|-<br />
|style="font-size:85%;" |[[User:Bukkia/charinsert|Charinsert]]<br />
|}<br />
Hi, my name is Marco Bucchianeri and I'm a 35 year-old Italian man.<br />
<br />
<center>'''Na'saj, ni a'noym Marco Bucchianeri''' - '''Zdravite, jimenujo se Marco Bucchianeri''', - '''Śdrafţië, kajal nimi õłokost Marco Bucchianeri''' - '''Здрафөиë, кайал ними õљокост Марко Букианери''' - '''Ça, I mi çam Marco Bucchianeri''' - '''Ehoj, Marco Bucchianeri wamus''' - '''Lë bheroc t'ełëm, le bhe ë seɸo go Marco Bucchianeri''' - '''Axi, Marco Bucchianeri myso læ''' - '''Cyao, Marco Bucchianeri vocer''' - '''Eh, ul Marco Bucchianeri ńīm!'''</center><br />
<br />
I've been a conlang maker since I was 16 years old, when I created my first (nameless) conlang, a curious mix of Italian, German, English and French lexicon based on Latin and German morphology rules. My conlanging activity kept on developing in these years, during which I started studying foreign languages (Slavic ones) and Linguistics.<br />
<br />
== Conlangs ==<br />
<br />
These are my conlangs and other related pages:<br />
<br />
*'''[[Nytal]]''' (<small>[[Nytal-English dictionary|vocabulary]] • [[Specific Nytal lexycon|phraseology]] • [[Nytal biblical texts|texts]] • [[States of the World (Nytal)|list of states]] • [[Swadesh list for Nytal|Swadesh list]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Slevian]]'''<br />
<br />
*'''[[Lišěč]]''' (<small>[[Lišěč-English dictionary|vocabulary]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Itëłan]]'''<br />
<br />
*'''[[Lánc]]''' (<small>[[Lánc phonology|phonology]] • [[Lánc conjugation tables|verbal conjungation]] • [[Lánc syntax|syntax]] • [[Lánc-English-Lánc dictionary|vocabulary]] • [[Lánc dialogues|dialogues]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Keβag]]''' (<small>[[Keβag-English dictionary|vocabulary]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Teycil]]''' (<small>[[Teycil-English dictionary|vocabulary]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Novelatine]]''' (<small>[[Novelatine phonology|phonology]] • [[Novelatine morphology|morphology]] • [[Novelatine syntax|syntax]] • [[Novelatine-English dictionary|vocabulary]]</small>)<br />
<br />
*'''[[Velcjik]]'''<br />
<br />
*'''[[Kôt]]'''<br />
<br />
*'''[[Qihep]]''' (<small>[[Qihep phonology|phonology]] • [[Qihep morphology|morphology]] • [[Qihep syntax|syntax]] • [[Qihep-English dictionary|vocabulary]] • [[Qihep dialogues|dialogues]] • [[Qihep texts|texts]] • [[States of the World (Qihep)|list of states]] • [[Qihep script|script]]</small>)<br />
<br />
=== Piti world ===<br />
'''Piti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Piti'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** [[Kī́rtako]]<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>[[Kī́rtako phonology|phonology]] • [[Kī́rtako morphology|morphology]] • [[Kī́rtako syntax|syntax]] • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** [[Iðâɣ]] (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Lændixu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** [[ancient Figo]]<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>[[Ancient Figo phonology|phonology]] • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** modern Figo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Biwdiw<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Gəjlnigo (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cärähə (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Viwdiwgu (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** [[Jeʂtəra]]<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Βaβar language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Βaβar (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Memniqiju language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Memniqiju<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Rebti language family''':<br />
<br />
* *Æbbro<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Pı̇ħ language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Pı̇ħ'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Pı̀ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Bīṙ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Į̄mχɛ̱́† (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Axi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Dʰakʰi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Đaxi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Thahi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Ṙaçi (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Alri language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Alri'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Nämty<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Foħθīri<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Cažorih (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Hoð‘i (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
'''Sākdi language family''':<br />
<br />
* *'''Proto-Saːkdi'''<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Rertu<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Žérði<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
** Eβmiʔ<sup><small>†</small></sup> (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
*** Ỹhɛ (<small>phonology • morphology • syntax • vocabulary</small>)<br />
<br />
<small><sup>†</sup> indicates a dead language</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156186User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-06-30T10:07:31Z<p>Bukkia: /* Syllabic structure */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
[ˈkoːw]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]<br />
[ˈnɛ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.<br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the Kī́rtako language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complements can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postposition are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like kī́g).<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔḕ || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hā́k || + ablative || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɑl || + ablative || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū̀ || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | kī́g || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + ablative || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phes || + ablative || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kṓw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phɑw || + ablative || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɑg || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| gū́ || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pḗr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roš || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| wū́g || + ablative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pṓtu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''ablative'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156185User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-06-30T10:02:09Z<p>Bukkia: /* Personal pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Kī́rtako is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈma.tsoː˩˧.ta]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɑ.wo.kow]<br />
[ˈkiː˩˧r.ta.ko]<br />
[ˈkoː˩˧w]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈko.wɑ.ka.ka]<br />
[ˈnɑ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda. <br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective<br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the Kī́rtako language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complements can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postposition are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like kī́g).<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔḕ || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hā́k || + ablative || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɑl || + ablative || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū̀ || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | kī́g || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + ablative || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phes || + ablative || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kṓw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phɑw || + ablative || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɑg || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| gū́ || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pḗr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roš || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| wū́g || + ablative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pṓtu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''ablative'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
<br />
===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
<br />
The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
<br />
It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkiahttp://www.frathwiki.com/index.php?title=User:Bukkia/sandboxIII&diff=156184User:Bukkia/sandboxIII2023-06-30T10:01:34Z<p>Bukkia: /* Indefinite adjectives and pronouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ancient Figo''' is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named ''Figo languages''. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.<br />
<br />
=Typological structure=<br />
Ancient Figo is a morphologically '''agglutinative''' language, with an additional but strongly marked ''introflexive'' feature, realized in verbal roots. <br />
<br />
The basic word order is essentially '''SOV''' (''{{color|green|Subject}}-{{color|blue|Object}}-{{color|red|Verb}}''). <br />
<br />
{{color|green|fūgali}} {{color|blue|mūg}} {{color|red|līločeš}}<br />
<small>{{color|green|(the) person}} {{color|red|sees}} {{color|blue|(the) cow}}</small><br />
<br />
The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the ''modifier-head'' (or ''head-final'') type:<br />
*''object - verb''<br />
*''noun - postposition''<br />
*''adjective - noun''<br />
*''relative clause - noun''<br />
<br />
=Phonology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.<br />
==Consonants==<br />
The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
| colspan="2" | || colspan="3" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="3" | <small>''plosive''</small> || style="width: 120px;"| <small>''voiceless''</small> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[p]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[k]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[t]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>p</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>k</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>t</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''voiced''</small> || <center>[b]</center> || <center>[g]</center> || <center>[d]</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>g</center> || <center>d</center><br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[c]</center> || || || <center>c</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''nasal''</small> || <center>[m]</center> || <center>[n]</center> || <center>[ɲ]</center> || <center>m</center> || <center>n</center> || <center>ň</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''liquid''</small> || <center>[r]</center> || || <center>[l]</center> || <center>r</center> || || <center>l</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="8" | <small>''fricative''</small> ||<small>''velar''</small> || || <center>[x]</center> || || || <center>x</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''sibilant''</small> || || <center>[s]</center> || || || <center>s</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''alveolar''</small> || || <center>[ʃ]</center> || || || <center>š</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''glottal''</small> || || <center>[h]</center> || || || <center>h</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''labiodental''</small> || || <center>[f]</center> || || || <center>f</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''dental''</small> || || <center>[θ]</center> || || || <center>θ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''palatal''</small> || || <center>[ɕ]</center> || || || <center>ɕ</center> || <br />
|-<br />
| <small>''approximant''</small> || <center>[j]</center> || || <center>[w]</center> || <center>j</center> || || <center>w</center><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" | <small>''affricate''</small> || || <center>[ʧ]</center> || || || <center>č</center> || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: ''voiceless'', ''voiced'', and ''palatal'', even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].<br />
<br />
The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.<br />
<br />
The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.<br />
<br />
==Vowels==<br />
There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:<br />
<br />
5 vowels have a '''short''' form and a '''long''' form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- style=max-width:4em<br />
| colspan="6" | <center>''IPA''</center> || colspan="6" | <center>''Transcription''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 30px;"| <center>[i]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[iː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[u]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>[uː]</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>i</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ī</center> || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| || style="width: 30px;"| <center>u</center> || style="width: 30px;"| <center>ū</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>[e]</center> || <center>[eː]</center> || || || <center>[o]</center> || <center>[oː]</center> || <center>e</center> || <center>ē</center> || || || <center>o</center> || <center>ō</center><br />
|-<br />
| || || colspan="2" | <center>[ə]</center> || || || || || colspan="2" | <center>ə</center> || || <br />
|-<br />
| || <center>[ɛ]</center> || || || || || || <center>ɛ</center> || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| || || <center>[a]</center> || <center>[a]</center> || || || || || <center>a</center> || <center>ā</center> || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Stress==<br />
The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.<br />
[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]<br />
Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.<br />
[θuː.ˈha]<br />
Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.<br />
<br />
Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.<br />
<br />
==Syllabic structure==<br />
The basic syllable structure in Kī́rtako is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:<br />
#A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:<br />
<br />
*[a]<br />
[u.ˈma.tsoː˩˧.ta]<br />
<br />
#A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:<br />
<br />
[om]<br />
[ˈer.tu]<br />
<br />
#A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.<br />
<br />
[ˈkɑ.wo.kow]<br />
[ˈkiː˩˧r.ta.ko]<br />
[ˈkoː˩˧w]<br />
<br />
#CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.<br />
<br />
[ˈko.wɑ.ka.ka]<br />
[ˈnɑ]<br />
Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda. <br />
<br />
==Diphthongs==<br />
There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.<br />
<br />
=Morphology=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.<br />
==Nouns==<br />
Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.<br />
<br />
Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:<br />
*'''class I''': human beings, animals, deities<br />
*'''class II''': plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions<br />
A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, ''wind'', which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, ''water'', which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.<br />
<br />
Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.<br />
<br />
There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, '''singular''', '''dual''', and '''plural'''.<br />
<br />
The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):<br />
sobanu līločow<br />
<small>I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)</small><br />
<br />
sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)</small><br />
In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, ''two'', is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.<br />
ogi sobaj līločow<br />
<small>I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)</small><br />
The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, ''eye''.<br />
===Cases===<br />
Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an ''active-stative'' system with '''7 cases''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| <center>''Case''</center> || <center>''Meaning''</center><br />
|-<br />
| '''Agentive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Passive''' || <small>This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Genitive''' || <small>This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Dative''' || <small>This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement ''(motion toward a place'').</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Causative''' || <small>This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Instrumental''' || <small>This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
| '''Locative''' || <small>This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (''stative location''). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.</small><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:<br />
#''Primary main cases'': agentive<br />
#''Secondary main cases'': passive, ablative<br />
#''Primary oblique cases'': dative, causative<br />
#''Secondary oblique cases'': instrumental, locative<br />
Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various ''postpositions'', which can select one or more cases.<br />
<br />
===Noun declension===<br />
Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>''class I''</center> || colspan="3" | <center>''class II''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 60px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -li || -lī || -linu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu || - || -j<sup><small>1</small><sup> || -nu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu || -ɕu || -ɕuj || -ɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || -he || -hej || -henu || -he || -hej || -henu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || -xu || -xuj || -xunu || -xu || -xuj || -xunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || -xe || -xej || -xenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || -car || -cari || -carnu<br />
|}<br />
<small><sup>1</sup> If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.</small><br />
<br />
Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, ''father'', and a class II noun, sōnu, ''house''.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="3" | <center>pobu</center> || colspan="3" | <center>sōnu</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || pobuli || pobulī || pobulinu || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || pobu || pobuj || pobunu || sōnu || sōnuj || sōnunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || pobuɕu || pobuɕuj || pobuɕunu || sōnuɕu || sōnuɕuj || sōnuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || pobuhe || pobuhej || pobuhenu || sōnuhe || sōnuhej || sōnuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || pobuxu || pobuxuj || pobuxunu || sōnuxu || sōnuxuj || sōnuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || || sōnuxe || sōnuxej || sōnuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || || sōnucar || sōnucari || sōnucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.<br />
<br />
In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:<br />
<small>pass.</small> čiš → <small>gen.</small> čišəɕu, <small>dat.</small> čišəhe, ...<br />
Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.<br />
<small>pass.</small> sōnu → <small>gen.</small> sōnoɕu, <small>dat.</small> sōnohe, ...<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and pronouns==<br />
Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form. <br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Attributive adjectives are always placed '''before''' the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed ''after'' them.<br />
<br />
jōbā līru<br />
<small>(the) young man</small><br />
<br />
līru jōbā ɛneš<br />
<small>(the) man is young</small><br />
<br />
All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.<br />
<br />
jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš<br />
<small>the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village</small><br />
====Declension of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Example: jōbā, ''young''<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || jōbāli || jōbālī || jōbālinu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || jōbā || jōbāj || jōbānu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || jōbāɕu || jōbāɕuj || jōbāɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || jōbāhe || jōbāhej || jōbāhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || jōbāxu || jōbāxuj || jōbāxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || jōbāxe || jōbāxej || jōbāxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || jōbācar || jōbācari || jōbācarnu<br />
|}<br />
The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:<br />
<small>pass.</small> rēw, ''new'' → <small>ag.</small> rēwəli, <small>gen.</small> rēwəɕu, <small>dat.</small> rēwəhe, ...<br />
<br />
====Comparison of qualifying adjectives====<br />
Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''comparative''</small></center> || -rō<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the ''genitive'' case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.<br />
līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is younger than the woman</small><br />
If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, ''among'', which govern the ''passive'' case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.<br />
ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the woman is the youngest of/among us</small><br />
If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:<br />
līru jōbārō ɛneš<br />
<small>the man is the youngest (or younger)</small><br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> sing.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> dual.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''1<sup>st</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''2<sup>nd</sup> plur.''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''3<sup>rd</sup> plur.''</small></center><br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || oltu || ertu || ɛštu || oltuj || ertuj || ɛštuj || oltunu || ertunu || ɛštunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || ju || nɛ || šɛ || joj || nɛj || šɛj || junu || nɛnu || šɛnu<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || oltuɕu || ertuɕu || ɛštuɕu || oltuɕuj || ertuɕuj || ɛštuɕuj || oltuɕunu || ertuɕunu || ɛštuɕunu<br />
|-<br />
| joɕu || nɛɕu || šɛɕu || juɕuj || nɛɕuj || šɛɕuj || juɕunu || nɛɕunu || šɛɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || oltuhe || ertuhe || ɛštuhe || oltuhej || ertuhej || ɛštuhej || oltuhenu || ertuhenu || ɛštuhenu<br />
|-<br />
| johe || nɛhe || šɛhe || juhej || nɛhej || šɛhej || juhenu || nɛhenu || šɛhenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || oltuxu || ertuxu || ɛštuxu || oltuxuj || ertuxuj || ɛštuxuj || oltuxunu || ertuxunu || ɛštuxunu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || || || ɛštuxe || || || ɛštuxej || || || ɛštuxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || || || ɛštucar || || || ɛštucari || || || ɛštucarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between ''long forms'' (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and ''short forms'' (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:<br />
<br />
*In the '''genitive''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective</small><br />
<br />
ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon<br />
<small>we saw your house</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.<br />
<br />
nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow<br />
<small>I wasn’t looking for you</small><br />
<br />
nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon<br />
<small>I will come with you</small><br />
<br />
*In the '''dative''' case:<br />
**''Long form'': it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.<br />
<br />
ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon<br />
<small>I am talking about them</small><br />
<br />
**''Short form'': it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.<br />
<br />
šɛhe hēme agohegow<br />
<small>I gave him bread</small><br />
<br />
1<sup><small>st</small></sup> and 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.<br />
ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow<br />
<small>I am falling</small><br />
<br />
=== Reflexive pronoun and adjective ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*mē<br />
It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (''animate'') or class II (''inanimate''). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.<br />
{|-<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 100px;"| || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''singular''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''dual''</small></center> || style="width: 80px;"|<center><small>''plural''</small></center> <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''agentive''</small></center> || -|| -|| -<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''passive''</small></center> || mē || mēj || mēnu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''genitive''</small></center> || mēɕu || mēɕuj || mēɕunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''dative''</small></center> || mēhe || mēhej || mēhenu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''causative''</small></center> || mēxu || mēxuj || mēxunu <br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''instrumental''</small></center> || mēxe || mēxej || mēxenu<br />
|-<br />
| <center><small>''locative''</small></center> || mēcar || mēcari || mēcarnu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.<br />
<br />
In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.<br />
oltu mē ju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.<br />
oltu mēju mīhoňow<br />
<small>I wash myself</small><br />
<br />
However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.<br />
oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...<br />
<small>I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
<br />
Forms in the genitive case are, also used as '''possessive reflexive''' forms. These forms are used only when ''the owner is the subject'' of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.<br />
mēɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)</small><br />
Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1<small><sup>st</sup></small> and the 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.<br />
oltuɕu soba līločow<br />
<small>I see my dog</small><br />
With the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.<br />
mēɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)</small><br />
<br />
ɛštuɕu soba līločeš<br />
<small>he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)</small><br />
<br />
===Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns===<br />
The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:<br />
*''that'': ɛšlu<br />
*''this'': ninlu<br />
These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.<br />
<br />
===Interrogative pronouns===<br />
Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).<br />
*''what'': ɕɛ<br />
*''who'': ɕō<br />
<br />
Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
ɕōhe čiš agohegər?<br />
<small>whom did you give water to?</small><br />
There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):<br />
*ɕɛducar: where (<small>static location</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduhe: where (<small>motion toward</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduɕu: where... from (<small>motion form</small>)<br />
*ɕɛduxu: why (<small>cause</small>)<br />
*ɕɛlēdu: when<br />
*ɕɛmin: how much (<small>inanimate</small>)<br />
*ɕōmin: how much (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛmen: how<br />
There are also the following interrogative adjectives:<br />
*ɕɛgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōgu: which (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
*ɕōminəxu: how much / many (<small>animate</small>)<br />
<br />
Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:<br />
<br />
ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?<br />
<small>whom are you talking about?</small><br />
<br />
Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.<br />
<br />
=== Relative pronoun ===<br />
There is only one form of relative pronoun:<br />
*hī<br />
This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.<br />
<br />
=== Indefinite adjectives and pronouns ===<br />
There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:<br />
* jodu: every<br />
* mōhū: some, any<br />
* hēsu: no<br />
The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.<br />
<br />
This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they ''always'' agree with their name in '''singular''' number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.<br />
<br />
jodu sōnošu<br />
<small>every village (all the villages)</small><br />
There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:<br />
*čōmu: much, many, a lot<br />
*sīčā: few, a little, a few<br />
These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the '''genitive''' case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.<br />
<br />
čōmu mōsuɕunu<br />
<small>many mice, a lot of mice</small><br />
<br />
sīčā čišəɕu<br />
<small>a little water</small><br />
The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.<br />
<br />
čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš<br />
<small>a lot of men are collecting milk</small><br />
The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.<br />
<br />
There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:<br />
*joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*joduɕō: everyone, everybody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*jodulēdu: every moment, always (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodulēduhe: forever (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*jodumɛni: in every way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕɛ: something (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*mōhūlēdu: sometimes (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕɛ: nothing (<small>inanimate - class II</small>)<br />
*hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (<small>animate - class I</small>)<br />
*hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
*hēsumɛni: in no way (<small>invariable</small>)<br />
These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.<br />
<br />
==Adverbs==<br />
There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, ''inside'', or ēdu, ''together'', mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning. <br />
<br />
An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.<br />
<br />
lānu → lānumɛcar<br />
<small>true → truly</small><br />
<br />
The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.<br />
<br />
==Numerals==<br />
The numeral system relies on a decimal base.<br />
<br />
The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
* 1: ɕōw<br />
* 2: ogi<br />
* 3: migō<br />
* 4: nōh<br />
* 5: čōn<br />
* 6: θūha<br />
* 7: hoɕe<br />
* 8: šu<br />
* 9: cōju<br />
*10: fēw<br />
<br />
Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:<br />
*11: ɕōwfēw<br />
*15: čonfēw<br />
<br />
The numerals for ''(one) hundred'' and ''(one) thousand'' are noun-like forms on their own:<br />
*100: ňōšu<br />
*1000: liā<br />
<br />
The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:<br />
*30: migōfēwtunu<br />
*600: θūhaňōšunu<br />
*9000: cōjuliānu<br />
<br />
Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.<br />
<br />
Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:<br />
*1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon<br />
<br />
All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.<br />
<br />
Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:<br />
*1<sup>st</sup>: ɕōwgu<br />
*6<sup>th</sup>: θūhagu<br />
<br />
If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:<br />
*25<sup>th</sup>: ogifēwtunu čongu<br />
<br />
==Postpositions==<br />
In the Kī́rtako language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complements can be effectively expressed. <br />
<br />
All postposition are always placed '''after''' the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.<br />
===General list of postpositions===<br />
Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus it is said that each postposition ''governs'' a specific case. <br />
<br />
Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like kī́g).<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔḕ || + genitive || with, together with (<small>marking company</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| hā́k || + ablative || from, native to (<small>marking origin</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| jɑl || + ablative || from, coming from (<small>marking a departure point</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| sū̀ || + dative ||for, aiming to (<small>marking purpose</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | kī́g || + instrumental || by, with, by means of (<small>marking instrument</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| + ablative || by way of, using (<small>marking exploiting</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phes || + ablative || without, in the absence of (<small>marking absence</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| kṓw || + dative || towards, in the direction of (<small>marking direction</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phɑw || + ablative || in relation to (<small>marking relation</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| mɑg || + passive || in comparison to, like, as (<small>marking comparison</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| gū́ || + dative || about, regarding, concerning (<small>marking topic, theme</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pḗr || + dative || through, throughout, across (<small>marking from a side to the other</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| phun || + locative/genitive || after (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| roš || + locative/genitive || before (<small>temporal value</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| wū́g || + ablative || away, away from (<small>marking distancing</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| pṓtu || + dative || against, in opposition to (<small>marking opposition</small>)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (''locative'' or ''passive'' case), a motion towards a place (''dative'' case) or a motion from a place (''ablative'' case). Such postpositions are called '''locative postpositions''':<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || ''case'' || ''meaning''<br />
|-<br />
| ʔū́m || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || inside of<br />
|-<br />
| sā̀ || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || outside of<br />
|-<br />
| wim || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || under<br />
|-<br />
| git || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || over, on<br />
|-<br />
| pig || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || near<br />
|-<br />
| phṓr || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || in front of, opposite<br />
|-<br />
| šom || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || behind<br />
|-<br />
| tī́n || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || between, among<br />
|-<br />
| ʔī́r || + locative/passive/dative/ablative || around<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.<br />
<br />
=== ʔḕ ===<br />
The postposition '''ʔḕ''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''company''. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinora ʔḕ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home with my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''genitive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is ''never'' used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== hā́k ===<br />
The postposition '''hā́k''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''origin''. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.<br />
jo Kī́rtašu hā́k (ʔɑñow)<br />
<small>I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition jɑl.<br />
sṓgošu hā́k ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== jɑl ===<br />
The postposition '''jɑl''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''provenience''. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.<br />
Kī́rtašu jɑl kigowow<br />
<small>I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion from a place'', in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind. Such use is often confused with the postposition hā́k.<br />
sṓgošu jɑl ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''ablative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgošu ʔawɑpū́kow<br />
<small>I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== sū̀ ===<br />
The postposition '''sū̀''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''purpose''. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
hḗmɑ ɑktušu kogā́tiɣɑ sū̀ ʔatitorugow<br />
<small>I bought some bread for my friend</small><br />
Generally the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.<br />
<br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the ''dative'' case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow → owtušu mamuɣɑ sū̀ kinusow<br />
<small>I sing for my mother</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.<br />
<br />
=== kī́g ===<br />
The postposition '''kī́g''' conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''mean''. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
ɑktu owtušu kogā́tišu kī́g pogikow<br />
<small>I will send it through my friend</small><br />
It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''instrument''. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the '''instrumental''' case.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ kī́g ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
In this meaning it is never used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. <br />
<br />
The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the ''instrumental'' case alone.<br />
mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokon<br />
<small>the mouse was killed with a stone.</small><br />
Therefore, this postposition was almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense was limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly. <br />
<br />
=== phes ===<br />
The postposition '''phes''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''absence'' or ''exclusion''. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ owtušu kogā́tinošu phes ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home without my friends</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys the absence of the entity, by the means of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the abessive case alone.<br />
<br />
In this meaning it is scarcely used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, except in a broad sense.<br />
<br />
=== kṓw ===<br />
The postposition '''kṓw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''direction''. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed or a certain action is performed.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tinoli šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ kṓw ʔimḗɣonɑt<br />
<small>his friends are going towards the royal palace</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of ''motion to a place'', in other words, the ending point of a motion of any kind. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ kṓw ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the ''dative'' case alone.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went home. (my motion ended in that place)</small><br />
<br />
=== phɑw ===<br />
The postposition '''phɑw''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''relation''. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.<br />
ɑktušu tatḗwili ɑktukošu tsetsešu phɑw hā́lo kojā́hɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>her child can write well compared to that child</small><br />
It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.<br />
ertušu kogā́ti owtušu papušu phɑw ʔokḗrṓ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>your friend is older than my father</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɑg.<br />
<br />
=== mɑg ===<br />
The postposition '''mɑg''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''equivalence''. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt<br />
<small>he works like his friend</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''passive''' case.<br />
<br />
It ''never'' conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.<br />
<br />
=== gū́ ===<br />
The postposition '''gū́''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''theme''. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.<br />
owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt<br />
<small>my friends were talking about their village</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pḗr ===<br />
The postposition '''pḗr''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''crossing''. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.<br />
ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow<br />
<small>I walked through the fields</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
=== phun ===<br />
The postposition '''phun''' conveys a temporal relation of ''posteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came after your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== roš ===<br />
The postposition '''roš''' conveys a temporal relation of ''anteriority''. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.<br />
ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came before your friends</small><br />
The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.<br />
<br />
This postposition governs the '''genitive''' case, when used with a 1<sup>st</sup> class noun, and it governs the '''locative''' case, when used with a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== wū́g ===<br />
The postposition '''wū́g''' conveys the meaning of the complement of ''distancing'' or ''estrangement''. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.<br />
ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt<br />
<small>he will send his friend away from his house</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''ablative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== pṓtu ===<br />
The postposition '''pṓtu''' conveys more meanings.<br />
It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of ''detriment''. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow<br />
<small>I did it against your friends</small><br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of ''opposition'' or ''objection''. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. <br />
šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow<br />
<small>I am going to speak against the king</small><br />
It may moreover convey the meaning of ''motion against a place'', in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.<br />
mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran against the door</small><br />
This postposition always governs the '''dative''' case.<br />
<br />
=== Locative postpositions ===<br />
''Locative postpositions'' convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning.<br />
The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:<br />
* ''Locative'' or ''passive'' case: '''static location'''<br />
* ''Dative'' case: '''motion towards a place'''<br />
* ''Genitive'' case: '''motion from a place'''<br />
These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the ''static location''. They govern the '''locative''' case for ''2<sup>nd</sup> class'' nouns and the '''passive''' case with ''1<sup>st</sup> class'' nouns. <br />
<br />
==== ʔū́m ====<br />
The postposition '''ʔū́m''' conveys the meaning of ''internal location''. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.<br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went inside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from inside the royal palace</small><br />
It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the ''locative'' case alone.<br />
<br />
==== sā̀ ==== <br />
The postposition '''sā̀''' conveys the meaning of ''external location''. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from outside the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== wim ==== <br />
The postposition '''wim''' conveys the meaning of ''lower location''. It specifies a location below another place. <br />
mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the mouse was under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt<br />
<small>the mouse is running under the black table</small><br />
<br />
mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt<br />
<small>the mouse ran away from under the black table</small><br />
<br />
==== git ==== <br />
The postposition ''git'' conveys the meaning of ''upper location''. It specifies a location above another place. <br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ<br />
<small>the stylus is on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow<br />
<small>I put the stylus on the new table</small><br />
<br />
kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger<br />
<small>you will take the stylus from (over) the new table</small><br />
No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“''on the tabe''”) or without contact (“''over the house, above the house''”).<br />
<br />
==== pig ==== <br />
The postposition '''pig''' conveys the meaning of ''close location''. It specifies a location near another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was near the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went close to the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from nearby the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== phṓr ==== <br />
The postposition '''phṓr''' conveys the meaning of ''frontal location''. It specifies a location in front of another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went in front of the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from opposite the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== šom ==== <br />
The postposition '''šom''' conveys the meaning of ''back location''. It specifies a location behind another place. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from behind the royal palace</small><br />
<br />
==== tī́n ==== <br />
The postposition '''tī́n''' conveys the meaning of ''middle location''. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities. <br />
owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis<br />
<small>my friend was between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow<br />
<small>I went between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
<br />
šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker<br />
<small>you will come from between the royal palace and the tower</small><br />
No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“''between the eyes''”) or among more places or entities (“''among the candidates''”).<br />
<br />
It may additionally convey the meaning of an ''unreal middle position''. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ''ablative'' case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.<br />
ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>he is the tallest of my friends</small><br />
It ''never'' conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.<br />
<br />
==== ʔī́r ==== <br />
The postposition '''ʔī́r''' conveys the meaning of ''circular location''. It specifies a location around another place. <br />
tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon<br />
<small>the children sat around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt<br />
<small>the children are running around the old tree</small><br />
<br />
tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt<br />
<small>the children came from (around) the old tree</small><br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between '''imperfective''' aspect and '''perfective''' aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the ''imperfective root'' ('''R<sub>imp</sub>''') and the perfective root ('''R<sub>prf</sub>'''). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:<br />
CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''C → CV'''<sub>2</sub>'''CV'''<sub>1</sub>'''C<br />
Example:<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>prf</sub>''' = gogak-<br />
Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “''present''”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as ''augment'', which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.<br />
'''R<sub>imp</sub>''' = gagok- → '''R<sub>imp-past</sub>''' = ʔagagok-<br />
<br />
There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:<br />
* ''Moods'': indicative, subjunctive, conditional<br />
* ''Non-finite'': infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle<br />
<br />
The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.<br />
<br />
The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-ow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-er</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>-ɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 70px;"| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || style="width: 70px;"| <center>-onow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-oner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>-onɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>-on</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:<br />
*''indicative'': Ø<br />
*''subjunctive'': -iñ-<br />
*''conditional'': -ɑts-<br />
The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.<br />
<br />
As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.<br />
<br />
The non-finite endings are:<br />
*''infinitive'': -ɑme<br />
*''agentive participle'': -ī́to<br />
*''passive participle'': -uki<br />
<br />
The infinitival form is meant as a 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun.<br />
<br />
=== Conjugation of a regular verb ===<br />
Example: lī́lopɑme, ''to see''<br />
<br />
====Indicative mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopow</center> || <center>lolī́pow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́loper</center> || <center>ʔalī́loper</center> || <center>lolī́per</center> || <center>ʔalolī́per</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lop</center> || <center>ʔalī́lop</center> || <center>lolī́p</center> || <center>ʔalolī́p</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponow</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponow</center> || <center>lolī́ponow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponer</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponer</center> || <center>lolī́poner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́poner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́loponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́loponɑt</center> || <center>lolī́ponɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopon</center> || <center>lolī́pon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pon</center><br />
|}<br />
The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.<br />
<br />
====Subjunctive mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñow</center> || <center>lolī́piñow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñer</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñer</center> || <center>lolī́piñer</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñer</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñ</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñ</center> || <center>lolī́piñ</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñ</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonow</center> || <center>lolī́piñonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñoner</center> || <center>lolī́piñoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́piñonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́ponɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopiñon</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñon</center> || <center>lolī́piñon</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñon</center><br />
|}<br />
The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.<br />
<br />
====Conditional mood====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>imperfective</small>''</center> || colspan="2"| <center>''<small>perfective</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>present</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>past</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtser</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtser</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtser</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> sing.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑts</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑts</center> || <center>lolī́pɑts</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑts</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>1<sup>st</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonow</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonow</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonow</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>2<sup>nd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsoner</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsoner</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsoner</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''<small>3<sup>rd</sup> plur.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsonɑt</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>lī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtson</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtson</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtson</center><br />
|}<br />
The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.<br />
<br />
For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
=====Infinitive=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pɑme</center> || <center>lolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñɑme</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2<sup>nd</sup> class noun. <br />
<br />
In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.<br />
<br />
Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
=====Agentive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́pī́to</center> || <center>lolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́pī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñī́to</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action. <br />
<br />
It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case:<br />
ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli<br />
<small>the man which might have seen the woman</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
=====Passive participle=====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 60px;"| || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>indicative</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>subjuncitve</small>''</center> || style="width: 130px;"| <center>''<small>conditional</small>''</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lī́lopuki</center> || <center>lī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>lī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalī́lopuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopiñuki</center> || <center>ʔalī́lopɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>lolī́puki</center> || <center>lolī́piñuki</center> || <center>lolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
| ''<small>imp. pres.</small>'' || <center>ʔalolī́puki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́piñuki</center> || <center>ʔalolī́pɑtsuki</center><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the ''agentive'' case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.<br />
wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna<br />
<small>the woman seen by the man</small><br />
As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.<br />
<br />
===The third person===<br />
The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:<br />
*'''-ɑt''', called ''long form''<br />
*'''-Ø''', called ''short form''<br />
These two forms have different uses:<br />
* The long form, '''-ɑt''', is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:<br />
sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)</small><br />
<br />
sopa hī́šakɑt<br />
<small>the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)</small><br />
* The short form, '''-Ø''', is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)</small><br />
It is also used in passive constructions:<br />
wī́ro sopali ñamī́k<br />
<small>the man is bitten by the dog</small><br />
Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.<br />
<br />
The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate. <br />
pike rḗtɑnɑt<br />
<small>the water is flowing</small><br />
When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.<br />
ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ<br />
<small>andare → va</small><br />
This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.<br />
<br />
=== Negation ===<br />
The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.<br />
<br />
Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the ''subjunctive infinitival form'' of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping</small><br />
As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.<br />
<br />
''Double negatives'' are generally '''''not''' allowed''; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.<br />
<br />
=Syntax=<br />
This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.<br />
==Main clause and word order==<br />
Kī́rtako is an almost strictly '''SOV''' (''Subject-Object-Verb'') language. <br />
wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt <br />
<small>the man is seeing the dog</small><br />
The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is '''OSV''' (''Object-Subject-Verbs''), which marks the so-called ''passive construct''.<br />
sopa wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the dog is being seen by the man</small><br />
The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “''place-manner-cause-time''”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed ''before'' the direct object of the sentence.<br />
<br />
A peculiar feature is the verbal ''infinitival agreement'': when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ''ablative'' case.<br />
sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am not seeing the dog.</small><br />
Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.<br />
<br />
==Nouns==<br />
The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.<br />
<br />
The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying ''possession'' and ''belonging'' are always placed '''before''' the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.<br />
wī́rora sṓgo<br />
<small>the man’s house</small><br />
<br />
owtušu lilā́<br />
<small>my hand</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́ ʔṓna <br />
<small>the young woman</small><br />
The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called ''nominal agreement''. <br />
<br />
Both ''attributive'' and ''predicative'' adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.<br />
<br />
jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the young man is going home</small><br />
<br />
jonora sṓgo<br />
<small>our house</small><br />
<br />
jṓpā́no ʔṓnano<br />
<small>the young women</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)<br />
<small>the women are young</small><br />
The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.<br />
<br />
The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by ''postpositions'', which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going inside the house</small><br />
<br />
=== The cases===<br />
The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to ''grammatical cases'', with usually well-defined roles. <br />
<br />
The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:<br />
*''Agentive''<br />
*''Passive''<br />
*''Ablative''<br />
*''Genitive''<br />
*''Dative''<br />
*''Causative''<br />
*''Instrumental''<br />
*''Abessive''<br />
*''Locative''<br />
The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:<br />
<br />
==== Agentive ====<br />
The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''agent'' of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt<br />
<small>the man is going home</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.<br />
<br />
==== Passive==== <br />
The passive case features the '''zero''' ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the ''basic root form'' of the noun.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''patient'' of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.<br />
sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt<br />
<small>the dog is seeing the man</small><br />
It also marks the ''unactive subject'' of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.<br />
wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k<br />
<small>the man fell</small><br />
<br />
sopa kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping</small><br />
<br />
ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>the woman is young</small><br />
The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.<br />
<br />
As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural ''vocative'' form.<br />
mamu, kogiwiñer!<br />
<small>mom, come!</small><br />
It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
==== Genitive==== <br />
The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking ''voluntary possession''. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)</small><br />
This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case. <br />
<br />
The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Ablative ==== <br />
The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking belonging to ''someone'' or to something.<br />
phū́kanošu wime<br />
<small>the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''involuntary'', or ''intrinsic possession'', namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)</small><br />
The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.<br />
<br />
As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called ''infinitival agreement''.<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme<br />
<small>the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock</small><br />
Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.<br />
<br />
For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.<br />
sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow<br />
<small>I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog</small><br />
It marks, also, the ''motion from a place'', and, with some specific verbs, ''origin'' or ''source''.<br />
wɑkišu kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (my journey started there)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkišu hā́kigowow<br />
<small>I come from the village (I was born there)</small><br />
<br />
==== Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases ==== <br />
Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the ''genitive'' case and the ''ablative'' case.<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' case conveys a meaning of ''intentional possession'', namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).<br />
phū́kara sṓgo<br />
<small>the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house</small><br />
The '''ablative''' case conveys a meaning of ''unintentional possession'', namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of ''intrinsic possession'' (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of ''belonging'', usually called inverse belonging.<br />
phū́kašu lilā́<br />
<small>the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her</small><br />
<br />
phū́kašu wime<br />
<small>the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world</small><br />
Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.<br />
<br />
==== Dative ==== <br />
The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''indirect object'' of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.<br />
phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt<br />
<small>the person is giving bread to the dog</small><br />
In a broader sense it conveys ''motion to a place''.<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going to the village</small><br />
It may mark, also, the ''purpose'' or the ''goal'' of an action or a state.<br />
owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow<br />
<small>I am singing for my mother</small><br />
<br />
==== Causative ==== <br />
The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''cause'' of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>the person went home because of the rain</small><br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt<br />
<small>The man walked away because of the woman</small><br />
In a broader sense it also marks the ''efficient cause''.<br />
sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon<br />
<small>the plants spoiled because of the snow</small><br />
This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
<br />
Some 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==== Instrumental ==== <br />
The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.<br />
<br />
The grammatical role of this case is marking the ''instrument'' through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt<br />
<small>the person killed the mouse with a stone</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.<br />
<br />
This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.<br />
phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon<br />
<small>the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person</small><br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Abessive ==== <br />
The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.<br />
<br />
The main role of this case is marking the ''deprivation'', namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.<br />
sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk<br />
<small>the dog will die without bread</small><br />
It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.<br />
<br />
It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.<br />
phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt<br />
<small>the sheep without wool ran away</small><br />
In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.<br />
<br />
As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
==== Locative ==== <br />
The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.<br />
<br />
The semantic role of this case is marking the ''location'', namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.<br />
ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt<br />
<small>The woman saw a mouse in the house</small><br />
It thus marks primarily the ''static location'', namely the motionless position.<br />
wɑkitsar mḗʔisow<br />
<small>I am in the village; I am at the village</small><br />
As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.<br />
<br />
=== The active-stative alignment ===<br />
The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called '''agentive-stative''' type (also called in Piti philological studies the ''agentive-passive'' alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the ''nominative-accusative'' alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ''ergative-absolutive'' alignment.<br />
<br />
In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:<br />
*'''''to jump''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the ''agentive'' case for such subjects.<br />
*'''''to fall''''': this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the ''passive'' case for such subjects.<br />
The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.<br />
<br />
The general usage rule for these cases is:<br />
*Subject of a transitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Active subject of an intransitive verb: '''agentive''' case<br />
*Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
*Direct object of a transitive verb: '''passive''' case<br />
<br />
Examples:<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> wī́ro<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> ñamī́kɑt<br />
<small>the dog is biting the man<br />
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopali<sup><small>AGEN</small></sup> ʔimḗɣekɑt<br />
<small>the dog is running away<br />
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)</small><br />
<br />
sopa<sup><small>PASS</small></sup> kḗwon<br />
<small>the dog is sleeping<br />
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)</small><br />
The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2<sup>nd</sup> class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:<br />
<small>the storm spoiled the harvest → '''the harvest spoiled because of the storm'''</small><br />
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p<br />
however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, ''light'', pike, ''water'', ʔako, ''wind'', and they may optionally be regarded as 1<sup>st</sup> class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like ''person'', ''number'', ''tense'', ''aspect'', and ''mood'', as well as its own semantic meaning.<br />
<br />
At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.<br />
gɑgokɑme<br />
<small>to bring</small><br />
<br />
kḗwonɑme <br />
<small>to sleep</small><br />
<br />
mḗʔisɑme<br />
<small>to be placed</small><br />
<br />
thā́gɑme<br />
<small>to know</small><br />
Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.<br />
<br />
Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of ''vowel switching'', conveying an aspectual change.<br />
gagok- → gogak-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>IMPF</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PRF</small></sup></small><br />
In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called '''imperfective root''' and '''perfective root'''. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.<br />
<br />
===Verbal aspect===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the '''verbal aspect'''. They make this distinction between two aspects, called ''imperfective aspect'' and ''perfective aspect'', by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the ''imperfective root'', and the ''perfective root''.<br />
<br />
The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.<br />
*'''Imperfective aspect''': it marks ''incomplete actions'', namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.<br />
<br />
gagok-: ''to bring''. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.<br />
<br />
*'''Perfective aspect''': it marks ''complete actions'', namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.<br />
<br />
gogak-: ''to bring''. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness.<br />
The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagagokow<br />
<small>I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ ʔagogakow<br />
<small>I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “''bringing''”.</small><br />
Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:<br />
sopa ʔañowekow<br />
<small>I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)</small><br />
<br />
sopa ʔañewokow<br />
<small>I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)<br />
<br />
In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “''stopping loving''”, “''no more loving''”.</small><br />
The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== Tense ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the '''tense'''. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called ''present'' and ''past tense''.<br />
gagok- → ʔagagok-<br />
<small>to bring<sup><small>PRES</small></sup> → to bring<sup><small>PAST</small></sup></small><br />
The form not marked by the prefix is called ''present'', although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.<br />
<br />
The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.<br />
<br />
=== The aspect-tense system ===<br />
In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.<br />
<br />
The aspect-tense system is as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || colspan="2"| <center>''Aspect''</center><br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" style="width: 90px;"| <center>''Tense''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Imperfective present'''</center> || style="width: 190px;"| <center>'''Perfective present'''</center><br />
|-<br />
| <center>'''Imperfective past'''</center> || <center>'''Perfective past'''</center><br />
|}<br />
<br />
For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called ''verbal tenses''. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective present ====<br />
The ''imperfective present'' conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ hḗmonow<br />
<small>I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)</small><br />
It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.<br />
rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt <br />
<small>the sun shines in the sky (general truth)</small><br />
With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.<br />
hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)</small><br />
<br />
hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow<br />
<small>Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective present ====<br />
The ''perfective present'' conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)</small><br />
An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.<br />
hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow<br />
<small>I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)</small><br />
As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.<br />
<br />
==== Imperfective past ====<br />
The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)</small><br />
It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow<br />
<small>I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)</small><br />
<br />
==== Perfective past ====<br />
The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.<br />
hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow<br />
<small>I ate bread (the action is or was completed)</small><br />
<br />
=== Mood ===<br />
Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the '''mood''', namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of ''suffixes'', which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called ''indicative'', ''subjunctive'' and ''conditional mood''.<br />
<br />
Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.<br />
<br />
==== Indicative ====<br />
The ''indicative'' is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the '''zero''' suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.<br />
<br />
It primarily conveys a meaning of ''statement'' and ''certainty'', regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow<br />
<small>I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt<br />
<small>he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt<br />
<small>the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow<br />
<small>I came to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.<br />
<br />
==== Subjunctive ====<br />
The ''subjunctive'' mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.<br />
<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''hope'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I wish I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt<br />
<small>I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow<br />
<small>if only I had come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''exhortation'', regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I better be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow<br />
<small>I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt<br />
<small>let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the ''imperative'' form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a ''subordinating form'' in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow<br />
<small>I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
==== Conditional ====<br />
The ''conditional'' mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions.<br />
It conveys, primarily, a meaning of ''desire'' and ''wish'', usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I did like to come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It also conveys a meaning of ''will'', regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Moreover, it conveys a meaning of ''potentiality'', usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might rain (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt<br />
<small>it might have snowed (perfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I might have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
It can also convey a meaning of ''possibility'', usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be going home (imperfective present)</small><br />
<br />
owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow<br />
<small>I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt<br />
<small>I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I could have come to the village (perfective past)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.<br />
<br />
As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.<br />
khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)</small><br />
<br />
wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow<br />
<small>I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)</small><br />
This usage is known as “''future in the past''”.<br />
<br />
=== Modal verbs ===<br />
Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called '''modal verbs'''.<br />
<br />
Modal verbs are:<br />
*ʔī́sɑme: ''do not'' (negative verb)<br />
*gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (''can, may'')<br />
*phɑgesɑme: to be able to (''can'')<br />
*goʔī́kɑme: to want to<br />
*kokisɑme: to be compelled to (''have to'')<br />
Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:<br />
*''Possibility'', ''potentiality'', ''will'', ''desire'': conditional mood<br />
*''Wish'', ''hope'': subjunctive mood<br />
The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.<br />
<br />
In the following description the adverb jṓr, ''necessarily'', is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.<br />
<br />
==== gṓtsekɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''allowed'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or '''to may'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am allowed to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== phɑgesɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''able'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb '''to can''' or of the modal expression '''to be able to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow<br />
<small>I can go home (I am able now)</small><br />
<br />
khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)</small><br />
Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.<br />
<br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called ''subjunctive infinitive''. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the person can go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt<br />
<small>the woman can eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman cannot eat bread</small><br />
<br />
==== goʔī́kɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''willing'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb '''to want'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want to go home (My will is to go home)</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the person wants to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt<br />
<small>the woman wants eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not want to eat bread</small><br />
This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.<br />
hḗmɑ guʔā́šow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.<br />
hḗmɑ goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want bread</small><br />
In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.<br />
hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow<br />
<small>I want (to eat) bread</small><br />
<br />
==== kokisɑme ====<br />
This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically ''compelled'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.<br />
<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to have to'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow<br />
<small>I have to go home (I am obliged to go)</small><br />
Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the ''passive construct'', especially in the classic period. <br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.<br />
phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the person has to go home</small><br />
Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.<br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis<br />
<small>the woman has to eat bread</small><br />
As can be seen, both 3<sup>rd</sup> person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.<br />
<br />
When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb. <br />
hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman must not eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this verb usually conveys the ''obligation to not'' perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
==== jṓr ====<br />
This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically ''needs'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one.<br />
Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs '''to must''' or '''to need'''.<br />
sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow<br />
<small>I must go home (I need to go)</small><br />
This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.<br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt<br />
<small>the woman must eat bread</small><br />
Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster. <br />
ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt<br />
<small>the woman does not need to eat bread</small><br />
The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the ''lack of need'' to perform the action or to be in a certain state.<br />
<br />
== Passive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from '''SOV''' to '''OSV'''. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop<br />
<small>the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man</small><br />
As can be seen, the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.<br />
<br />
When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3<sup><small>rd</small></sup> person plural short form:<br />
wī́ro lī́lopon<br />
<small>they see the man → the man is seen</small><br />
<br />
== Reflexive construct ==<br />
Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.<br />
kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme<br />
<small>to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)</small><br />
With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called ''reflexive construct''.<br />
<br />
In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, ''same''.<br />
meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...<br />
<small>I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…</small><br />
In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.<br />
<br />
In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.<br />
<br />
== Imperative ==<br />
Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2<sup><small>nd</small></sup> person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.<br />
ʔḗmiɣiñer<br />
<small>go!</small><br />
In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:<br />
tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer<br />
<small>do not drink! (both once and never)</small><br />
<br />
== Verb “to have” ==<br />
Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb '''to have'''. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.<br />
<br />
The verb '''totirɑme''' conveys an ''intentional possession'' from the possessor.<br />
phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt<br />
<small>the person has (owns) a house</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.<br />
kojā́hukha totirow<br />
<small>I have a stylus</small><br />
As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the ''agentive'' case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the ''passive'' case, as it is the direct object of the verb.<br />
šupā́tɑli<small><sup>AGEN</sup></small> tirṓsi<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> totirɑt<br />
<small>the king has a palace</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject.<br />
The verb '''hḗʔī́ɣɑme''' conveys, conversely, an ''unintentional possession'' from the possessor or the ''intrinsic belonging'' to the possessor.<br />
phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.<br />
ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow<br />
<small>I have a head</small><br />
As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the ''passive'' case and the owned is expressed in the ''ablative'' case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person the verb usually selects the short forms.<br />
šupā́tɑ<small><sup>PASS</sup></small> ʔaki rakonošu<small><sup>ABL</sup></small> hḗʔī̀<br />
<small>the king has two eyes</small><br />
As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject.<br />
In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the ''agentive'' case and the owned in the ''passive'' case, while it still selects the 3<small><sup>rd</sup></small> person short forms.<br />
phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ <br />
<small>a person has two hands</small><br />
In such cases, also 2<small><sup>nd</sup></small> class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.<br />
<br />
== Interrogative clauses ==<br />
Interrogative clauses, namely simple ''questions'', do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:<br />
wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>what is the man seeing?</small><br />
Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:<br />
šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?</small><br />
Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “''yes-no questions''”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:<br />
wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?<br />
<small>is the woman, who is being seen by the man?</small><br />
If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:<br />
wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?<br />
<small>isn’t the man seeing the woman?</small><br />
<br />
==Subordination==<br />
Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the ''subjunctive'' mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of ''subordinating form''. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a ''non-finite form'', usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.<br />
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===Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)===<br />
Declarative content clauses mainly feature the ''infinitive'', which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:<br />
wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)<br />
<small>it is right to rule</small><br />
In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.<br />
<br />
For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:<br />
*The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme<br />
<small>the man said that the woman is going to come</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
*The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle '''hī́ɑt'''. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt<br />
<small>the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear</small><br />
<br />
The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.<br />
<br />
This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.<br />
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===Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)===<br />
There are two possible constructions:<br />
*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''causative case''.<br />
<br />
wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu<br />
<small>the man came because the dog had bitten the woman</small><br />
<br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
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*The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt <br />
<small>as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came</small><br />
<br />
The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.<br />
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The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.<br />
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===Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive infinitive'' (or conditional), declined in the ''dative case''.<br />
papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ<br />
<small>the father tends the flock to collect the milk</small><br />
The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ''ablative case''.<br />
<br />
===Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)===<br />
Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the ''subjunctive'' or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 110px;"| šɑtutsar || <small>when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓtsar || <small>when / while</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓɣɑ || <small>until / as long as</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu || <small>how long / since when</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu phun || <small>after</small><br />
|-<br />
| juʔṓšu roš || <small>before</small><br />
|}<br />
<br />
The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:<br />
*when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of ''when''.<br />
*when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''while'', and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of ''when''.<br />
In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.<br />
<br />
=== Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)===<br />
They are constructed in the following way:<br />
<br />
The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt<br />
<small>the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman</small><br />
<br />
===Relative clauses===<br />
Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:<br />
*By placing, before the specified noun, the ''agentive participle'', or the ''passive participle''. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ''ablative case'', as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the ''agentive case''. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.<br />
<br />
jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock</small><br />
<br />
tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow<br />
<small>I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear</small><br />
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It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence. <br />
<br />
*By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' or in the conditional.<br />
<br />
hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow<br />
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt <br />
<small>I saw the bear who killed the sheep</small><br />
The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.<br />
<br />
=== Conditional clauses ===<br />
Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the ''antecedent'' (<small>which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”</small>) and the ''consequent'' (<small>which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis</small>).<br />
<br />
Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.<br />
<br />
The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the ''subjunctive'' mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the ''conditional'' mood or in the ''indicative'' mood.<br />
*''Possible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present indicative''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, we will eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow<br />
<small>if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I buy bread, let’s eat together!</small><br />
<br />
*''Unlikely hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.<br />
<br />
In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we would eat together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow<br />
<small>if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!</small><br />
<br />
*''Impossible hypothesis''. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.<br />
<br />
For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''present subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''present conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow<br />
<small>if he came here, I would help him</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow<br />
<small>if he were here every day, I would always help him</small><br />
<br />
In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.<br />
<br />
For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the ''past subjunctive'' and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the ''past conditional''. Both aspects can be used.<br />
<br />
hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together</small><br />
<br />
ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow<br />
<small>if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together</small><br />
<br />
Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.<br />
<br />
These three types can be mixed.<br />
<br />
=== Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions) ===<br />
Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the ''subjunctive'' mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.<br />
šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer<br />
<small>where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went</small></div>Bukkia