1 box
2 kalo lex
- 2.1 milapako ka
3 tlika
4 pa'a
- 4.1 pampa
5 noun phrases
6 ukum
7 loca
8 genitive
9 syl kalo
10 katekalo
11 anyomo
- 11.1 Unit Organization
12 hanmoya
- 12.1 ak
- 12.2 an
- 12.3 am
- 12.4 xx
13 Derivational morphology
14 subject/object
- 14.1 Semitic abjads
15 word gen kala
16 tense
17 case
18 format
19 Morphosyntax
- 19.1 animacy
- 19.2 verbs
- 19.3 Comparison
- 19.4 Indirect Objects
20 Semantic Fields and Pragmatics
21 Numbers
- 21.1 Forming Larger Numbers
- 21.2 Other Number Forms
- 21.3 Math Operations
22 Writing system
- 22.1 Han Moya
23 Examples
24 Lexicon
25 notes
26 Locative verbs
- 26.1 extra
  - 26.1.1 more
27 Syntax
- 27.1 Simple sentences
- 27.2 Complex sentences
28 Evidentiality
29 kalama
- 29.1 words
30 Amal grammar
31 zanga
32 krit
33 xcvb
34 lkjh
- 34.1 Adjectives
  - 34.1.1 Comparison
  - 34.1.2 Equivalence
    - 34.1.2.1 Relative
- 34.2 Adverbs
- 34.3 Prepositions
- 34.4 Particles
  - 34.4.1 Conjunctions
  - 34.4.2 Interjections
- 34.5 Noun Phrase
- 34.6 Word Order
- 34.7 Clauses
- 34.8 Questions
  - 34.8.1 Polar Questions
  - 34.8.2 Content questions
35 Semantic fields and pragmatics
36 Writing system
- 36.1 Han Moya
  - 36.1.1 consonants
  - 36.1.2 vowels
37 Examples
38 Lexicon
- 38.1 references
39 EVID
- 39.1 direct
- 39.2 indirect

box

kalo lex

	singular	plural	possessive
1st person	wa I; me	walo we; us	wayo my; mine; our(s)
2nd person	ni you	nilo you (all)	niyo your(s)
3rd person	ko he; she; him; her; it	kolo they; them; those	koyo their(s)

milapako ka

	Animate Active	Inanimate Stative
Nouns	-e / -i	-a
Verbs	-o / -u	-a
Various	-ue / -ye -yo	-ua / -ya

tlika

tlika
	nata (nta)	tlaka (ta)	naka (na)
	nata relative	tlaka man; male	naka woman; female
hya-	hyanta grandparent	hyata grandfather	hyana grandmother
o-	onta parent	ota father	ona mother
ue-	uenta parent's sibling	ueta uncle	uena aunt
-ku	ntaku sibling	taku brother	naku sister
-hi	ntahi child	tahi son; boy	nahi daughter; girl
-hya	ntahya grandchild	tahya grandson	nahya granddaughter
-ue	ntaue cousin	taue male cousin	naue female cousin
-hue	ntahue nibling	tahue nephew	nahue niece

pa'a

	na'o	ta'o	ha'o
plosive pana (rain)	pa	ta	ka
nasal maua (flower)	ma	na	nya
affricate tlatsa (fire)	tsa	tla
continuant honu (turtle)	sa	ha	la
semivowel yasa (wind)	ua	ya	a

pampa

pampa
pampe
pampi
pampo
pampu
pata
pate
pati
pato
panta
pante
panti
panto
paka
pake
paki
pako
paku
pakua
pakue
pakya
pakye
pakyo
panka
panke
panki
panko
panku
pama
pame
pami
pamo
pamu
pamua
pamue
pamya
pamye
pamyo
pana
pane
pani
pano
panu
panua
panue
panya
panye
panyo
pasa
pase
pasi
paso
pasu
pasua
pasue
paha
pahe
pahi
paho
pahu
pahua
pahue
pahya
pahye
pahyo
patsa
patse
patsi
patso
patsu
patsua
patsue
patla
patle
patli
patlo
pala
pale
pali
palo
pa'a
pa'e
pa'i
pa'o
pa'u
paua
paue
paya
paye
payo
pempa
pempe
pempi
pempo
pempu
peta
pete
peti
peto
penta
pente
penti
pento
peka
peke
peki
peko
peku
pekua
pekue
pekya
pekye
pekyo
penka
penke
penki
penko
penku
pema
peme
pemi
pemo
pemu
pemua
pemue
pemya
pemye
pemyo
pena
pene
peni
peno
penu
penua
penue
penya
penye
penyo
pesa
pese
pesi
peso
pesu
pesua
pesue
peha
pehe
pehi
peho
pehu
pehua
pehue
pehya
pehye
pehyo
petsa
petse
petsi
petso
petsu
petsua
petsue
petla
petle
petli
petlo
pela
pele
peli
pelo
pe'a
pe'e
pe'i
pe'o
pe'u
peua
peue
peya
peye
peyo
pimpa
pimpe
pimpi
pimpo
pimpu
pita
pite
piti
pito
pinta
pinte
pinti
pinto
pika
pike
piki
piko
piku
pikua
pikue
pikya
pikye
pikyo
pinka
pinke
pinki
pinko
pinku
pima
pime
pimi
pimo
pimu
pimua
pimue
pimya
pimye
pimyo
pina
pine
pini
pino
pinu
pinua
pinue
pinya
pinye
pinyo
pisa
pise
pisi
piso
pisu
pisua
pisue
piha
pihe
pihi
piho
pihu
pihua
pihue
pihya
pihye
pihyo
pitsa
pitse
pitsi
pitso
pitsu
pitsua
pitsue
pitla
pitle
pitli
pitlo
pila
pile
pili
pilo
pi'a
pi'e
pi'i
pi'o
pi'u
piua
piue
piya
piye
piyo
pompa
pompe
pompi
pompo
pompu
pota
pote
poti
poto
ponta
ponte
ponti
ponto
poka
poke
poki
poko
poku
pokua
pokue
pokya
pokye
pokyo
ponka
ponke
ponki
ponko
ponku
poma
pome
pomi
pomo
pomu
pomua
pomue
pomya
pomye
pomyo
pona
pone
poni
pono
ponu
ponua
ponue
ponya
ponye
ponyo
posa
pose
posi
poso
posu
posua
posue
poha
pohe
pohi
poho
pohu
pohua
pohue
pohya
pohye
pohyo
potsa
potse
potsi
potso
potsu
potsua
potsue
potla
potle
potli
potlo
pola
pole
poli
polo
po'a
po'e
po'i
po'o
po'u
poua
poue
poya
poye
poyo
pumpa
pumpe
pumpi
pumpo
pumpu
puta
pute
puti
puto
punta
punte
punti
punto
puka
puke
puki
puko
puku
pukua
pukue
pukya
pukye
pukyo
punka
punke
punki
punko
punku
puma
pume
pumi
pumo
pumu
pumua
pumue
pumya
pumye
pumyo
puna
pune
puni
puno
punu
punua
punue
punya
punye
punyo
pusa
puse
pusi
puso
pusu
pusua
pusue
puha
puhe
puhi
puho
puhu
puhua
puhue
puhya
puhye
puhyo
putsa
putse
putsi
putso
putsu
putsua
putsue
putla
putle
putli
putlo
pula
pule
puli
pulo
pu'a
puampa
puampe
puampi
puampo
puampu
puata
puate
puati
puato
puanta
puante
puanti
puanto
puaka
puake
puaki
puako
puaku
puakya
puakye
puakyo
puanka
puanke
puanki
puanko
puanku
puama
puame
puami
puamo
puamu
puamya
puamye
puamyo
puana
puane
puani
puano
puanu
puanya
puanye
puanyo
puasa
puase
puasi
puaso
puasu
puaha
puahe
puahi
puaho
puahu
puahya
puahye
puahyo
puatsa
puatse
puatsi
puatso
puatsu
puatla
puatle
puatli
puatlo
puala
puale
puali
pualo
pua'a
pua'e
pua'i
pua'o
pua'u
puaya
puaye
puayo
pu'e
puempa
puempe
puempi
puempo
puempu
pueta
puete
pueti
pueto
puenta
puente
puenti
puento
pueka
pueke
pueki
pueko
pueku
puekya
puekye
puekyo
puenka
puenke
puenki
puenko
puenku
puema
pueme
puemi
puemo
puemu
puemya
puemye
puemyo
puena
puene
pueni
pueno
puenu
puenya
puenye
puenyo
puesa
puese
puesi
pueso
puesu
pueha
puehe
puehi
pueho
puehu
puehya
puehye
puehyo
puetsa
puetse
puetsi
puetso
puetsu
puetla
puetle
puetli
puetlo
puela
puele
pueli
puelo
pue'a
pue'e
pue'i
pue'o
pue'u
pueya
pueye
pueyo
pu'i
pu'o
pu'u
puua
puue
puya
puye
puyo
pyampa
pyampe
pyampi
pyampo
pyampu
pyata
pyate
pyati
pyato
pyanta
pyante
pyanti
pyanto
pyaka
pyake
pyaki
pyako
pyaku
pyakua
pyakue
pyanka
pyanke
pyanki
pyanko
pyanku
pyama
pyame
pyami
pyamo
pyamu
pyamua
pyamue
pyana
pyane
pyani
pyano
pyanu
pyanua
pyanue
pyasa
pyase
pyasi
pyaso
pyasu
pyasua
pyasue
pyaha
pyahe
pyahi
pyaho
pyahu
pyahua
pyahue
pyatsa
pyatse
pyatsi
pyatso
pyatsu
pyatsua
pyatsue
pyatla
pyatle
pyatli
pyatlo
pyala
pyale
pyali
pyalo
pya'a
pya'e
pya'i
pya'o
pya'u
pyaua
pyaue
pyempa
pyempe
pyempi
pyempo
pyempu
pyeta
pyete
pyeti
pyeto
pyenta
pyente
pyenti
pyento
pyeka
pyeke
pyeki
pyeko
pyeku
pyekua
pyekue
pyenka
pyenke
pyenki
pyenko
pyenku
pyema
pyeme
pyemi
pyemo
pyemu
pyemua
pyemue
pyena
pyene
pyeni
pyeno
pyenu
pyenua
pyenue
pyesa
pyese
pyesi
pyeso
pyesu
pyesua
pyesue
pyeha
pyehe
pyehi
pyeho
pyehu
pyehua
pyehue
pyetsa
pyetse
pyetsi
pyetso
pyetsu
pyetsua
pyetsue
pyetla
pyetle
pyetli
pyetlo
pyela
pyele
pyeli
pyelo
pye'a
pye'e
pye'i
pye'o
pye'u
pyeua
pyeue
pyompa
pyompe
pyompi
pyompo
pyompu
pyota
pyote
pyoti
pyoto
pyonta
pyonte
pyonti
pyonto
pyoka
pyoke
pyoki
pyoko
pyoku
pyokua
pyokue
pyonka
pyonke
pyonki
pyonko
pyonku
pyoma
pyome
pyomi
pyomo
pyomu
pyomua
pyomue
pyona
pyone
pyoni
pyono
pyonu
pyonua
pyonue
pyosa
pyose
pyosi
pyoso
pyosu
pyosua
pyosue
pyoha
pyohe
pyohi
pyoho
pyohu
pyohua
pyohue
pyotsa
pyotse
pyotsi
pyotso
pyotsu
pyotsua
pyotsue
pyotla
pyotle
pyotli
pyotlo
pyola
pyole
pyoli
pyolo
pyo'a
pyo'e
pyo'i
pyo'o
pyo'u
pyoua
pyoue
mpata
mpate
mpati
mpato
mpanta
mpante
mpanti
mpanto
mpaka
mpake
mpaki
mpako
mpaku
mpakua
mpakue
mpakya
mpakye
mpakyo
mpanka
mpanke
mpanki
mpanko
mpanku
mpama
mpame
mpami
mpamo
mpamu
mpamua
mpamue
mpamya
mpamye
mpamyo
mpana
mpane
mpani
mpano
mpanu
mpanua
mpanue
mpanya
mpanye
mpanyo
mpasa
mpase
mpasi
mpaso
mpasu
mpasua
mpasue
mpaha
mpahe
mpahi
mpaho
mpahu
mpahua
mpahue
mpahya
mpahye
mpahyo
mpatsa
mpatse
mpatsi
mpatso
mpatsu
mpatsua
mpatsue
mpatla
mpatle
mpatli
mpatlo
mpala
mpale
mpali
mpalo
mpa'a
mpa'e
mpa'i
mpa'o
mpa'u
mpaua
mpaue
mpaya
mpaye
mpayo
mpeta
mpete
mpeti
mpeto
mpenta
mpente
mpenti
mpento
mpeka
mpeke
mpeki
mpeko
mpeku
mpekua
mpekue
mpekya
mpekye
mpekyo
mpenka
mpenke
mpenki
mpenko
mpenku
mpema
mpeme
mpemi
mpemo
mpemu
mpemua
mpemue
mpemya
mpemye
mpemyo
mpena
mpene
mpeni
mpeno
mpenu
mpenua
mpenue
mpenya
mpenye
mpenyo
mpesa
mpese
mpesi
mpeso
mpesu
mpesua
mpesue
mpeha
mpehe
mpehi
mpeho
mpehu
mpehua
mpehue
mpehya
mpehye
mpehyo
mpetsa
mpetse
mpetsi
mpetso
mpetsu
mpetsua
mpetsue
mpetla
mpetle
mpetli
mpetlo
mpela
mpele
mpeli
mpelo
mpe'a
mpe'e
mpe'i
mpe'o
mpe'u
mpeua
mpeue
mpeya
mpeye
mpeyo
mpita
mpite
mpiti
mpito
mpinta
mpinte
mpinti
mpinto
mpika
mpike
mpiki
mpiko
mpiku
mpikua
mpikue
mpikya
mpikye
mpikyo
mpinka
mpinke
mpinki
mpinko
mpinku
mpima
mpime
mpimi
mpimo
mpimu
mpimua
mpimue
mpimya
mpimye
mpimyo
mpina
mpine
mpini
mpino
mpinu
mpinua
mpinue
mpinya
mpinye
mpinyo
mpisa
mpise
mpisi
mpiso
mpisu
mpisua
mpisue
mpiha
mpihe
mpihi
mpiho
mpihu
mpihua
mpihue
mpihya
mpihye
mpihyo
mpitsa
mpitse
mpitsi
mpitso
mpitsu
mpitsua
mpitsue
mpitla
mpitle
mpitli
mpitlo
mpila
mpile
mpili
mpilo
mpi'a
mpi'e
mpi'i
mpi'o
mpi'u
mpiua
mpiue
mpiya
mpiye
mpiyo
mpota
mpote
mpoti
mpoto
mponta
mponte
mponti
mponto
mpoka
mpoke
mpoki
mpoko
mpoku
mpokua
mpokue
mpokya
mpokye
mpokyo
mponka
mponke
mponki
mponko
mponku
mpoma
mpome
mpomi
mpomo
mpomu
mpomua
mpomue
mpomya
mpomye
mpomyo
mpona
mpone
mponi
mpono
mponu
mponua
mponue
mponya
mponye
mponyo
mposa
mpose
mposi
mposo
mposu
mposua
mposue
mpoha
mpohe
mpohi
mpoho
mpohu
mpohua
mpohue
mpohya
mpohye
mpohyo
mpotsa
mpotse
mpotsi
mpotso
mpotsu
mpotsua
mpotsue
mpotla
mpotle
mpotli
mpotlo
mpola
mpole
mpoli
mpolo
mpo'a
mpo'e
mpo'i
mpo'o
mpo'u
mpoua
mpoue
mpoya
mpoye
mpoyo
mputa
mpute
mputi
mputo
mpunta
mpunte
mpunti
mpunto
mpuka
mpuke
mpuki
mpuko
mpuku
mpukua
mpukue
mpukya
mpukye
mpukyo
mpunka
mpunke
mpunki
mpunko
mpunku
mpuma
mpume
mpumi
mpumo
mpumu
mpumua
mpumue
mpumya
mpumye
mpumyo
mpuna
mpune
mpuni
mpuno
mpunu
mpunua
mpunue
mpunya
mpunye
mpunyo
mpusa
mpuse
mpusi
mpuso
mpusu
mpusua
mpusue
mpuha
mpuhe
mpuhi
mpuho
mpuhu
mpuhua
mpuhue
mpuhya
mpuhye
mpuhyo
mputsa
mputse
mputsi
mputso
mputsu
mputsua
mputsue
mputla
mputle
mputli
mputlo
mpula
mpule
mpuli
mpulo
mpu'a
mpu'e
mpu'i
mpu'o
mpu'u
mpuua
mpuue
mpuya
mpuye
mpuyo
tapa
tape
tapi
tapo
tapu
tapua
tapue
tapya
tapye
tapyo
tampa
tampe
tampi
tampo
tampu
tanta
tante
tanti
tanto
taka
take
taki
tako
taku
takua
takue
takya
takye
takyo
tanka
tanke
tanki
tanko
tanku
tama
tame
tami
tamo
tamu
tamua
tamue
tamya
tamye
tamyo
tana
tane
tani
tano
tanu
tanua
tanue
tanya
tanye
tanyo
tasa
tase
tasi
taso
tasu
tasua
tasue
taha
tahe
tahi
taho
tahu
tahua
tahue
tahya
tahye
tahyo
tatsa
tatse
tatsi
tatso
tatsu
tatsua
tatsue
tatla
tatle
tatli
tatlo
tala
tale
tali
talo
ta'a
ta'e
ta'i
ta'o
ta'u
taua
taue
taya
taye
tayo
tepa
tepe
tepi
tepo
tepu
tepua
tepue
tepya
tepye
tepyo
tempa
tempe
tempi
tempo
tempu
tenta
tente
tenti
tento
teka
teke
teki
teko
teku
tekua
tekue
tekya
tekye
tekyo
tenka
tenke
tenki
tenko
tenku
tema
teme
temi
temo
temu
temua
temue
temya
temye
temyo
tena
tene
teni
teno
tenu
tenua
tenue
tenya
tenye
tenyo
tesa
tese
tesi
teso
tesu
tesua
tesue
teha
tehe
tehi
teho
tehu
tehua
tehue
tehya
tehye
tehyo
tetsa
tetse
tetsi
tetso
tetsu
tetsua
tetsue
tetla
tetle
tetli
tetlo
tela
tele
teli
telo
te'a
te'e
te'i
te'o
te'u
teua
teue
teya
teye
teyo
tipa
tipe
tipi
tipo
tipu
tipua
tipue
tipya
tipye
tipyo
timpa
timpe
timpi
timpo
timpu
tinta
tinte
tinti
tinto
tika
tike
tiki
tiko
tiku
tikua
tikue
tikya
tikye
tikyo
tinka
tinke
tinki
tinko
tinku
tima
time
timi
timo
timu
timua
timue
timya
timye
timyo
tina
tine
tini
tino
tinu
tinua
tinue
tinya
tinye
tinyo
tisa
tise
tisi
tiso
tisu
tisua
tisue
tiha
tihe
tihi
tiho
tihu
tihua
tihue
tihya
tihye
tihyo
titsa
titse
titsi
titso
titsu
titsua
titsue
titla
title
titli
titlo
tila
tile
tili
tilo
ti'a
ti'e
ti'i
ti'o
ti'u
tiua
tiue
tiya
tiye
tiyo
topa
tope
topi
topo
topu
topua
topue
topya
topye
topyo
tompa
tompe
tompi
tompo
tompu
tonta
tonte
tonti
tonto
toka
toke
toki
toko
toku
tokua
tokue
tokya
tokye
tokyo
tonka
tonke
tonki
tonko
tonku
toma
tome
tomi
tomo
tomu
tomua
tomue
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male
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ma'e
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tsuane
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tsuahya
tsuahye
tsuahyo
tsuatla
tsuatle
tsuatli
tsuatlo
tsuala
tsuale
tsuali
tsualo
tsua'a
tsua'e
tsua'i
tsua'o
tsua'u
tsuaya
tsuaye
tsuayo
tsu'e
tsuepa
tsuepe
tsuepi
tsuepo
tsuepu
tsuepya
tsuepye
tsuepyo
tsuempa
tsuempe
tsuempi
tsuempo
tsuempu
tsueta
tsuete
tsueti
tsueto
tsuenta
tsuente
tsuenti
tsuento
tsueka
tsueke
tsueki
tsueko
tsueku
tsuekya
tsuekye
tsuekyo
tsuenka
tsuenke
tsuenki
tsuenko
tsuenku
tsuema
tsueme
tsuemi
tsuemo
tsuemu
tsuemya
tsuemye
tsuemyo
tsuena
tsuene
tsueni
tsueno
tsuenu
tsuenya
tsuenye
tsuenyo
tsuesa
tsuese
tsuesi
tsueso
tsuesu
tsueha
tsuehe
tsuehi
tsueho
tsuehu
tsuehya
tsuehye
tsuehyo
tsuetla
tsuetle
tsuetli
tsuetlo
tsuela
tsuele
tsueli
tsuelo
tsue'a
tsue'e
tsue'i
tsue'o
tsue'u
tsueya
tsueye
tsueyo
tsu'i
tsu'o
tsu'u
tsuua
tsuue
tsuya
tsuye
tsuyo
tlapa
tlape
tlapi
tlapo
tlapu
tlapua
tlapue
tlapya
tlapye
tlapyo
tlampa
tlampe
tlampi
tlampo
tlampu
tlata
tlate
tlati
tlato
tlanta
tlante
tlanti
tlanto
tlaka
tlake
tlaki
tlako
tlaku
tlakua
tlakue
tlakya
tlakye
tlakyo
tlama
tlame
tlami
tlamo
tlamu
tlamua
tlamue
tlamya
tlamye
tlamyo
tlana
tlane
tlani
tlano
tlanu
tlanua
tlanue
tlanya
tlanye
tlanyo
tlasa
tlase
tlasi
tlaso
tlasu
tlasua
tlasue
tlaha
tlahe
tlahi
tlaho
tlahu
tlahua
tlahue
tlahya
tlahye
tlahyo
tlatsa
tlatse
tlatsi
tlatso
tlatsu
tlatsua
tlatsue
tlala
tlale
tlali
tlalo
tla'a
tla'e
tla'i
tla'o
tla'u
tlaua
tlaue
tlaya
tlaye
tlayo
tlepa
tlepe
tlepi
tlepo
tlepu
tlepua
tlepue
tlepya
tlepye
tlepyo
tlempa
tlempe
tlempi
tlempo
tlempu
tleta
tlete
tleti
tleto
tlenta
tlente
tlenti
tlento
tleka
tleke
tleki
tleko
tleku
tlekua
tlekue
tlekya
tlekye
tlekyo
tlema
tleme
tlemi
tlemo
tlemu
tlemua
tlemue
tlemya
tlemye
tlemyo
tlena
tlene
tleni
tleno
tlenu
tlenua
tlenue
tlenya
tlenye
tlenyo
tlesa
tlese
tlesi
tleso
tlesu
tlesua
tlesue
tleha
tlehe
tlehi
tleho
tlehu
tlehua
tlehue
tlehya
tlehye
tlehyo
tletsa
tletse
tletsi
tletso
tletsu
tletsua
tletsue
tlela
tlele
tleli
tlelo
tle'a
tle'e
tle'i
tle'o
tle'u
tleua
tleue
tleya
tleye
tleyo
tlipa
tlipe
tlipi
tlipo
tlipu
tlipua
tlipue
tlipya
tlipye
tlipyo
tlimpa
tlimpe
tlimpi
tlimpo
tlimpu
tlita
tlite
tliti
tlito
tlinta
tlinte
tlinti
tlinto
tlika
tlike
tliki
tliko
tliku
tlikua
tlikue
tlikya
tlikye
tlikyo
tlima
tlime
tlimi
tlimo
tlimu
tlimua
tlimue
tlimya
tlimye
tlimyo
tlina
tline
tlini
tlino
tlinu
tlinua
tlinue
tlinya
tlinye
tlinyo
tlisa
tlise
tlisi
tliso
tlisu
tlisua
tlisue
tliha
tlihe
tlihi
tliho
tlihu
tlihua
tlihue
tlihya
tlihye
tlihyo
tlitsa
tlitse
tlitsi
tlitso
tlitsu
tlitsua
tlitsue
tlila
tlile
tlili
tlilo
tli'a
tli'e
tli'i
tli'o
tli'u
tliua
tliue
tliya
tliye
tliyo
tlopa
tlope
tlopi
tlopo
tlopu
tlopua
tlopue
tlopya
tlopye
tlopyo
tlompa
tlompe
tlompi
tlompo
tlompu
tlota
tlote
tloti
tloto
tlonta
tlonte
tlonti
tlonto
tloka
tloke
tloki
tloko
tloku
tlokua
tlokue
tlokya
tlokye
tlokyo
tloma
tlome
tlomi
tlomo
tlomu
tlomua
tlomue
tlomya
tlomye
tlomyo
tlona
tlone
tloni
tlono
tlonu
tlonua
tlonue
tlonya
tlonye
tlonyo
tlosa
tlose
tlosi
tloso
tlosu
tlosua
tlosue
tloha
tlohe
tlohi
tloho
tlohu
tlohua
tlohue
tlohya
tlohye
tlohyo
tlotsa
tlotse
tlotsi
tlotso
tlotsu
tlotsua
tlotsue
tlola
tlole
tloli
tlolo
tlo'a
tlo'e
tlo'i
tlo'o
tlo'u
tloua
tloue
tloya
tloye
tloyo
apa
ape
api
apo
apu
apua
apue
apya
apye
apyo
ampa
ampe
ampi
ampo
ampu
ata
ate
ati
ato
anta
ante
anti
anto
aka
ake
aki
ako
aku
akua
akue
akya
akye
akyo
anka
anke
anki
anko
anku
ama
ame
ami
amo
amu
amua
amue
amya
amye
amyo
ana
ane
ani
ano
anu
anua
anue
anya
anye
anyo
asa
ase
asi
aso
asu
asua
asue
aha
ahe
ahi
aho
ahu
ahua
ahue
ahya
ahye
ahyo
atsa
atse
atsi
atso
atsu
atsua
atsue
atla
atle
atli
atlo
ala
ale
ali
alo
a'a
a'e
a'i
a'o
a'u
aua
aue
aya
aye
ayo
epa
epe
epi
epo
epu
epua
epue
epya
epye
epyo
empa
empe
empi
empo
empu
eta
ete
eti
eto
enta
ente
enti
ento
eka
eke
eki
eko
eku
ekua
ekue
ekya
ekye
ekyo
enka
enke
enki
enko
enku
ema
eme
emi
emo
emu
emua
emue
emya
emye
emyo
ena
ene
eni
eno
enu
enua
enue
enya
enye
enyo
esa
ese
esi
eso
esu
esua
esue
eha
ehe
ehi
eho
ehu
ehua
ehue
ehya
ehye
ehyo
etsa
etse
etsi
etso
etsu
etsua
etsue
etla
etle
etli
etlo
ela
ele
eli
elo
e'a
e'e
e'i
e'o
e'u
eua
eue
eya
eye
eyo
ipa
ipe
ipi
ipo
ipu
ipua
ipue
ipya
ipye
ipyo
impa
impe
impi
impo
impu
ita
ite
iti
ito
inta
inte
inti
into
ika
ike
iki
iko
iku
ikua
ikue
ikya
ikye
ikyo
inka
inke
inki
inko
inku
ima
ime
imi
imo
imu
imua
imue
imya
imye
imyo
ina
ine
ini
ino
inu
inua
inue
inya
inye
inyo
isa
ise
isi
iso
isu
isua
isue
iha
ihe
ihi
iho
ihu
ihua
ihue
ihya
ihye
ihyo
itsa
itse
itsi
itso
itsu
itsua
itsue
itla
itle
itli
itlo
ila
ile
ili
ilo
i'a
i'e
i'i
i'o
i'u
iua
iue
iya
iye
iyo
opa
ope
opi
opo
opu
opua
opue
opya
opye
opyo
ompa
ompe
ompi
ompo
ompu
ota
ote
oti
oto
onta
onte
onti
onto
oka
oke
oki
oko
oku
okua
okue
okya
okye
okyo
onka
onke
onki
onko
onku
oma
ome
omi
omo
omu
omua
omue
omya
omye
omyo
ona
one
oni
ono
onu
onua
onue
onya
onye
onyo
osa
ose
osi
oso
osu
osua
osue
oha
ohe
ohi
oho
ohu
ohua
ohue
ohya
ohye
ohyo
otsa
otse
otsi
otso
otsu
otsua
otsue
otla
otle
otli
otlo
ola
ole
oli
olo
o'a
o'e
o'i
o'o
o'u
oua
oue
oya
oye
oyo
upa
upe
upi
upo
upu
upua
upue
upya
upye
upyo
umpa
umpe
umpi
umpo
umpu
uta
ute
uti
uto
unta
unte
unti
unto
uka
uke
uki
uko
uku
ukua
ukue
ukya
ukye
ukyo
unka
unke
unki
unko
unku
uma
ume
umi
umo
umu
umua
umue
umya
umye
umyo
una
une
uni
uno
unu
unua
unue
unya
unye
unyo
usa
use
usi
uso
usu
usua
usue
uha
uhe
uhi
uho
uhu
uhua
uhue
uhya
uhye
uhyo
utsa
utse
utsi
utso
utsu
utsua
utsue
utla
utle
utli
utlo
ula
ule
uli
ulo
u'a
uapa
uape
uapi
uapo
uapu
uapya
uapye
uapyo
uampa
uampe
uampi
uampo
uampu
uata
uate
uati
uato
uanta
uante
uanti
uanto
uaka
uake
uaki
uako
uaku
uakya
uakye
uakyo
uanka
uanke
uanki
uanko
uanku
uama
uame
uami
uamo
uamu
uamya
uamye
uamyo
uana
uane
uani
uano
uanu
uanya
uanye
uanyo
uasa
uase
uasi
uaso
uasu
uaha
uahe
uahi
uaho
uahu
uahya
uahye
uahyo
uatsa
uatse
uatsi
uatso
uatsu
uatla
uatle
uatli
uatlo
uala
uale
uali
ualo
ua'a
ua'e
ua'i
ua'o
ua'u
uaya
uaye
uayo
u'e
uepa
uepe
uepi
uepo
uepu
uepya
uepye
uepyo
uempa
uempe
uempi
uempo
uempu
ueta
uete
ueti
ueto
uenta
uente
uenti
uento
ueka
ueke
ueki
ueko
ueku
uekya
uekye
uekyo
uenka
uenke
uenki
uenko
uenku
uema
ueme
uemi
uemo
uemu
uemya
uemye
uemyo
uena
uene
ueni
ueno
uenu
uenya
uenye
uenyo
uesa
uese
uesi
ueso
uesu
ueha
uehe
uehi
ueho
uehu
uehya
uehye
uehyo
uetsa
uetse
uetsi
uetso
uetsu
uetla
uetle
uetli
uetlo
uela
uele
ueli
uelo
ue'a
ue'e
ue'i
ue'o
ue'u
ueya
ueye
ueyo
u'i
u'o
u'u
uua
uue
uya
uye
uyo
yapa
yape
yapi
yapo
yapu
yapua
yapue
yampa
yampe
yampi
yampo
yampu
yata
yate
yati
yato
yanta
yante
yanti
yanto
yaka
yake
yaki
yako
yaku
yakua
yakue
yanka
yanke
yanki
yanko
yanku
yama
yame
yami
yamo
yamu
yamua
yamue
yana
yane
yani
yano
yanu
yanua
yanue
yasa
yase
yasi
yaso
yasu
yasua
yasue
yaha
yahe
yahi
yaho
yahu
yahua
yahue
yatsa
yatse
yatsi
yatso
yatsu
yatsua
yatsue
yatla
yatle
yatli
yatlo
yala
yale
yali
yalo
ya'a
ya'e
ya'i
ya'o
ya'u
yaua
yaue
yepa
yepe
yepi
yepo
yepu
yepua
yepue
yempa
yempe
yempi
yempo
yempu
yeta
yete
yeti
yeto
yenta
yente
yenti
yento
yeka
yeke
yeki
yeko
yeku
yekua
yekue
yenka
yenke
yenki
yenko
yenku
yema
yeme
yemi
yemo
yemu
yemua
yemue
yena
yene
yeni
yeno
yenu
yenua
yenue
yesa
yese
yesi
yeso
yesu
yesua
yesue
yeha
yehe
yehi
yeho
yehu
yehua
yehue
yetsa
yetse
yetsi
yetso
yetsu
yetsua
yetsue
yetla
yetle
yetli
yetlo
yela
yele
yeli
yelo
ye'a
ye'e
ye'i
ye'o
ye'u
yeua
yeue
yopa
yope
yopi
yopo
yopu
yopua
yopue
yompa
yompe
yompi
yompo
yompu
yota
yote
yoti
yoto
yonta
yonte
yonti
yonto
yoka
yoke
yoki
yoko
yoku
yokua
yokue
yonka
yonke
yonki
yonko
yonku
yoma
yome
yomi
yomo
yomu
yomua
yomue
yona
yone
yoni
yono
yonu
yonua
yonue
yosa
yose
yosi
yoso
yosu
yosua
yosue
yoha
yohe
yohi
yoho
yohu
yohua
yohue
yotsa
yotse
yotsi
yotso
yotsu
yotsua
yotsue
yotla
yotle
yotli
yotlo
yola
yole
yoli
yolo
yo'a
yo'e
yo'i
yo'o
yo'u
youa
youe

noun phrases

The basic noun phrase in Kala is PREPOSITION DETERMINER RELATIVE-CLAUSE NOUN DESCRIPTIVE-VERB. Depending on context, this is fairly predominant with a few exceptions

opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose Noun

shab - related to knowledge and awareness

shabra - v - to know; to be aware (of)

shabedek - v - to teach; instruct (to cause to know)

ashab - n - knowledge; awareness

shabda - n - library; school

ukum


Kala	number	English	ordinal	multiple	fractional
na'o	1	one	kina'o first	tina'o once	-
ueta'o	12	twelve	kiueta'o twelfth	tiueta'o twelve times	iueta'o a twelfth
yauema'o yama'o	54	fifty four	kiyama'o fifty fourth	tiyama'o 54 times	iyama'o a fifty fourth
nyetsa'o	106	one hundred (and) six	kinyetsa'o 106^th	tinyetsa'o 106 times	inyetsa'o a 106^th
katle'o	7000	seven thousand	kikatle'o seven thousandth	tikatle'o 7000 times	ikatle'o 1/7000

loca

Locative Verbs

There are a number of commonly used locative verbs: locative ("at") yin inessive ("in") nisa adessive ("on") supa allative ("to") yara ablative ("from", "off of") para elative ("out of") era illative ("into") inu These can be used in relative clauses, in SVC's, and as main verbs.

These are commonly combined with relational nouns, as follows:

Relational Nouns

Relational nouns are possessed by whatever they express a relationship with. These are a number of common used relational nouns: top ("head") kopa bottom ("buttocks") kintara front ("front") paru back ("back") ruka middle, center ("stomach") tumi through saru around ("round") run over ("hair") kara under ("foot") pota

genitive

	singular	plural
1	nai	kai
2	tai	ai
3	lai	mai

syl kalo

affix	from	use	example	gloss	English
-hye	aye + -hi past + diminutive	recent past tense (action just completed) [REC]	ota namyo akyahye	father 1pl.GEN wake-REC	Our father just woke.

katekalo

	k/g	n	t/d	l/r	m	p/b	s	a	y	w
a	가	나	다	라	마	바	사	아	야	와
e	거	너	더	러	머	버	서	어	여	워
o	고	노	도	로	모	보	소	오	요	-
u	구	누	두	루	무	부	수	우	유	-
i	기	니	디	리	미	비	시	이	-	위

	k/g	n	t/d	l/r	m	p/b	s	a	y	w
an	간	난	단	란	만	반	산	안	얀	완
en	건	넌	던	런	먼	번	선	언	연	원
on	곤	논	돈	론	몬	본	손	온	욘	-
un	군	눈	둔	룬	문	분	순	운	윤	-
in	긴	닌	딘	린	민	빈	신	인	-	윈

anyomo

	labial	dental	palatal	velar	glottal
stops		/t/ t		/k/ k - /kʷ/ kw
nasals	/m/ m	/n/ n	/ɲ/ ny
approximants	/w/ w		/j/ y		/h~ɦ/ h

ta	ka	kwa	ma	na	nya	ha	wa	ya	a
te	ke	kwe	me	ne	nye	he	we	ye	e
to	ko		mo	no	nyo	ho		yo	o

t tt k kk kw m mm n nn ny h w y a à á e è é o ò ó

Unit Organization

Armada - Army, Air, and Naval forces as a whole.

Commanded by a council (between 2 and 5, usually) of Flag Officers, or Amirales. There tends to only ever be one Jeneral, except in times of war. Also, a Mestre Sarjento Xef (Chief Master Sergeant) acts as a Senior Enlisted Adviser for the entirety of the Armada.

Brigada - Brigade; Rejimento - Regiment [600 - 1000]

Commanded by a Brigador (sometimes translated as Commodore when discussing Naval operations) and a Mestre Sarjento Xef (Chief Master Sergeant) is the highest enlisted level of leadership within a Brigada.

Batalion - Battalion; Barco - Ship, Vessel [300 - 500]

Commanded by a Capitan and a Mestre Sarjento Xef (Chief Master Sergeant) is the highest enlisted level of leadership within these units.

Scuadron - Company, Troop, Battery; Barceta - Patrol Boat, Small Ship [100 - 300]

Commanded by a Comandor and a Mestre Sarjento (Master Sergeant) is the highest enlisted level of leadership within these units.

Ploton - Platoon [20 - 50]

Commanded by a Teninte and lead by a Sarjento.

Ecipo - Squad, Team, Detachment [5 - 10]

Lead by a Caporal.

hanmoya

	a	ai	ya	e	ye	o	ao	yo	ua	uai	ue	u	i	yao
k	가	개	갸	거	겨	고	과	교	구	귀	규	그	기	-
nk	까	-	-	꺼	-	꼬	-	-	-	-	-	끄	끼	-
n	나	내	냐	너	녀	노	놔	뇨	누	뉘	뉴	느	니	-
t	다	대	-	더	-	도	돠	-	-	-	-	-	디	-
nt	따	-	-	떠	-	또	-	-	-	-	-	-	띠	-
l	라	래	-	러	-	로	롸	-	-	-	-	-	리	-
m	마	매	먀	머	며	모	뫄	묘	무	뮈	뮤	므	미	-
p	바	배	뱌	버	벼	보	봐	뵤	부	뷔	뷰	브	비	-
mp	빠	-	-	뻐	-	뽀	-	-	-	-	-	쁘	삐	-
s	사	새	-	서	-	소	솨	-	수	쉬	슈	스	시	-
-	아	애	야	어	여	오	와	요	우	위	유	으	이	-
ts	자	재	-	저	-	조	좌	-	주	쥐	쥬	즈	지	-
tl	타	태	-	터	-	토	톼	-	-	-	-	-	티	-
h	하	해	햐	허	혀	호	화	효	후	휘	휴	흐	히	-

ak

	ak	yak	ek	yek	ok	yok	uak	uek	uk	ik
k	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nk	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
n	낙	냑	넉	녁	녹	뇩	눅	뉵	늑	닉
t	닥	-	덕	-	독	-	-	-	-	딕
nt	딱	-	떡	-	똑	-	-	-	-	띡
l	락	-	럭	-	록	-	-	-	-	릭
m	막	먁	먹	멱	목	묙	묵	뮥	믁	믹
p	박	뱍	벅	벽	복	뵥	북	뷱	븍	빅
mp	빡	-	뻑	-	뽁	-	-	-	쁙	삑
s	삭	-	석	-	속	-	숙	슉	슥	식
-	악	약	억	역	옥	욕	욱	육	윽	익
ts	작	-	적	-	족	-	죽	쥭	즉	직
tl	탁	-	턱	-	톡	-	-	-	-	틱
h	학	햑	헉	혁	혹	횩	훅	휵	흑	힉

an

am

	am	yam	em	yem	om	yom	uam	uem	um	im
k	감	걈	검	겸	곰	굠	굼	귬	금	김
nk	깜	-	껌	-	꼼	-	-	-	끔	낌
n	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
t	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nt	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
l	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
m	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
p	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
mp	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
s	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
ts	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
tl	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
h	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

xx

	ak	yak	ek	yek	ok	yok	uak	uek	uk	ik
k	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nk	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
n	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
t	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nt	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
l	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
m	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
p	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
mp	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
s	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
ts	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
tl	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
h	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

Derivational morphology

Noun → adjective: Suffix: -un
Adjective → noun: Suffix: -iya
Noun → verb: Suffix: -ek / -ra
Verb → noun: Suffix: -a / a-
Verb → adjective: Suffix: -u
Adjective → adverb: Suffix: -ha / -ak
One who X's (e.g. paint → painter): Suffix: -in
Place where (e.g. wine → winery): Suffix: -da
Diminutive: Suffix: -ish
Augmentative: Suffix: -am

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subject/object

s/o	-	1s	2s	3s	1p	2p	3p
1s	-an	-	-anti	-anu	-anuk	-anut	-anum
2s	-ti	-eyan	-	-eyu	-eyuk	-eyut	-eyum
3s	-u	-ilan	-ati	-ilu	-iluk	-ilut	-ilum
1p	-uk	-ukan	-ukti	-uku	-	-ukut	-ukum
2p	-ut	-utan	-ute	-utu	-utuk	-	-utum
3p	-um	-uman	-umti	-umu	-umuk	-umut	-

Semitic abjads

Abjads
Name	Transliteration	IPA	Syriac	Hebrew	Arabic
alha	a	a / ʔ	ܐ‬	א‬	ا‬
ba	b	b	ܒ‬	ב‬	ب‬
gamla	g	ɡ / ɣ	ܓ‬	ג‬‬	ج گ‬‬
dal	d	d / ð	ܕ‬	ד‬‬	د ذ‬‬
ha	h	h / ɦ	ܗ‬	ה‬‬	ه‬‬
wa	w, u, o	w / u: / o:	ܘ‬	ו‬‬	و‬‬
zayin	z	z	ܙ‬	ז‬‬‬	ز‬‬‬
khet	kh	ɦ / χ	ܚ	ח‬‬‬	ح خ‬‬
tet	t	t	ܛ‬	ט‬	ط ظ‬‬
yad	y, i	j / i: / e:	ܝ‬	י‬‬	ي‬
kapu	k	k / x	ܟ‬	כ ך‬‬‬	ك‬‬‬
lam	l	l	ܠ	ל‬‬‬	ل‬‬‬
mem	m	m	ܡ‬	מ ם‬‬	م‬‬
nun	n	n	ܢ‬	נ ן‬‬	ن‬‬
samka	s	s	ܣ‬	ס‬‬‬	س‬‬‬
eyin	e	e / ʔ	ܥ‬	ע‬‬	ع غ‬‬‬
pe	p	p / f	ܦ‬	פ ף‬‬	ف‬ پ‬‬
tsad	ts	ts	ܨ‬	צ ץ‬‬	ص ض‬‬
qupa	q	ʔ / q	ܩ‬	ק‬‬‬	ق‬‬‬
ra	r	ɾ / r	ܪ‬	ר‬‬‬	ر‬‬‬
shin	sh	ʃ	ܫ‬	ש‬‬	ش‬‬
ta	t	t	ܬ‬	ת‬‬	ت ث‬‬

word gen kala

C=ptkmnshcxl
N=bdg
A=aeiou
W=12
Y=345
P=pkmnh
S=pkmnhsc

c|ts
x|tl
b|mp
d|nt
g|nk
1|ua
2|ue
3|ya
4|ye
5|yo
tu|ta
lu|la

cvcv
CA
CACA
CANA
CAPY
CASW
CAW
CAY
NA
NACA
NAPY
NASW
NAW
NAY
PY
PYCA
PYNA
PYSW
SW
SWCA
SWNA
SWPY
WCA
WNA
YCA
YNA

vcv
A
ACA
ANA
APY
ASW
AW
AY
W
WCA
WNA
Y
YCA
YNA

cvc
AC
AN
AP
AS
CAC
CAN
CAP
CAS
NAC
NAN
NAP
NAS
PYC
PYN
PYS
SWC
SWN
SWP
WC
WN
YC
YN

tense

k

	present	past	future
simple	-e	-i	-o
perfect	-le	-li	-lo
obligatory	-se		-so
immediate		-ib
possible			-go

Consonants

	Labials	Dentals	Retroflex	Palatals	Velars	Uvular	Glottal
Plosives	p b	t d			k g		ʔ
Fricatives		s z ʃ ʒ			x ɣ		h ɦ
Nasals	m	n		ɲ	ŋ
Liquids	ⱱ	l r ɾ ɬ
Semivowels	w			j	ɰ

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	i		u
Close	e	ɘ	o
Low		a	ɑ

case

**Grammatical Cases**
Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	amul	the man (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	mulwa	the man (object)
Dative	bi-	bimul	for, to, on behalf of the man
Ablative	-sha	mulesha	from the man
Genitive	-ya / -ai	mulya	of the man
Locative	-da	muleda	at, in, on the man
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	mulha	using/with the man

**Grammatical Cases**
Name	Suffix	Example	English Gloss
Nominative	-	eqesh	the house (subject)
Accusative	-wa / -u	eshwa	the house (object)
Dative	bi-	biqesh	for, to, on behalf of the house
Ablative	-sha	essha	from the house
Genitive	-ya / -ai	eshai	of the house
Locative	-da	eshda	at, in, on the house
Instrumental/Comitative	-ha / -ak	eshak	using/with the house

format

muku - /muːˈkʊ/

knife; blade; weapon; arms - "sword"

Morphosyntax

Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order, though occasionally adverbs fall outside this paradigm and various particles can free-up word order. Kala has four grammatical persons — first, second, third, and obviative. The third person is used for proximate nouns, while obviates are non-present or demoted in comparison to a third person. Inanimate objects cannot be the proximate third person. Kala is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, mostly suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words.

Nouns are inflected for number.

animacy

All nouns are classified as either animate or inanimate. Generally it is easy to determine whether a noun will be animate, although some inherently inanimate objects such as...

Arguments of verbs are marked with a (patient marker) transitivity prefix/particle which must agree with the animacy of its arguments. Even in stories in which a grammatically inanimate object are markedly anthropomorphized, such as talking flowers, speakers will not use animate agreement markers with them.

verbs

The Kala verbal template contains a stem with several suffixes. The structure of the verb stem in Kala can be roughly broken down into the root, the medial, and the final. The root and final tend to be required elements. In Kala, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English.

Comparison

In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.”

tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka

house 3s.GEN O 1s.GEN big-AUG

His house is bigger than mine.

iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha

PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG

This building is newer than your home.

ke mauam tayo yanahu

O flower.PL 2s.GEN yellow-EXT

Your flowers are the most yellow.

mitala ke yetlam hikyahi

dog-INDEF O DIST-4pl old-DIM

Some dogs are less old (younger) than others.

When comparing the amount of involvement of several participants in a transitive verb, an appositional construction is used with competing subjects, and complement clauses are used with competing objects:

tsaneya ke ona pa’e naku hayo itsaha

Jane O mother other.than sister 3s.GEN love-AUG

Jane loves her mother more than her sister does.

imukuhi ke asua uahe tleno telaniha

PROX-blade-DIM O leather instead.of timber cut-nice-AUG

This knife cuts leather better than it cuts wood.

Indirect Objects

Kala verb phrases have only a single object slot. As a result, the recipient of a ditransitive clause needs to be introduced with the help of an adverbial preposition. The same strategy is also used to introduce other participants in oblique roles.

ka’e – to; toward [Dative]
ma’a – with; using [Instrumental] / with; together [Comitative]
mue – without; lacking [Abessive]
nya – for (the benefit of) [Benefactive] / by [Passive]
-hue – at; in; on [Locative]

Dative

Dative participants can be marked with ka’e (“toward; to”), nya (“for; by”), or be syntactically indicated.

ntahi ke ina ka’e mita yeta

child O food toward dog give

The child gives food to a dog.

katiko nya ntakum tsani

old-AG for sibling-PL tell.story

The old man recites a story for the siblings.

ikema nya ena enke

PROX-task for P.1s easy

This task is easy for me.

teki ke kama na’amyo tanyaye

enemy O village 1pl.EXCL.GEN destroy-PST

The enemies destroyed our village.

Instrumental

Instrumental participants can be marked with ma’a (“with; using”), nya (“for; by”), or be syntactically indicated.

ona ke ntahi ma’a tlimu nohya

mother O child with blanket wrap

The mother wraps the child in a blanket.

tsani nya ntaha moyapua

PROX-task for P.1s easy

The story has been written by the elder.

Comitative

Comitative participants are marked with the preposition ma’a (“with; together”), and anticomitative (or abessive) participants are marked with the preposition mue (“without”).

na ma’a amyako nayo ke masa tasa

1s with friend 1s.GEN O deer hunt

I'm hunting deer with my friend.

ha ke naha mue ta ka’elaye ka

3s O river without 2s toward-MVT Q

Did she go to the river without you?

Locative

Locative participants can be marked with a variety of adverbial prepositions, most typically -hue (“at; in; on”). See also: 5.1) Locative verbs.

taku nayo ke poti patlahue patsi

brother 1s.GEN O goat field-LOC herd

My brother is herding goats in the field.

nam tlatsahue masetli

1pl fire-LOC dance-FUT

We will dance near (at) the fire.

Semantic Fields and Pragmatics

Kala, like all languages relies on the relationship of meanings instead of meanings in isolation. Additionally, morphemes tend to have a range of meanings that exist on a spectrum. A morpheme often can only be defined by its relationship to other morphemes within an utterance, or to other words of a similar semantic field.

One example would be in discussing temperature. Of course there is a system of degrees, but that is a quantitative statement, a qualitative statement would be more relative and open to interpretation.

English divides temperature into "hot, warm, cool, cold", while Kala has just sitsa, tlolo, and manka. However, these can be expanded to be more specific;

manka – cold
tlolo – cool; warm (mild)
sitsa – hot; heat

Using the augmentative -ha and the diminutive -hi adds even more nuance to expressing temperature. mankaha (or mankampa, mankahu) being the coldest, and sitsaha (or sitsampa, sitsahu) the hottest means that tloloha is closer to sitsahi and tlolohi is closer to mankahi. This means that tlolotso (mild-middle) is likely how someone would describe their ideal temperature.

ya iyoma kihua tlolotso!

VOC PROX-day fine.weather mild-middle

Oh, how today’s weather is so mild!

Of course, some meanings do exist in a binary state;

asa - alive / kupa - dead

Meanings may also be divided into non-linear semantic space — e.g. color, social classes, directions, parts of the body, time, geographical features.

Numbers

Kala uses a base 10 number system. The basic numbers are as follows:


Kala	number	English	Kala	number	English	Kala	number	English
ye'o	0	zero	tsa'o	6	six	nya'o	500	five hundred
na'o	1	one	ka'o	7	seven	tle'o	10³	(one) thousand
ta'o	2	two	pa'o	8	eight	mue'o	10⁴	ten thousand
ha'o	3	three	sa'o	9	nine	kye'o	10⁵	(one) hundred thousand
ma'o	4	four	ue'o	10	ten	nte'o	10⁶	(one) million
ya'o	5	five	nye'o	100	(one) hundred	hue'o	10⁹	(one) billion

Forming Larger Numbers

uena'o - eleven / 11
taue'o - twenty / 20
nyeka'o - one hundred seven / 107
hanyetauetsa'o (long form) / hatatsa'o (short form) - three hundred twenty six / 326
tsatletauema'o - six thousand and twenty four / 6024

Long form numbers are used in formal situations, including financial transactions, especially involving large sums. Short form numbers are used in everyday speech and when calculating basic math.

Other Number Forms


Kala	number	English	ordinal	multiple	fractional
na'o	1	one	kina'o first	tina'o once	-
ueta'o	12	twelve	kiueta'o twelfth	tiueta'o duodecuple	iueta'o a twelfth
yauema'o (yama'o)	54	fifty four	kiyama'o fifty fourth	tiyama'o 54 times	iyama'o a fifty fourth
nyetsa'o	106	one hundred (and) six	kinyetsa'o 106^th	tinyetsa'o 106 times	inyetsa'o a 106^th
katle'o	7000	seven thousand	kikatle'o seven thousandth	tikatle'o 7000 times	ikatle'o 1/7000

Math Operations

Kala math is fairly basic and relies on particles and verbs to express functions. Notable is the use of the copular a to express the result of an equation.

Addition uses ma (and; also). There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation. Subtraction uses ma (and; also) and a negative form of the smaller integer. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.

ta’o ma ya’o ke ka’o a

two and five O seven COP

2 + 5 = 7

ka’o ma ta’ok ke ya’o a

seven and two-NEG O five COP

7 - 2 = 5

Multiplication uses ma (and; also) and a multiple form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation. Division uses ma (and; also) and a multiple-negative form of one of the integers. There is no specific order to the numbers in the phrase/equation.

ka’o ma tita’o ke uema’o a

seven and multiple-two O fourteen COP

7 x 2 = 14

hata’o ma tisa’ok ke ma’o a

thrity-two and multiple-eight-NEG O four COP

32 ÷ 8 = 4

Writing system

Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, this page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.

Han Moya

Han Moya is an adaptation of Hangul for writing Kala. It is written horizontally, in lines running from left to right. It can also be written vertically in columns.

consonants

ㄱㄲㄴㄷㄸㄹㅁㅂㅃㅅㅆㅇㅈㅉㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ

k nk n t nt l m p mp s ns a ts nts ts` k` tl p` h

/k~g ᵑk~ⁿg n t~d ⁿt~ⁿd l~ɾ m p~b ᵐp~ᵐb s~ʃ ⁿs~ⁿʃ - ts~t͡ʃ ⁿts~ⁿt͡ʃ tsʰ~t͡ʃʰ kʰ t͡ɬ~tl pʰ h~ɦ/

The adaptations of doubled consonants are used word initially to indicate prenasalization. Medial occurrences of nasalized syllables are written across syllables.

Example:

까바 - nkapa - alcohol; liquor / 단가 - tanka - eagle; hawk; falcon

감바 - kampa - Cheers! / 쁘라 - mpula - lamp; lantern; light

vowels

ㅏ ᅶ ㅐ ㅑ ᅸ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ

a ao ai ya yao e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i

/a~a: aʊ̯ aɪ̯ ja~ʲa: jaʊ̯~ʲaʊ̯ e~ɛ je~ʲɛ o~o: jo~ʲo: wa~ʷa: waɪ̯~ʷaɪ̯ we~ʷe: u~u: i~ɪ/

ㅘ This is pronounced /wa/ in Korean because of the order of the vowels; however, because obsolete jamo are difficult to type and look junky as images, in Kala, this is used for /aʊ̯/ when typing. It is rarely seen due to the diphthong itself being uncommon.

Examples

어하 거 거하 가먀터 하요 마아 타감 뱌사하먀여

eha ke keha kamyatle hayo ma’a tlakam pyasahamyaye

[eːɦa kɛ keːɦa kamʲaːt͡ɬe haːjo maːʔa t͡ɬaːkam pʲaʃahamʲaːjɛ]

P.3s O body stun-REL 3s.POSS with man-PL be.popular-AUG-CAUS-PST

Her bewitching body made her very popular with men.

Examples

seko saye puani nahayo yalaye ma ke tsa’eto omoye

scorpion along bank river-GEN walk-PST and TOP across-way think-PST

A scorpion was walking along the bank of a river, wondering how to get to the other side.

haye seko ke tsola anyaye

sudden scorpion TOP fox see-PST

Suddenly, he saw a fox.

seko nya tsa’e naha amo ua’e muta tsolayo kanyoye

scorpion for across river carry on back fox-GEN ask-PST

He asked the fox to take him on his back across the river.

tsola kye ak na’eta amo yatli ta’ena kute nuesitli

fox IND.SP COP.NEG 1SG-P.2SG carry if.X.then.Y 2SG-P.1SG sting drown-FUT

The fox said, “No. If I do that, you’ll sting me, and I’ll drown.”

seko kye na’eta kute yatli nam nuesitli

scorpion IND.SP 1SG-P.2SG sting if.X.then.Y 1PL drown-FUT

The scorpion assured him, “If I do that, we’ll both drown.”

tsola pue omo nkataye

fox after think agree-PST

The fox thought about it and finally agreed.

ya seko ua’e muta tsolayo uayaye ma tsola yokomuye

VOC scorpion on back fox-GEN climb and fox swim-begin-PST

So the scorpion climbed up on his back, and the fox began to swim.

me tsa’etsohue nahayo seko ke tsola kuteye

however across-half-LOC river-GEN scorpion TOP fox sting-PST

But halfway across the river, the scorpion stung him.

tsola ike sunu ke sila hayo yeno ka’e seko muka kye nye ta’ena kuteye ka ima ta nuesitli

fox while poison TOP vein 3SG.POSS fill toward scorpion face IND.SP reason 2SG-P.1SG sting-PST Q now 2SG drown-FUT

As poison filled his veins, the fox turned to the scorpion and said, “Why did you do that? Now you’ll drown, too.”

seko kye na’i ke to nayo tlinapayek

scorpion IND.SP 1SG.REFL TOP way 1SG.POSS stop-able-PST.NEG

“I couldn’t help it,” said the scorpion. “It’s my nature.”

Lexicon

A small sampling of Kala lexemes.

pa - although; even though; even if
pa'a - be well-ordered; regular; organized
pina - be clever; intelligent; wise
punka - fruit; fruit tree
mpana - wide; broad; extensive; vast; width
tanko - group; organization; team
tepe - conceal; cover; shield; shelter
tiku - extract; withdraw; pick-up
tona - tuna
ntela - interact; interplay; interrelated
kanyo - question; ask; raise a question
kemu - experience; undergo
kinyo - intervene; get involved
kona - dress; skirt
kunye - moon; lunar; satellite
kuya - green; foliage; verdant
nkanu - short [in height and from end edge]
makua - iron; press; smooth out
menka - cotton
mosukua - Moscow
mutla - be absolute; unconditional
napo - turnip
ne - indirect object particle
nota - lie; be in horizontal position; horizon
nyalo - call; number; telephone
sahe - across; opposite; other side
sipanya - Spain
sokyo - helium
suama - sew; seam; mend; stitch
hasu - conjecture; guess; supposition; assumption
hilo - plaza; public square
hueta - testicle
tsame - accumulate; collect; gather; cluster
tsemu - jam; marmalade
tsitli - farm; ranch
tsuto - be curly-haired
tlato - recite rhythmically; chant; intone
tlehe - esteemed; honest; candid; sincere
tlokua - everybody; everyone
ato - that way [over there]
atsa - disc; rotate; wheel
esue - fail; lose
ila - sail; fly; navigate
otso - wolf; lupine
ulo - crop rotation
uatli - inferior; of lower quality
uetsi - dispirited downcast [idiom]; in low spirits
yatso - ferment; brew; make honey; liquor
yopi - mail; post [office]

notes

intransitive has NO object / transitive has object

Locative verbs

Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. In English, locations are indicated with adverbs and/or prepositions, this is not the case in Kala however. To express locative concepts in Kala, the following verbs/affixes are used:

The general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”.

na tsakahue nayo

1s home-LOC 1s.GEN

I'm in my home. / I'm at home.

Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:

-hue – in; at; on (general locative)
nahe – within; inside
nyaue – out; outside of; exterior
ma’e – before; in front of
pue – behind; after; in back of
ua’e – above; over; on
tahe – below; under; beneath; bottom
ya’e – near; close to
uaye – away (from)
maye – between; among

The above are used as prepositions, but can also function strictly as verbs.

mita tahe yempa ina

dog under table eat

The dog is eating under the table.

mita ke yempa tahe

dog table be.under

The dog is under the table.

The suffix -la (from yala “go; walk; travel”) forms an allative (or motive) preposition, expressing movement in the indicated direction, stopping at the position indicated by the locative:

nahela topu – into bed
pahela ke ana tayo – onto your head
tsayela tsaka – up to the house

The locative/allative pair works like English on/onto, in/into, but in Kala this distinction is made for all locatives: you must distinguish between them:

pue’ela kuanu – go behind a bush - (motion implied → allative)
pue kuanu koma – hide behind a bush - (no motion → locative)

Kala uses nouns to express more complex spatial relationships (these words are adverbs in English) this means that for example the word mokua should be interpreted as something like the everywhere or all places. So a phrase like mokua na'eta anya (meaning I see you everywhere) is literally I see you in all places. Likewise, yosohue na'eta anya means I see you at (the/my) left (area).

mokua – everywhere; all places
hina – here; hither
uana – there (near you)
yemua – there (over there)

The above nouns never take the -hue suffix.

extra

Adessive case	adjacent location	near/at/by the house	location	mita tsaka ya'e	dog house near/by
Apudessive case	location next to something	next to the house	location
Inessive case	inside something	inside the house	location	mita tsaka nahe	dog house inside
Intrative case	between something	between the houses	location	mita tsaka-m maye	dog house-pl between
Locative case	location	at/on/in the house	location	mita tsaka-hue	dog at/on/in the house
Pertingent case	in contact with something	touching the house	location
Subessive case	under something	under/below the house	location	mita tsaka tahe	dog house under/below
Superessive case	on the surface	on (top of) the house	location	mita tsaka ua'e	dog house on [top of]
Ablative case	movement away from something	away from the house	motion from	mita tsaka uaye-la	dog house away-from
Delative case	movement from the surface	from (the top of) the house	motion from
Egressive case	marking the beginning of a movement or time	beginning from the house	motion from
Elative case	out of something	out of the house	motion from	mita tsaka uaye-la	dog house out-of-go
Initiative case	starting point of an action	beginning from the house	motion from
Allative case	movement onto something	onto the house	motion to	mita tsaka ua'e-la	dog house on [top of]-go
Allative case	movement to (the adjacency of) something / movement onto something	to the house	motion to	mita tsaka ka'e-la	dog house toward-go
Illative case	movement into something	into the house	motion to	mita tsaka nahe-la	dog house into-go
Lative case	movement to something	to/into the house	motion to
Sublative case	movement onto the surface or below something	on(to) the house / under the house	motion to
Terminative case	marking the end of a movement or time	as far as the house	motion to	mita tsaka tsaye-la	dog house up-to-go
Perlative case	movement through or along	through/along the house	motion via
Prolative case	movement using a surface or way	by way of/through the house	motion via
Prosecutive case	across or along	along the road	motion via	mita misa saye-la	dog road along-go
Vialis case	through or by	by way of the house, through the house	motion via
Ablative case	all-round indirect case	concerning the house	relation
Aversive case	avoiding or fear	avoiding the house	relation
Benefactive case	for, for the benefit of, intended for	for the house	relation
Causal case	because, because of	because of the house	relation
Causal-final case	efficient or final cause	for a house	relation
Comitative case	in company of something	with the house	relation
Dative case	shows direction or recipient	for/to the house	relation
Distributive case	distribution by piece	per house	relation
Distributive-temporal case	how often something happens	daily; on Sundays	relation
Genitive case	shows relationship, possession	of the house	relation
Ornative case	endowment with something	equipped with a house	relation
Possessed case	possession by something	the house is owned by someone	relation
Privative case	lacking something	without a house	relation
Semblative case	Similarity to something	that tree is like a house	relation
Sociative case	along with something, together with something	with the house	relation
Partitive case	used for amounts	three (of the) houses	semantic
Vocative case	used for addressing someone, with or without a preposition	Hey, father! O father! Father!	semantic
Abessive case	the lack of something	without the house	state
Adverbial case	being as something	as a house	state
Comparative case	similarity with something	similar to the house	state
Equative case	comparison with something	like the house	state
Essive case	temporary state of being	as the house	state
Essive-formal case	marking a condition as a quality (a kind of shape)	as a house	state
Essive-modal case	marking a condition as a quality (a way of being)	as a house	state
Exessive case	marking a transition from a condition	from being a house (i.e., "it stops being a house")	state
Formal case	marking a condition as a quality	as a house	state
Identical case	showing that something is identical	being the house	state
Orientative case	oriented towards something	turned towards the house	state
Revertive case	backwards to something	against the house	state
Translative case	change of a condition into another	(turning) into a house	state
Essive case	specifying days and dates	on Monday; on November 5th	time
Temporal case	specifying a time	at seven [o'clock]; at midnight; at New Year's	time

more

A huge storm is brewing over the sea.	above	pakyoha ua'e muana mulanko
He was wearing overalls on top of his other clothes.	above
She leaned over the table to reach the salt.	above
The clouds are above my head.	above
The mountain casts a shadow over our house.	above
The roof is above the ceiling.	above
The sun rises over the earth.	above
December comes after November.	after / behind
I will come back in three days.	after / behind
My back is behind my chest.	after / behind
The equipment is behind a locked door.	after / behind
The naughty boys hid behind the shed.	after / behind
The snake disappeared behind the tree.	after / behind
They will start drinking after sunset.	after / behind
Turn right after the church.	after / behind
We hear thunder after we see lightning.	after / behind
Close your eyes against the light.	against
He slips and falls against the wall.	against
I am against the war.	against
Swimming upstream is hard.	against
The ancient Greeks fought against Persia.	against
The ladder is against the fence.	against
This camera is waterproof.	against
You have acted against my wishes.	against
According to the forecast, tomorrow will be even warmer.	along
I walk along the street.	along
The boy slides along the branch.	along
The raft floated down the river.	along
There's a spider crawling up my leg.	along
Time travel is possible, according to this physicist.	along
Around dawn, I heard your dog barking.	around
I am about 50 years old.	around
I can think of about a hundred reasons not to reveal my age.	around
Ivy grows around the trunk.	around
My hand is closed around my thumb.	around
She wanders round the garden and smells the flowers.	around
The campers sing songs around the fire.	around
The concert began at about half past eight.	around
The moon goes around the earth, and the earth goes around the sun.	around
There is green paint around the windows.	around
We intend to travel round the world on horseback.	around
At least thirty people are waiting.	at / to
At midnight, there will be fireworks.	at / to
From Monday to Thursday is four days.	at / to
He orders the soldiers to attack the fort.	at / to
He painted his house white.	at / to
He raises his eyes to the sky.	at / to
He's resting at home.	at / to
I am travelling to New York.	at / to
I have to leave at four o'clock.	at / to
I have visited this town before.	at / to
I walk down the street, from one end to the other.	at / to
I will not answer that question.	at / to
I will serve the shrimp cold.	at / to
I will teach you to speak the language.	at / to
I'll meet you at the crossroads.	at / to
Put your books away.	at / to
Run in the house.	at / to
Run into the house.	at / to
Run to the house.	at / to
See below.	at / to
She finished the work at the start of the year.	at / to
She gave a bone to the dog / She gave the dog a bone.	at / to
Sudan is to the south of Egypt.	at / to
Tell me your name.	at / to
The boy added his name to the list.	at / to
The cat jumps on the table.	at / to
The cat jumps onto the table.	at / to
The chair fell to bits.	at / to
The diver went down.	at / to
The dog runs forward.	at / to
The ladder is leaning on the wall.	at / to
The night is progressing towards dawn.	at / to
The shape of Italy is similar to a leg.	at / to
The ship is at sea.	at / to
The wizard changed himself into a goat.	at / to
They elected Maria (as) president.	at / to
This pen belongs to me.	at / to
We are sitting at the table.	at / to
We can return later.	at / to
We wish you a happy birthday.	at / to
What happens if you don't conform to the rules?	at / to
You annoy me from time to time.	at / to
You can put your bag overhead.	at / to
Your house is next to mine.	at / to
Your idea seems absurd to me.	at / to
You're standing too close to the edge.	at / to
A dog is lying in front of the shop.	before / front
I come before you to apologize.	before / front
It's so dark that I can't see my hand in front of my eyes.	before / front
January comes before February.	before / front
My chest is in front of my back.	before / front
The magazines are in front of the books.	before / front
They intend to finish work before sunset.	before / front
They put a pile of books in front of me.	before / front
Turn left before the end of the street.	before / front
We experience lightning before thunder.	before / front
We have a lot of work ahead of us.	before / front
We see lightning before we hear thunder.	before / front
He was born between the wars.	between
I usually wake up between seven and eight.	between
LFN promotes communication between peoples.	between
My head is between my ears.	between
She travels between Paris and Madrid every week.	between
The ball fell among the flowers.	between
The Czech Republic is between Germany, Austria, Slovenia, and Poland.	between
The table is between the chair and the wall.	between
There will be a ten-minute interval between the two acts.	between
What is the difference between a wall and a fence?	between
You are among friends here.	between
You have to pay between ten and twenty euros.	between
(To be seen from) across the bridge is a wonderful view.	beyond
The explorers journeyed beyond the mountains.	beyond
The school is beyond the church.	beyond
They rowed a dinghy across the lake.	beyond
This task is beyond my talents.	beyond
Hamlet is a play by Shakespeare.	by
He was hit by a snowball.	by
I am surprised by your reaction.	by
I shall destroy the fence with a single kick.	by
I travelled here by train.	by
Roberto is my son-in-law.	by
Switzerland is surrounded by other countries.	by
The attack of/on the Trojans by the Greeks. (The Greeks attack the Trojans)	by
The bottles are color-coded.	by
The love of/for the mother. (The mother is loved)	by
The mother's love. (The mother loves)	by
The prisoner escaped by disguising himself as a door.	by
This problem cannot be solved by negotiation.	by
We discovered your secrets via our spies.	by
Because you weren't there, I spoke on your behalf.	for
Cups are used for drinking.	for
For example, consider the whale.	for
For that reason, I can't talk for long.	for
He kicks the ball toward the goal.	for
I bought it for a thousand euros.	for
I voted for the proposal, but you voted against it.	for
I will go to the shops for you.	for
I won't delay you for more than a minute.	for
I'm fighting for my life.	for
I'm travelling (in order) to see the world.	for
She wrote the book for her mother.	for
Thank you for your postcard.	for
The friends left for the coast.	for
The journey will be dangerous for you.	for
We are going to Colorado for a week.	for
We work for money.	for
You paid too much for that computer.	for
You're dressed for an evening of dancing.	for
Behave like an adult.	like / as
He laughs like a hyena.	like / as
I can jump as high as you.	like / as
Yoghurt is like cream.	like / as
Your heart is hard as stone.	like / as
You've reached the same conclusion as me.	like / as
A spider creeps from behind the clock.	of / from
Do you like lamb?	of / from
For his breakfast, he just drinks coffee.	of / from
Give me a piece of cake, please.	of / from
He is the world table-tennis champion.	of / from
I am from New York.	of / from
I have received a letter from the king.	of / from
I have three boxes of books to sell.	of / from
I like listening to the singing of the birds.	of / from
I'm late because of a traffic jam.	of / from
I'm traveling from Paris to London.	of / from
Many years have passed since the war.	of / from
My sunglasses are broken.	of / from
She lent me an ugly-colored towel.	of / from
She was impressed by the stillness of the forest.	of / from
Since I was a child, I've wanted to stand on the moon.	of / from
That is my brother's car.	of / from
The belltower is to the right of the cathedral.	of / from
The cat jumps off the chair.	of / from
The leader was shouting from the front, but I couldn't hear.	of / from
The monster came from below.	of / from
The papers fell from the window.	of / from
The result depends on the method used.	of / from
The robber hides his face from the cameras.	of / from
The seagull is a seabird.	of / from
The sparrows climb from among the trees.	of / from
The table is made of wood.	of / from
The time has come to talk of many things.	of / from
The tower is forty metres high.	of / from
They added all the ingredients except the salt.	of / from
They used sugar instead of salt.	of / from
This bucket is full of fish.	of / from
This will be your bedroom.	of / from
Water differs from acid in its chemistry.	of / from
We want to be free of you.	of / from
We've been working since dawn.	of / from
You forgot to apply the handbrake.	of / from
A rock that falls onto the earth is called a meteorite.	on / onto
Don't sit on the broken chair.	on / onto
If you stand on the balcony, you can see the sea.	on / onto
I'll hang this painting on the wall.	on / onto
Is there life on Mars?	on / onto
I've read many books on the subject.	on / onto
My hat is on my head.	on / onto
Put your cards on the table.	on / onto
She put a thimble onto her finger.	on / onto
The girl is crying over her lost doll.	on / onto
The man kissed the woman on her cheek.	on / onto
The play is about the war.	on / onto
The tarmac on the road is melting in the heat.	on / onto
Don't phone outside work hours.	outside
He remembers nothing except for his name.	outside
My shoe is outside my sock.	outside
She lives outside the city.	outside
The children ran outside the house.	outside
There is no air outside the ship.	outside
You are out of danger now.	outside
My dog is more intelligent than me.	than
That is much less interesting than this.	than
There are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in your philosophy.	than
A lane leads through the fields to the lake.	through
He sat in an armchair throughout the night.	through
I look at the stars through the open window.	through
The children ran through the village.	through
The explosion could be heard throughout the city.	through
The rain has found a way through my bag.	through
The train goes from Milan to Rome via Bologna.	through
They've stayed together through the years.	through
Water flows through the pipes.	through
Antelopes were resting under the trees.	under
He wore a sweater under his jacket.	under
I can't work under your rules.	under
I have a parcel under my arm.	under
The floor is below the ceiling.	under
The real color of the ceiling is scarcely visible under this nasty paint.	under
The snow crunches under my feet.	under
The water went under the furniture.	under
There's a table of sandwiches under the window.	under
You appear to be under the influence of the wine.	under
He works until midnight.	up to / as far
He's visited every country from Andorra to Zambia.	up to / as far
I am soaked to the skin.	up to / as far
She accompanied me to my car.	up to / as far
Study pages 25 to 42 (inclusive).	up to / as far
The ground is covered in snow as far as the mountains.	up to / as far
The price fell to just one euro.	up to / as far
Until tomorrow / See you tomorrow!	up to / as far
Wait until the summer.	up to / as far
And with those words he disappeared.	with / using
Compare this with yesterday's weather.	with / using
Elena is a girl with red hair.	with / using
Every day I get up with the sun.	with / using
Everything changes with the passage of time.	with / using
He bought a house with the money he inherited.	with / using
His wife looks at him in amazement.	with / using
I see the girl with her father.	with / using
I write with a pen.	with / using
Not many words start with X.	with / using
She's given me a book with many photos.	with / using
The horse kicks.	with / using
The old man sits with a pipe in his mouth.	with / using
The sugar has been mixed with salt.	with / using
They are battling with the elements.	with / using
They want to eat with us.	with / using
We are drinking coffee with milk.	with / using
We hear with our ears.	with / using
We will fail even with your help.	with / using
A good idea came into her head.	within
Are we in agreement?	within
Beethoven was born in 1770.	within
Cats don't like being in water.	within
He fell into the river.	within
His fingers are stuck in the handle of a cup.	within
I don't want to travel in this weather.	within
I have some thoughts in my mind.	within
I will repeat this in Greek.	within
In addition, I see a new problem.	within
In fact I see two problems.	within
It started raining heavily while the reporter was talking.	within
I've translated the article into French.	within
My heart is in my chest.	within
Put the rubbish in the bin.	within
She wrote the book in three weeks.	within
The building is on fire.	within
The children are sitting in a circle.	within
The plants are in pots.	within
The prices are in euros.	within
The sun is in the sky.	within
We are in danger.	within
We are passing into a new era.	within
We are waiting in the car.	within
We don't see the stars in the day.	within
We spent an hour in conversation.	within
We visited the museum in February.	within
He fell asleep without meaning to.	without
I shall decorate the entire house without help.	without
I walked through the rain with no umbrella.	without
The painting fell down for no apparent reason.	without
The researcher left without discovering the answer.	without
There's no smoke without fire.	without
You are totally without mercy.	without
Your wife likes her coffee without milk.	without

Syntax

Simple sentences

Complex sentences

Clause coordination

Clause-level conjunctions such as ku "and", ua "or", or ehe "but, however" are placed clause-initially. Note that these conjunctions cannot be used to connect noun phrases.

tahi tohyo ku nahi pina

boy brave CL.CONJ girl intelligent

The boy is brave and the girl is intelligent.

ima kihu saman ehe pakyotlai

now weather sun-ADJ however storm-IMM

Now the weather is sunny, but a storm will come soon.

Coordination of noun phrases

Non-subject noun phrases are coordinated using the conjunction ma "and" (sometimes "with").

yomaye na ke tanka ma pato anya

day-PST 1sg O eagle CONJ duck see

I saw an eagle and a duck yesterday.

kinti ke tsaka kamyo ma'a yosu sapotle ma siuem muya

squirrel O house 3pl.POSS with moss soft-REL and leaf.PL make

The squirrels make their nest comfortable with soft moss and leaves.

ona ma ota kyosanku

mother and father fornicate-RECP

Mother and father have sex [with each other].

ta ma'a na ke molihuelatli

2sg with 1sg O forest-LOC-MOT-FUT

You and I will go to the forest together.

Noun phrases can be presented as alternatives to each other with the conjunction ua "or; other". This conjunction can be used with both subjects and non-subjects. The conjunction ue "(exclusive) either X or Y" is used to delimit other nouns from the conjunction phrase.

ta ke nasi ua poma inamyo

2sg O pear or apple eat-PERM

You may eat an apple or a pear.

tsola ue otso itsikua mataye

fox either.X.or.Y wolf PROX-bird kill-PST

It must have been a fox or a wolf that killed this bird.

Contrastive coordination of noun phrases ("but") is achieved with ehe "but; however" (or me more informally) if the noun phrases appear in subject position.

yomaye mita'u ehek mitana ke kutsu kapya

day-PST dog-MASC but-NEG O meat receive

The male dog but not the female dog received meat yesterday.

na itlaka mek inaka unya

1sg PROX-man but-NEG PROX-woman know

I know this man, but not this woman.

Complement clauses

Relative clauses

Relative clauses, i.e. subordinated clauses acting as an attribute to a noun phrase, are marked with the relativizer -tle (or -le if the last syllable has tl). A pronoun referring to the relativized noun is retained within the relative clause:

na ka naka amyatle pesoue

1sg O woman liked-REL meet-VOL

I want to meet a girl who is friendly.

naku nayo ke yakokua na tikuyetle inapua

sister 1sg.POSS O strawberry-all 1sg pick-PST-REL eat-PFV

My sister has eaten all the strawberries that I picked.

kam tananitle ke teki tlalitli

3pl fight-nice-REL O enemy defeat-FUT

They who fight well will defeat the enemy.

Evidentiality

	affix	from
direct participation (dir)	-	-
sensory perception (sens)	-	-
inferred from evidence (evid)	-	-
assumption; guess (ass)	-ho	toho
hearsay; fiction (rep)	-tai	ata

The first set of evidentiality markers indicated that the evidence was gained directly by the speaker via their senses. There were three such markers:

-xx-, which denotes that the speaker witnessed the action visually;
-xx-, which denotes that the speaker tasted or smelled the evidence and
-xx-, which denotes that the speaker felt or heard the evidence.

The second set of markers indicated that the evidence is secondhand and not directly derived from the speaker's experience. There were two such markers:

-xx-, which indicates that the information was received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate and
-xx-, which indicates that the speaker has no doubts about the information he has received.

The third set indicated that the information was not personally experienced but was inferred from indirect evidence. There were three of these markers:

-xx-, which indicated that there was physical evidence;
-xx-, which indicates that the information is general knowledge and
-xx-, which indicates that the information is inferred or assumed based on the speaker's past experience of similar situations.

kalama

t- - to be; exist

	singular	plural
1	wata	kwata
2	nita	inkata
3	ota	kota

words

kalama - speak; talk; utter
kasa - house; home; abode, dwelling
kawi - coffee
kome - eat; consume
ko - he, she [3sg]
kute - listen; hear
le - past tense [PST]
lo - many (more than one) / -lo - plural [PL]
loka - place; location
ma - what; which
maka - do; make; cause
miyo - feline; cat; lion; tiger
ne - no; not; negative [NEG]
ni - you [2sg]
o - direct object [DO]
oma - mother; grand-
opa - father; grand-
sa - future tense [FUT]
sapa - know; understand
ta - be big; large; grand
tale - give; transfer; donate
wa - I, me [1sg]
waka - bovine; cattle; livestock
wite - see; look; watch; observe
yo - have; possess; hold / -yo - possessive; genitive
yu - (be) in; at; on; by; near

Amal grammar

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_grammar
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_grammar#Parts_of_speech
en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Turkish/Word_Order
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_grammar#Verbs
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Turkish_monosyllabic_words

C=nrldkmytsbcghwpq
V=aeiuáéíúo
F=nrldkmtsbc

c|sh
w[uúo]|wa

zanga

P=pbtdkgqh
N=mnńŋ
S=cćsśzź
L=lrłv
W=wy
V=aiuáíú

v|rr
w[uú]|wa
y[ií]|ya

PV
NV
SV
LV
WV
PWV
PVN
NVN
SVN

krit

C=ptkfzxbdgvq7hmnjslr
W=wy
V=aeoaeoaeoi
F=ptkmnjs

f|pp
z|tt
x|kk
v|gh
7|qq
j|ng

CV
CWV
CVF
CWVF
WVF
VF

xcvb

Object Verb
Noun Postposition
Genitive Noun
Subclause Verb
Verb Auxiliary
Clause Complementizer

--

   Subject Object Verb (SOV) Word order
   Postpositions (relationship words are located after the main word)
   Nouns are succeeded by their genitive markings.
   Nouns are succeeded by adjectives.

--

Nominative - NOM - x
Accusative - ACC - -n
Genitive - GEN - -yo
Dative - DAT - ??
Locative - LOC - -hue
Lative - LAT - ?? ("to some place")
Ablative - ABL - ?? ("from some place")
Instrumental - INS - ?? 
Terminative - TERM - ?? ("up to/until some place")
Vocative - VOC - ya

pi
po
pue
mpi
nte
nti
nto
ka
kue
kye
nka
nki
no
nue
nye
se
sua

lkjh

"I see. Yes, I tend to like my conlangs to have words with a fairly broad meaning, and at least with verbs this language promotes even broader semantic ranges because of the way the aorist and durative verb stems work (English tends to use different roots for these, whereas Ree Rɛɛ Kıbyaa treats them as two morphological forms of the same verb). However, the lumplang impression is also in part an accidental artifact of my personal work process. For example, whenever the core meaning of a conlang word is significantly different from the core meaning of the closest English translation equivalent, I list several English glosses in the dictionary which are meant to give an impression of where the core meaning of the conlang word actually is, but which do not imply that the conlang word actually covers all the main senses of these English words. Conversely, many words with a meaning much narrower than their English gloss don't get that specification when I write the lexicon, but only months or even years later when I first use the word in a text. Also, I generally try to cover a broad semantic range with the first 1000 words, and I don't really aim for much more than that in most of my conlangs, so words with very specific semantics tend to get left out anyway (but you can be assured they do exist in the language!)"

akana.conlang.org/wiki/%CA%94uulhemoo
akana.conlang.org/wiki/Kataputi
akana.conlang.org/wiki/%E2%B1%A2%C9%91ccekk%C9%94m%C9%94_l%C3%B9k#Case
xiaoma.info/compound.php?cp=%E4%BB%8B%E8%AF%8D&fhz=%E4%BB%8B%E8%AF%8D
lortho.conlang.org/refgram/refgram.pdf

C=tkqmnfwyhdgvcj
V=aàáeèéoòó
F=tkmnfwyh

q|kw
f|ny
d|tt
g|kk
v|mm
c|nn
j|nny
w[oòó]|wa

Adjectives

Kala does not have morphologically distinct adjectives. Stative verbs are the words that modify nouns in an predicative and often adjectival way. They often express a state like a quality or result. In the simplest form, the adjective simply appears after the noun, in verbal position. Many statements that would be phrased as adjectival predicates in English are preferably expressed with stative intransitive verbs in Kala, requiring no copula. (For simplicity, such verbs are glossed without “be”.) This leaves open to interpretation many phrases.

mita inya - dog hungry
- The dog hungers.
- The dog is hungry.
- The hungry dog.
- A hungry dog.

tsaka ketlahi - house red-DIM
- The house is a little red.
- The light-red house.
- A pale red house.

taki saua - coat wet
- The coat is wet.
- The wet coat.
- A wet coat.

umalo tahaku - horse-PL big-extreme
- The horses are extremely large.
- The very big horses.

Comparison

In Kala the concepts of comparative and superlative degree of an predicative adjective (verb) are merged into a single form, the elative. How this form is understood or translated depends upon context and definiteness. In the absence of comparison, the elative conveys the notion of “greatest”, “supreme.” The comparative is made by using the augmentative or diminutive ending on the verb.

tsaka hayo ke nayo tahaka

house 3sg.POSS O 1sg.POSS big-AUG

His house is bigger than mine.

ke mauam tayo yanaha

O flower.PL 2sg.POSS yellow-AUG

Your flowers are the most yellow.

iyapo ke tsaka tayo pakoha

PROX-building O home 2sg new-AUG

This building is newer than your home.

Equivalence

Equivalence is indicated with either kue (as, like), or mya (as...as).

tsaka hayo kue nayo ketla

house 3s.GEN as 1s.GEN be.red

His house is red like mine.

tsaka hayo mya nayo ketla

house 3s.GEN as.X.as 1s.GEN be.red

His house is as red as mine.

Like verbs, adjectives can be used as nouns. For example, aya means "beautiful", but ayako means "a beautiful one" or "a beauty." An adjective can be made into an abstract noun by adding -n (-ity, -ness, -ship, -hood). In this way aya becomes ayan, meaning "beauty". This can also be used with nouns: ona (mother) becomes onan (motherhood).

Relative

In a relative clause, the verb has the suffix -tle (or -le if the final syllable contains /tl/) added to it. The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses. The use of participles in Kala is rather different than in English and at first sight is difficult to understand. This is mainly due to the fact that the relative pronouns who, what, which, where are not used in Kala as in English.

yalapa - to be able to walk produces: yalapatle - who/which/that can walk
yalapak - to not be able to walk produces: yalapanketle - who/which/that can't walk

This nominalizes the verb in some cases, and makes it possible for it to be either the subject or the object.

na ke tlaka nya inama talatle unya

1sg O man for eat-time come-REL know

I know the man who is coming to lunch.

ke naka patlole pako

O woman sweep-REL young

The woman who is sweeping is young.

The relative suffix is most often in the final position. In some cases, it may be followed by the negative -k.

itsaka na sutahuetle

PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-REL

This is the house in which I live.

itsaka na sutahueyetlek

PROX-house 1sg reside-LOC-PST-REL-NEG

This is the house in which I did not live.

Adverbs

Adverbs tell us when, how, why or where the action happens. They modify a verb, a noun, an adjective, another adverb or a complete sentence. They also can provide us information about manner, quantity, frequency, time, or place. Kala does not have morphologically distinct adverbs. Adverbs can be formed from all adjectives (or stative verbs) by adding -n to the root. Since this rule is regular, it is not generally indicated in grammatical examples or in the lexicon.

aya - beautiful >> ayan - beautifully
tama - good >> taman - well
poyo - rich >> poyon - richly
tsipue - slow >> tsipuen - slowly (this can also be marked on the main verb with -tsue)
tlaki - fluent >> tlakin - fluently

Many adverbs (mostly temporal) do not derive from verbs:

yomaye - yesterday
iyoma - today
yomali - every day
kuama - always
ima - now

Temporal adverbs always precede the phrase they modify.

yomuali na ka'e hakyo yala

morning-each 1s to school go

I go to school every morning.

Other adverbials can be marked on the verb.

ona kamyo ma'a siku kupayetsua

mother 3pl.GEN with accident die-PST-almost

Their mother almost died in the accident.

Prepositions

Kala does not have prepositions (or postpositions) as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many locative verbs can be used as adpositionals, in which case they precede the noun they modify. There is one general locative (-hue) which is affixed to nouns (and occasionally verbs) to indicate the sense of “at; in; on”. Here are some common verbs used as adpositions:

pahe - against; touching
pa'e - apart from; other than; except for
paye - beyond; exceeding; farther than
pue - after; back; behind; rear
tahe - below; beneath; under
ka'e - to; towards; at [moving toward]
kaye - around; encircling; surrounding
mahe - around; approximate; close to
ma'a - with [accompanied by / furnished with]
ma'e - before; in front
maye - between; among

nahe - in [located inside of]; internal
nyaue - outside of; exterior to
sahe - across; opposite; other side
saye - along; following [a line]
hue / -hue - at [in the same location as] [LOC]
tsa'e - across; through
ua'e - above; over / on
uaye - from [moving out of or away from]
ya'e - near; close to
yomo - to the right of
yoso - to the left of

na ke ito yamahue anyapa

1sg O tree hill-LOC see-ABIL

I can see a tree on the hill.

ntahim nyaue tsaka yoti

child-PL outside.of house play

The children are playing outside of the house.

Many of these take the motive suffix -la.

mita ke tsaka nahelaye

dog O house go.into-PST

The dog went into the house.

taku nayo ke ito ua'ela

brother 1s.GEN O tree go.up

My brother is climbing the tree.

Particles

Conjunctions

Words and phrases may be coordinated in Kala with the following words:

pa - although; even though; even if
ku - and; also [clause level]
ma - and; also; too; as well
ehe / (me) - but; yet; however
impo - therefore; as a result; so; consequently; thus
ua - or; other; else
ue - either X or Y
uenke / (uek) - neither X nor Y
yatli - if X then Y
yema - both X and Y
yetli - if it were not; if not X then Y >> X yatli Y

ha'ena itsa ehe hinak

3s-P.1s love but be.here-NEG

She loves me but is not here.

aye na tala ku matsu

PST 1s come CONJ conquer

I came, I conquered.

Interjections

There are a few particles, usually appearing at the beginning of the sentence, with a pragmatic meaning. These typically precede phrases they modify.

morpheme	indicates	gloss	example
a	acknowledgement, agreement, or that one is listening	yes; hm mm; yeah	a ta inaue Mm hmm...You want to eat.
e	filler or pause during conversation	uh, er, well	e na uamek Well, I'm not sure.
yali	excuses jostling or interruptions	excuse me	yali itla tayo ka Excuse me, is this yours?

Noun Phrase

The structure of a Kala noun phrase is relatively rigid. The order of NP components is:

Determiner(s) - Noun - (Modifiers)

Word Order

The basic structure of a Kala sentence is: AGENT--PATIENT--ACTION (or SOV)

The agent is the person or thing doing the action described by the verb; The patient is the recipient of that action. The importance of word order can be seen by comparing the following sentences:

mita tlaka anya

dog man see

The dog sees the man.

tlaka mita anya

man dog see

The man sees the dog.

In both sentences, the words are identical, the only way to know who is seeing whom is by the order of the words in the sentence.

The use of the object marker ke indicates the recipient of the action.

naka ke mita itsa

woman O dog love

The woman loves the dog.

Kala lacks morphological adjectives and instead uses predicative verbs.

ke tsaka taha

O house be.big

The big house / The house is big

Kala lacks morphological adverbs, verbs modified with the adverbial ending -n tend to precede the verb phrase they modify.

tsumun nam yokone

cautious-ADV 1pl swim-SUG

We should swim cautiously.

Kala lacks morphological prepositions and instead uses locational and relational verbs.

mita ke yempa tahe

dog O table be.under

The dog is under the table.

Clauses

Relative clauses (or adjective clauses) function like adjectives. Relative clauses follow the noun or noun phrase that they modify:

naka ke na itsatle te ameyo

woman O 1s love-REL from America

The woman (that) I love comes from America.

mayo ke na kitlayetle muyak

tool O 1s create-PST-REL do-NEG

The tool (that) I built doesn't function.

na ke ta yani unyak / na ke yani tayo unyak

1s O 2s mean know-NEG / 1s O meaning 2s.GEN know-NEG

I don't understand what you mean.

Subordinate clauses rely on conjunctions and other particles.

eya ta ke mpeka inaye yatli ta pasala

maybe 2s O toad eat-PST therefore 2s nauseous-become

If you ate the toad (which you might have), you might get sick.

naye na tasa ke masa okyohue anyaye

while 1s hunt O deer clearing-LOC see-PST

While hunting, I saw a deer in a clearing.

Questions

There are two types of questions: Polar, those which may be answered "yes" or "no," and those which require explanations as answers.

Polar Questions

Any statement can become a polar question by adding the interrogative particle ka at the end of the sentence.

mita ina

dog eat

The dog eats.

nta'i moku

baby sleep

The baby is sleeping. / The baby sleeps.

ta ke tlo'o anyaye

2SG O elephant see-PST

You saw the elephant.

tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye

heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST

The doctor gave you the medicine.

mita ina ka

dog eat Q

Does the dog eat?

nta'i moku ka

baby sleep Q

Is the baby sleeping?

ta ke tlo'o anyaye ka

2SG O elephant see-PST Q

Did you see the elephant?

tekatlo eta ke ya'a yetaye ka

heal-AG P.2SG O medicine give-PST Q

Did the doctor give you the medicine?

Content questions

Questions that give a list of possible answers are formed like polar questions, with the conjunction ue ‘or’ introducing each alternative (which must appear in the form of a noun phrase).

ta ke nkapa ue maya inuue ka

2s O beer or.EXCL water drink-DES Q

Do you want to drink beer or water?

uala ta ke sinka mataye ue empa ma koma ka

truly 2s O lion kill-PST or.EXCL flee CONJ hide Q

Did you really kill the lion, or did you run away and hide?

Open content questions are most easily formed with the correlatives, such as ko ‘person’, mo ‘place’, to ‘manner’, etc. These correlatives always appear clause-initially:

ko ta ka

person 2ss Q

Who are you?

itla ka

this Q

What is this?

to kihu ka

manner weather Q

What's the weather like?

The other type contains a question word and is followed by ka:

kanyo
	Kala	gloss	English
object	ke mita ina ka	O dog eat Q	What does the dog eat?
person	ko ina ka	person eat Q	Who eats?
possession	koyo mita ina ka	person-POSS dog eat Q	Whose dog eats?
manner	to mita ina ka	manner dog eat Q	How does the dog eat?
place	mo mita ina ka	place dog eat Q	Where does the dog eat?
reason	nye mita ina ka	reason dog eat Q	Why does the dog eat?
time	ama mita ina ka	time dog eat Q	When does the dog eat?
amount	uku mita ina ka	amount dog eat Q	How much/many does the dog eat?
which	ula mita ina ka	any dog eat Q	Which dog eats?

Semantic fields and pragmatics

Writing system

Kala conscripts are many and varied. Rather than multiple pages explaining each of them, this page serves as a working list with a consistent example across each script. The most commonly used script is the Hangul adaptation for Kala.

Han Moya

Han Moya is an adaptation of Hangul for writing Kala. It is written horizontally, in lines running from left to right. It can also be written vertically in columns.

consonants

ㄱㄲㄴㄷㄸㄹㅁㅂㅃㅅㅆㅇㅈㅉㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ

k nk n t nt l m p mp s ns a ts nts ts` k` tl p` h

/k~g ᵑk~ⁿg n t~d ⁿt~ⁿd l~ɾ m p~b ᵐp~ᵐb s~ʃ ⁿs~ⁿʃ - ts~t͡ʃ ⁿts~ⁿt͡ʃ tsʰ~t͡ʃʰ kʰ t͡ɬ~tl pʰ h~ɦ/

The adaptations of doubled consonants are used word initially to indicate prenasalization. Medial occurrences of nasalized syllables are written across syllables.

Example:

까바 - nkapa - alcohol; liquor / 단가 - tanka - eagle; hawk; falcon

감바 - kampa - Cheers! / 쁘라 - mpula - lamp; lantern; light

vowels

ㅏ ᅶ ㅐ ㅑ ᅸ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ

a ao ai ya yao e ye o ao yo ua uai ue u i

/a~a: aʊ̯ aɪ̯ ja~ʲa: jaʊ̯~ʲaʊ̯ e~ɛ je~ʲɛ o~o: jo~ʲo: wa~ʷa: waɪ̯~ʷaɪ̯ we~ʷe: u~u: i~ɪ/

ㅘ This is pronounced /wa/ in Korean because of the order of the vowels; however, because obsolete jamo are difficult to type and look junky as images, in Kala, this is used for /aʊ̯/ when typing. It is rarely seen due to the diphthong itself being uncommon.

Examples

어하 거 거하 가먀터 하요 마아 타감 뱌사하먀여

eha ke keha kamyatle hayo ma’a tlakam pyasahamyaye

[eːɦa kɛ keːɦa kamʲaːt͡ɬe haːjo maːʔa t͡ɬaːkam pʲaʃahamʲaːjɛ]

P.3s O body stun-REL 3s.POSS with man-PL be.popular-AUG-CAUS-PST

Her bewitching body made her very popular with men.

Lexicon

references

akana.conlang.org/wiki/Ronc_Tyu
en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Na’vi
frathwiki.com/Kala
hungarianreference.com/
japaneselanguageguide.com/grammar/noun.asp
kinezika.info/pdf/ChineseEssentialGrammar.pdf
klingonwiki.net/En/Math
ossicone.com/conlangs/uskra
pomax.github.io/nrGrammar/
resources.allsetlearning.com/chinese/grammar/
rickmor.x10.mx/arabic_morphology.html
turkishlanguage.co.uk/
zompist.com/kitgram.html
zompist.com/wedei.html
languagesgulper.com/eng/Quechua.html

EVID

direct

These are both first hand evidentials.

-nya - visual evidence, the speaker witnessed the event
-nu - auditory evidence, the speaker heard the event

indirect

Second hand.

kye - reported speech; hearsay, the speaker received via hearsay and may or may not be accurate

Inferred or assumed.

-tsi - inferred based on physical evidence
-ho - assumed or asserted based on experience

	k/g	n	t/d	l/r	m	p/b	s	a	y	w
a	가	나	다	라	마	바	사	아	야	와
e	거	너	더	러	머	버	서	어	여	워
o	고	노	도	로	모	보	소	오	요	-
u	구	누	두	루	무	부	수	우	유	-
i	기	니	디	리	미	비	시	이	-	위

	k/g	n	t/d	l/r	m	p/b	s	a	y	w
an	간	난	단	란	만	반	산	안	얀	완
en	건	넌	던	런	먼	번	선	언	연	원
on	곤	논	돈	론	몬	본	손	온	욘	-
un	군	눈	둔	룬	문	분	순	운	윤	-
in	긴	닌	딘	린	민	빈	신	인	-	윈

	a	ai	ya	e	ye	o	ao	yo	ua	uai	ue	u	i	yao
k	가	개	갸	거	겨	고	과	교	구	귀	규	그	기	-
nk	까	-	-	꺼	-	꼬	-	-	-	-	-	끄	끼	-
n	나	내	냐	너	녀	노	놔	뇨	누	뉘	뉴	느	니	-
t	다	대	-	더	-	도	돠	-	-	-	-	-	디	-
nt	따	-	-	떠	-	또	-	-	-	-	-	-	띠	-
l	라	래	-	러	-	로	롸	-	-	-	-	-	리	-
m	마	매	먀	머	며	모	뫄	묘	무	뮈	뮤	므	미	-
p	바	배	뱌	버	벼	보	봐	뵤	부	뷔	뷰	브	비	-
mp	빠	-	-	뻐	-	뽀	-	-	-	-	-	쁘	삐	-
s	사	새	-	서	-	소	솨	-	수	쉬	슈	스	시	-
-	아	애	야	어	여	오	와	요	우	위	유	으	이	-
ts	자	재	-	저	-	조	좌	-	주	쥐	쥬	즈	지	-
tl	타	태	-	터	-	토	톼	-	-	-	-	-	티	-
h	하	해	햐	허	혀	호	화	효	후	휘	휴	흐	히	-

	ak	yak	ek	yek	ok	yok	uak	uek	uk	ik
k	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nk	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
n	낙	냑	넉	녁	녹	뇩	눅	뉵	늑	닉
t	닥	-	덕	-	독	-	-	-	-	딕
nt	딱	-	떡	-	똑	-	-	-	-	띡
l	락	-	럭	-	록	-	-	-	-	릭
m	막	먁	먹	멱	목	묙	묵	뮥	믁	믹
p	박	뱍	벅	벽	복	뵥	북	뷱	븍	빅
mp	빡	-	뻑	-	뽁	-	-	-	쁙	삑
s	삭	-	석	-	속	-	숙	슉	슥	식
-	악	약	억	역	옥	욕	욱	육	윽	익
ts	작	-	적	-	족	-	죽	쥭	즉	직
tl	탁	-	턱	-	톡	-	-	-	-	틱
h	학	햑	헉	혁	혹	횩	훅	휵	흑	힉

	am	yam	em	yem	om	yom	uam	uem	um	im
k	감	걈	검	겸	곰	굠	굼	귬	금	김
nk	깜	-	껌	-	꼼	-	-	-	끔	낌
n	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
t	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nt	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
l	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
m	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
p	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
mp	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
s	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
ts	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
tl	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
h	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

	ak	yak	ek	yek	ok	yok	uak	uek	uk	ik
k	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nk	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
n	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
t	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nt	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
l	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
m	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
p	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
mp	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
s	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
ts	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
tl	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
h	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

	k/g	n	t/d	l/r	m	p/b	s	a	y	w
a	가	나	다	라	마	바	사	아	야	와
e	거	너	더	러	머	버	서	어	여	워
o	고	노	도	로	모	보	소	오	요	-
u	구	누	두	루	무	부	수	우	유	-
i	기	니	디	리	미	비	시	이	-	위

	k/g	n	t/d	l/r	m	p/b	s	a	y	w
an	간	난	단	란	만	반	산	안	얀	완
en	건	넌	던	런	먼	번	선	언	연	원
on	곤	논	돈	론	몬	본	손	온	욘	-
un	군	눈	둔	룬	문	분	순	운	윤	-
in	긴	닌	딘	린	민	빈	신	인	-	윈

	a	ai	ya	e	ye	o	ao	yo	ua	uai	ue	u	i	yao
k	가	개	갸	거	겨	고	과	교	구	귀	규	그	기	-
nk	까	-	-	꺼	-	꼬	-	-	-	-	-	끄	끼	-
n	나	내	냐	너	녀	노	놔	뇨	누	뉘	뉴	느	니	-
t	다	대	-	더	-	도	돠	-	-	-	-	-	디	-
nt	따	-	-	떠	-	또	-	-	-	-	-	-	띠	-
l	라	래	-	러	-	로	롸	-	-	-	-	-	리	-
m	마	매	먀	머	며	모	뫄	묘	무	뮈	뮤	므	미	-
p	바	배	뱌	버	벼	보	봐	뵤	부	뷔	뷰	브	비	-
mp	빠	-	-	뻐	-	뽀	-	-	-	-	-	쁘	삐	-
s	사	새	-	서	-	소	솨	-	수	쉬	슈	스	시	-
-	아	애	야	어	여	오	와	요	우	위	유	으	이	-
ts	자	재	-	저	-	조	좌	-	주	쥐	쥬	즈	지	-
tl	타	태	-	터	-	토	톼	-	-	-	-	-	티	-
h	하	해	햐	허	혀	호	화	효	후	휘	휴	흐	히	-

	ak	yak	ek	yek	ok	yok	uak	uek	uk	ik
k	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nk	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
n	낙	냑	넉	녁	녹	뇩	눅	뉵	늑	닉
t	닥	-	덕	-	독	-	-	-	-	딕
nt	딱	-	떡	-	똑	-	-	-	-	띡
l	락	-	럭	-	록	-	-	-	-	릭
m	막	먁	먹	멱	목	묙	묵	뮥	믁	믹
p	박	뱍	벅	벽	복	뵥	북	뷱	븍	빅
mp	빡	-	뻑	-	뽁	-	-	-	쁙	삑
s	삭	-	석	-	속	-	숙	슉	슥	식
-	악	약	억	역	옥	욕	욱	육	윽	익
ts	작	-	적	-	족	-	죽	쥭	즉	직
tl	탁	-	턱	-	톡	-	-	-	-	틱
h	학	햑	헉	혁	혹	횩	훅	휵	흑	힉

	am	yam	em	yem	om	yom	uam	uem	um	im
k	감	걈	검	겸	곰	굠	굼	귬	금	김
nk	깜	-	껌	-	꼼	-	-	-	끔	낌
n	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
t	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nt	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
l	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
m	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
p	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
mp	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
s	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
ts	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
tl	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
h	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

	ak	yak	ek	yek	ok	yok	uak	uek	uk	ik
k	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nk	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
n	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
t	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nt	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
l	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
m	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
p	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
mp	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
s	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
ts	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
tl	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
h	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

User:Masako/sandbox

Contents

box

kalo lex

milapako ka

tlika

pa'a

pampa

noun phrases

ukum

loca

genitive

syl kalo

katekalo

anyomo

Unit Organization

hanmoya

ak

an

am

xx

Derivational morphology

subject/object

Semitic abjads

word gen kala

tense

case

format

Morphosyntax

animacy

verbs

Comparison

Indirect Objects

Dative

Instrumental

Comitative

Locative

Semantic Fields and Pragmatics

Numbers

Forming Larger Numbers

Other Number Forms

Math Operations

Writing system

Han Moya

consonants

vowels

Examples

Examples

Lexicon

notes

Locative verbs

extra

more

Syntax

Simple sentences

Complex sentences

Clause coordination

Coordination of noun phrases

Complement clauses

Relative clauses

Evidentiality

kalama

words

Amal grammar

zanga

krit

xcvb

lkjh

Adjectives

Comparison

Equivalence

Relative

Adverbs

Prepositions

Particles

Conjunctions

Interjections

Noun Phrase

Word Order

Clauses

	k/g	n	t/d	l/r	m	p/b	s	a	y	w
a	가	나	다	라	마	바	사	아	야	와
e	거	너	더	러	머	버	서	어	여	워
o	고	노	도	로	모	보	소	오	요	-
u	구	누	두	루	무	부	수	우	유	-
i	기	니	디	리	미	비	시	이	-	위

	k/g	n	t/d	l/r	m	p/b	s	a	y	w
an	간	난	단	란	만	반	산	안	얀	완
en	건	넌	던	런	먼	번	선	언	연	원
on	곤	논	돈	론	몬	본	손	온	욘	-
un	군	눈	둔	룬	문	분	순	운	윤	-
in	긴	닌	딘	린	민	빈	신	인	-	윈

	a	ai	ya	e	ye	o	ao	yo	ua	uai	ue	u	i	yao
k	가	개	갸	거	겨	고	과	교	구	귀	규	그	기	-
nk	까	-	-	꺼	-	꼬	-	-	-	-	-	끄	끼	-
n	나	내	냐	너	녀	노	놔	뇨	누	뉘	뉴	느	니	-
t	다	대	-	더	-	도	돠	-	-	-	-	-	디	-
nt	따	-	-	떠	-	또	-	-	-	-	-	-	띠	-
l	라	래	-	러	-	로	롸	-	-	-	-	-	리	-
m	마	매	먀	머	며	모	뫄	묘	무	뮈	뮤	므	미	-
p	바	배	뱌	버	벼	보	봐	뵤	부	뷔	뷰	브	비	-
mp	빠	-	-	뻐	-	뽀	-	-	-	-	-	쁘	삐	-
s	사	새	-	서	-	소	솨	-	수	쉬	슈	스	시	-
-	아	애	야	어	여	오	와	요	우	위	유	으	이	-
ts	자	재	-	저	-	조	좌	-	주	쥐	쥬	즈	지	-
tl	타	태	-	터	-	토	톼	-	-	-	-	-	티	-
h	하	해	햐	허	혀	호	화	효	후	휘	휴	흐	히	-

	ak	yak	ek	yek	ok	yok	uak	uek	uk	ik
k	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nk	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
n	낙	냑	넉	녁	녹	뇩	눅	뉵	늑	닉
t	닥	-	덕	-	독	-	-	-	-	딕
nt	딱	-	떡	-	똑	-	-	-	-	띡
l	락	-	럭	-	록	-	-	-	-	릭
m	막	먁	먹	멱	목	묙	묵	뮥	믁	믹
p	박	뱍	벅	벽	복	뵥	북	뷱	븍	빅
mp	빡	-	뻑	-	뽁	-	-	-	쁙	삑
s	삭	-	석	-	속	-	숙	슉	슥	식
-	악	약	억	역	옥	욕	욱	육	윽	익
ts	작	-	적	-	족	-	죽	쥭	즉	직
tl	탁	-	턱	-	톡	-	-	-	-	틱
h	학	햑	헉	혁	혹	횩	훅	휵	흑	힉

	am	yam	em	yem	om	yom	uam	uem	um	im
k	감	걈	검	겸	곰	굠	굼	귬	금	김
nk	깜	-	껌	-	꼼	-	-	-	끔	낌
n	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
t	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nt	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
l	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
m	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
p	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
mp	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
s	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
ts	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
tl	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
h	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

	ak	yak	ek	yek	ok	yok	uak	uek	uk	ik
k	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nk	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
n	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
t	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
nt	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
l	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
m	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
p	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
mp	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
s	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
ts	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
tl	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
h	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-