Ancient Figo is one of the languages belonging to Piti language family. It stems directly from Proto-Piti language. It is spoken in the classic period and gives rise to a separate branch, named Figo languages. One daughter language belongs to this group and stems from ancient Figo. It has two alphabetical scripts.

Typological structure

Ancient Figo is a morphologically agglutinative language, with an additional but strongly marked introflexive feature, realized in verbal roots.

The basic word order is essentially SOV (Subject-Object-Verb).

fūgali mūg līločeš
(the) person sees (the) cow

The entire system is set according to typological parameters of the modifier-head (or head-final) type:

object - verb
noun - postposition
adjective - noun
relative clause - noun

Phonology

This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo phonological features.

Consonants

The consonant system distinguishes 22 phonemes, traditionally arranged in the following scheme:

		IPA			Transcription
plosive	voiceless	[p]	[k]	[t]	p	k	t
	voiced	[b]	[g]	[d]	g	g	d
	palatal		[c]			c
nasal		[m]	[n]	[ɲ]	m	n	ň
liquid		[r]		[l]	r		l
fricative	velar		[x]			x
	sibilant		[s]			s
	alveolar		[ʃ]			š
	glottal		[h]			h
	labiodental		[f]			f
	dental		[θ]			θ
	palatal		[ɕ]			ɕ
	approximant	[j]		[w]	j		w
affricate			[ʧ]			č

The group of the plosive consonants distinguishes three sub-groups: voiceless, voiced, and palatal, even though the palatal sub-group includes only the phoneme [c].

The group of the fricative consonants is overall well developed, with several places of articulation.

The group of the nasal and of the liquid consonants is substantially less rich. The phonemes [j] and [w] have a full consonantal value when in the coda position of the syllable.

Vowels

There are 7 vocalic phonemes, which exhibit other forms of distinction:

5 vowels have a short form and a long form. The mid-central phoneme, [ə], and the open-mid front phoneme, [ɛ], make no length distinction.

IPA						Transcription
[i]	[iː]			[u]	[uː]	i	ī			u	ū
[e]	[eː]			[o]	[oː]	e	ē			o	ō
		[ə]						ə
	[ɛ]						ɛ
		[a]	[a]					a	ā

Stress

The stress is mostly on the first syllable of the word root.

[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]

Nevertheless, in words where [u], either long or short, is the vowel in the first syllable the stress tends to placed on the following vowel.

[θuː.ˈha]

Monosyllabic words, often with a grammatical meaning, are meant to be unstressed and cliticized to the word which they are grammatically bound to.

Polysyllabic words, which are generally composed by more than a word root, usually turn one of the stresses in a secondary one. The stress on the first root is the most likely to become secondary, while also the second stress may become the secondary, albeit in very rare cases.

Syllabic structure

The basic syllable structure in Ancient Figo is (C)V(C). There are, however, some constraints:

A word cannot consist of an exclusively vowel syllable, V, but such a syllable, V, can be found at the beginning of a multisyllabic word:

*[a]
[u.ˈmo.coː.da]

A word can consist of only one syllable of type VC, and a polysyllabic word can begin with such a syllable:

[om]
[ˈer.tu]

A CVC-type syllable is usually found at the end of a word, while is quite infrequent within the word or at its beginning. Monosyllabic words with such a syllabic structure are known to exist.

[ˈkɛ.ho.gow]
[ˈkoːw]

CV-type syllables are allowed in every position within a polysyllabic word. Monosyllabic words with this structure are limited in number, but relevantly used.

[ˈʃi.ga.nu.na.ʃa]
[ˈnɛ]

Clusters of more than two consonants are prohibited, both in syllabic onset and in coda.

Diphthongs

There are no diphthongs of any kind; the phonemes [j] and [w] have always full consonantal value.

Morphology

This chapter gives an extensive description of ancient Figo morphological features.

Nouns

Nouns in ancient Figo language end almost exclusively in a vowel. A certain number of nouns may end in a consonant; in this case a euphonic vowel, -ə-, is added at the end of noun before the normal declension endings.

Nouns are grouped into two declension classes: animate nouns or class I and inanimate nouns or class II. The first class generally includes nouns indicating animate beings, namely capable of intentional motion or action, while the second class includes inanimate objects or entities. As a rule, we can sketch out the following scheme:

class I: human beings, animals, deities
class II: plants, objects, ideas, feelings, senses, perceptions

A noun is not irreversibly included in one of the two classes, as nouns lack clear morphological marks for each class. For example, there are some logical-semantical exceptions, like the word ogō, wind, which firmly belongs to class I, or čiš, water, which freely shifts from a class to the other during the history of the language, depending on the overall cultural perception of the noun’s animateness degree, being thus regarded as a lifeless object or a moving entity.

Despite the general lack of morphological markers in the basic forms, being thus unable to distinguish the two classes, the declension patterns depend on which class a noun belongs to.

There are three morphological numbers for almost all nouns, singular, dual, and plural.

The dual number is used when two entities are mentioned (or when these entities are usually found in couple):

sobanu līločow
I see dogs (three, four, some, many, …)

sobaj līločow
I see two dogs (only the idea of two is possible)

In this case, the usage of the numeral ogi, two, is not required. It can be used, however, to highlight the value of the numeral.

ogi sobaj līločow
I see two dogs (right two and not any other quantity)

The dual number is not a continuously stable feature per se in the history of ancient Figo language. It is largely used in the classical period, while it tends to be always introduced by the numeral in the first later period. It begins to die out in the texts of the later period, except for those nouns which are typically found in couple, like rogu, eye.

Cases

Ancient Figo nouns do decline, according to an active-stative system with 7 cases:

Case	Meaning
Agentive	This case marks primarily the subject of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays a certain degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class I.
Passive	This case marks primarily the direct object of a transitive verb. It is also used to mark the subject of an intransitive verb, which displays no degree of activity, will or intention in performing the said action or in being in a certain state. It is regarded as the base form of the noun, and it is used as the vocative form.
Genitive	This case marks possession and belonging, either intentional, unintentional, or indirect. It also marks the origin or the source.
Dative	This case marks primarily the indirect object. In a broad sense, it can also mark the final point of a movement (motion toward a place).
Causative	This case marks the reason or the cause, which are the source of an action or a state.
Instrumental	This case marks the tool or the instrument which are used to perform an action or to be in a certain state. It can be used only with nouns belonging to class II.
Locative	This case marks the place where an action is performed, or a certain state exist (stative location). It can also have a temporal value. It can be used only with nouns belonging to the class II.

The cases are usually classified in 4 groups:

Primary main cases: agentive
Secondary main cases: passive, ablative
Primary oblique cases: dative, causative
Secondary oblique cases: instrumental, locative

Other types of clause complements are conveyed using various postpositions, which can select one or more cases.

Noun declension

Nouns are declined for case and number by adding the following endings to the base form of the noun:

	class I			class II
	singular	dual	plural	singular	dual	plural
agentive	-li	-lī	-linu
passive	-	-j¹	-nu	-	-j¹	-nu
genitive	-ɕu	-ɕuj	-ɕunu	-ɕu	-ɕuj	-ɕunu
dative	-he	-hej	-henu	-he	-hej	-henu
causative	-xu	-xuj	-xunu	-xu	-xuj	-xunu
instrumental				-xe	-xej	-xenu
locative				-car	-cari	-carnu

¹ If the noun ends in -i in the base form, the dual passive desinence merges with the vowel resulting in -ī. If the noun ends in -ī in the base form, the dual passive ending will be identical to the base form, in -ī.

Some examples are shown below: a class I noun, pobu, father, and a class II noun, sōnu, house.

	pobu			sōnu
	singular	dual	plural	singular	dual	plural
agentive	pobuli	pobulī	pobulinu
passive	pobu	pobuj	pobunu	sōnu	sōnuj	sōnunu
genitive	pobuɕu	pobuɕuj	pobuɕunu	sōnuɕu	sōnuɕuj	sōnuɕunu
dative	pobuhe	pobuhej	pobuhenu	sōnuhe	sōnuhej	sōnuhenu
causative	pobuxu	pobuxuj	pobuxunu	sōnuxu	sōnuxuj	sōnuxunu
instrumental				sōnuxe	sōnuxej	sōnuxenu
locative				sōnucar	sōnucari	sōnucarnu

As for the rules, the endings for the secondary oblique cases cannot be added to a class I noun, while the endings for the primary main case cannot be added to a class II noun.

In nouns ending in a consonant a vowel -ə-, is usually added between the root and the normal declension endings:

pass. čiš → gen. čišəɕu, dat. čišəhe, ...

Some nouns, like sōnu, may display some irregularity when the declension endings are added. In most cases the final vowel -u is changed into -o. This kind of irregularities is sporadic and typical of the earlier period texts.

pass. sōnu → gen. sōnoɕu, dat. sōnohe, ...

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives closely resemble the noun form, mostly ending in a vowel and showing the same exceptions of nouns. Pronouns, instead, may exhibit different forms in the root form.

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives are always placed before the nouns they specify, while predicative adjectives are always placed after them.

jōbā līru
(the) young man

līru jōbā ɛneš
(the) man is young

All adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify, being declined with the nominal endings. They thus display a complete declension set, not belonging inherently to one of the two classes.

jōbāɕu līruɕu rēw sōnu pinkucar sōnošucar mējseš
the young man’s new house is located in the nearby village

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Example: jōbā, young

	singular	dual	plural
agentive	jōbāli	jōbālī	jōbālinu
passive	jōbā	jōbāj	jōbānu
genitive	jōbāɕu	jōbāɕuj	jōbāɕunu
dative	jōbāhe	jōbāhej	jōbāhenu
causative	jōbāxu	jōbāxuj	jōbāxunu
instrumental	jōbāxe	jōbāxej	jōbāxenu
locative	jōbācar	jōbācari	jōbācarnu

The adjectival declension displays the same irregularities of nouns:

pass. rēw, new → ag. rēwəli, gen. rēwəɕu, dat. rēwəhe, ...

Comparison of qualifying adjectives

Adjectives have only one comparison form, comparative. It is formed by adding the following ending:

comparative

-rō

This ending is always placed before the case endings. The second comparative term is in the genitive case. In the later period, it may be followed by the postposition fɛw.

līru ōnaɕu (fɛw) jōbārō ɛneš
the man is younger than the woman

If the second comparative term is followed by the postposition šīn, among, which govern the passive case, the construction takes on a superlative meaning.

ōna junu šīn jōbārō ɛneš
the woman is the youngest of/among us

If the comparative form has no second comparative term, in most cases it takes on a superlative meaning:

līru jōbārō ɛneš
the man is the youngest (or younger)

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns display a marked dichotomy between the forms in the agentive case and the forms in the passive case. Both forms have two different roots, exhibiting thus a mixed declension; more than one form for each case is created on both roots.

	1^st sing.	2^nd sing.	3^rd sing.	1^st dual.	2^nd dual.	3^rd dual.	1^st plur.	2^nd plur.	3^rd plur.
agentive	oltu	ertu	ɛštu	oltuj	ertuj	ɛštuj	oltunu	ertunu	ɛštunu
passive	ju	nɛ	šɛ	joj	nɛj	šɛj	junu	nɛnu	šɛnu
genitive	oltuɕu	ertuɕu	ɛštuɕu	oltuɕuj	ertuɕuj	ɛštuɕuj	oltuɕunu	ertuɕunu	ɛštuɕunu
genitive	joɕu	nɛɕu	šɛɕu	juɕuj	nɛɕuj	šɛɕuj	juɕunu	nɛɕunu	šɛɕunu
dative	oltuhe	ertuhe	ɛštuhe	oltuhej	ertuhej	ɛštuhej	oltuhenu	ertuhenu	ɛštuhenu
dative	johe	nɛhe	šɛhe	juhej	nɛhej	šɛhej	juhenu	nɛhenu	šɛhenu
causative	oltuxu	ertuxu	ɛštuxu	oltuxuj	ertuxuj	ɛštuxuj	oltuxunu	ertuxunu	ɛštuxunu
instrumental			ɛštuxe			ɛštuxej			ɛštuxenu
locative			ɛštucar			ɛštucari			ɛštucarnu

First and second person forms are meant as referents for class I entities; the endings for the secondary oblique cases are thus not used with them. Conversely, the third person forms display a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.

Personal pronouns have two forms in the genitive and in the dative case. These forms are distinguished between long forms (oltuɕu, ertuɕu,...) and short forms (juɕu, nɛɕu,...), which have a different use:

In the genitive case:
- Long form: it is used as an indeclinable possessive adjective

ertuɕunu sōnu alolīčohon
we saw your house

- Short form: it is used as the proper genitive form of the pronoun, conveying origin (esempio: from me) and with postpositions. It is also used as a direct object form for verbal infinitives and in negative sentences in the classical period.

nɛɕu hōθīnem ēsow
I wasn’t looking for you

nɛɕu ēh šinohiga imēhohon
I will come with you

In the dative case:
- Long form: it is mostly used with postpositions or as a marked form of motion towards a place.

ɛštuhenu nū cɛnəhunohon
I am talking about them

- Short form: it is used to strictly mark the indirect object.

šɛhe hēme agohegow
I gave him bread

1^st and 2^nd person pronouns show, already in the classical period, a clear trend towards a nominative-accusative alignment. They tend to be declined in the agentive case with verbs which would require the passive case as unintentional subjects. This trend becomes regularity in the later period.

ju hīɕagow → oltu hīɕagow
I am falling

Reflexive pronoun and adjective

There is only one form of relative pronoun:

mē

It displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I (animate) or class II (inanimate). It does not however appear to have forms for the agentive case, being this case not used for a reflexive form.

	singular	dual	plural
agentive	-	-	-
passive	mē	mēj	mēnu
genitive	mēɕu	mēɕuj	mēɕunu
dative	mēhe	mēhej	mēhenu
causative	mēxu	mēxuj	mēxunu
instrumental	mēxe	mēxej	mēxenu
locative	mēcar	mēcari	mēcarnu

Unlike the personal pronouns, this pronoun does not have long or short forms, being the shown forms used according to the role of their cases.

In the earlier period this pronoun is used in an adjectival role, usually specifying a reflexive meaning of the personal pronouns.

oltu mē ju mīhoňow
I wash myself

In the same period, the adjectival reflexive form can be found fused with the pronominal form.

oltu mēju mīhoňow
I wash myself

However, usage of personal pronouns in this construction has declined already in the classical period, leaving the former adjective alone to play the role of a reflexive pronoun. This form remains the same regardless of the person of the subject. It, nevertheless, agrees with the subject in number and case.

oltu mē mīhoňow, ertu mē mīhoňər... oltunu mēnu mīhoňohon...
I wash myself; you wash myself… we wash ourselves…

Forms in the genitive case are, also used as possessive reflexive forms. These forms are used only when the owner is the subject of the sentence (even when only implied by the verb) for every person.

mēɕu soba līločow
I see my dog (I am the subject and the owner)

Still in the classical period, usage of the possessive reflexive form for the 1^st and the 2^nd person is unpredictable and unclear. It is indeed always possible to use the normal possessive forms.

oltuɕu soba līločow
I see my dog

With the 3^rd person, usage of possessive reflexive forms become mandatory when the subject is the owner, while the normal possessive forms are used only when the owner is not the subject.

mēɕu soba līločeš
he sees his dog (his own dog, he is the dog’s owner)

ɛštuɕu soba līločeš
he sees his dog (the dog belongs to someone else)

Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

The forms of the possessive adjectives are the following:

that: ɛšlu
this: ninlu

These forms can be used also as demonstrative pronouns.

Interrogative pronouns

Basic interrogative pronouns display two different forms: one for animate entities (who?) and one for inanimate entities (what?).

what: ɕɛ
who: ɕō

Both pronouns can be declined, with the nominal declension endings, according to their animacy class.

ɕōhe čiš agohegər?
whom did you give water to?

There are also other interrogative pronouns (and adverbs):

ɕɛducar: where (static location)
ɕɛduhe: where (motion toward)
ɕɛduɕu: where... from (motion form)
ɕɛduxu: why (cause)
ɕɛlēdu: when
ɕɛmin: how much (inanimate)
ɕōmin: how much (animate)
ɕɛmen: how

There are also the following interrogative adjectives:

ɕɛgu: which (animate)
ɕōgu: which (animate)
ɕɛminəxu: how much / many (animate)
ɕōminəxu: how much / many (animate)

Inside of an interrogative clause, pronouns usually stay in their syntactical position, according to their role, but in the later period they tend to be moved at the beginning of the sentence. In addition, like other parts of the sentences, can be followed by postpositions:

ɕōhe nū cɛnəhunɛš?
whom are you talking about?

Locative postpositions usually choose declined forms of the inanimate pronoun ɕɛ, rather than the other interrogative adverbs mentioned above.

Relative pronoun

There is only one form of relative pronoun:

hī

This form displays a complete declension, in which the case forms are used whether the referred name belongs to class I or class II.

Indefinite adjectives and pronouns

There are three basic forms of indefinite adjectives:

jodu: every
mōhū: some, any
hēsu: no

The form of the adjective mōhū is diachronically irregular; in the pre-classical period is indeed regularly mohū. In the same period these adjectives do not agree with the nouns they specify, and they are usually found in an undeclined form.

This kind of adjectives can usually mark both an undefined quality and a quantity regarding the nouns they specify. When marking quantity, they always agree with their name in singular number. When marking quality, however, they can also agree with nouns in the plural.

jodu sōnošu
every village (all the villages)

There are, also, two basic forms of indefinite pronouns:

čōmu: much, many, a lot
sīčā: few, a little, a few

These pronouns usually mark an undefined quantity of the entities, indicated by the nouns they specify. They exhibit a particular construction: these indefinite pronouns stay always in the singular number, while the nouns they specify are declined always in the genitive case. In this construction a greater role is played by the distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Countable nouns are usually required in the plural number, while uncountable nouns are required in the singular number by this kind of pronouns.

čōmu mōsuɕunu
many mice, a lot of mice

sīčā čišəɕu
a little water

The syntactic role of the noun cluster is conveyed by the indefinite pronouns, which are thus properly declined. The number of the cluster, however, is not expressed by them and stays in the singular. The verb of the sentence, if needed, agrees with the indefinite subject noun cluster in the singular number.

čōmuli mōsuɕunu rōnu mōcadeš
a lot of men are collecting milk

The declension class of the two pronouns, nevertheless, depends on the class of the nouns they specify.

There are, also, several other forms of indefinite pronouns (and adverbs), mostly derived by merging the indefinite adjectives with other nouns or pronouns:

joduɕɛ: everything, all, all things (inanimate - class II)
joduɕō: everyone, everybody (animate - class I)
jodučoɕɛ: everything you like, everything you want (inanimate - class II)
jodučoɕō: everyone you want, everybody you like (animate - class I)
jodulēdu: every moment, always (invariable)
jodulēduhe: forever (invariable)
jodumɛni: in every way (invariable)
mōhūɕɛ: something (inanimate - class II)
mōhūɕō: someone, somebody (animate - class I)
mōhūčoɕɛ: anything you like (inanimate - class II)
mōhūčoɕō: anyone you like (animate - class I)
mōhūlēdu: sometimes (invariable)
mōhūmɛni: somehow, in some way (invariable)
hēsuɕɛ: nothing (inanimate - class II)
hēsuɕō: no one, nobody (animate - class I)
hēsulēdu: in no moment, never (invariable)
hēsumɛni: in no way (invariable)

These pronouns, except the invariable ones, can be declined according to their animacy class.

Adverbs

There is a limited number of pure adverbial forms, like ūmdu, inside, or ēdu, together, mostly akin to postpositions, both for their origin and their meaning.

An adverbial form can be derived from an adjectives by adding the suffix -mɛcar, -ly, to the basic form of the adjective.

lānu → lānumɛcar
true → truly

The adverbial use of the adjectives can involve the comparison forms.

Numerals

The numeral system relies on a decimal base.

The first ten cardinal numbers are noun-like forms on their own:

1: ɕōw
2: ogi
3: migō
4: nōh
5: čōn
6: θūha
7: hoɕe
8: šu
9: cōju
10: fēw

Numerals from 11 to 19 are built with the construction NUM + fēw. Examples:

11: ɕōwfēw
15: čonfēw

The numerals for (one) hundred and (one) thousand are noun-like forms on their own:

100: ňōšu
1000: liā

The nouns of the multiples of tens, hundreds and thousands are built with the construction NUM + fēwtunu / ňōšunu / liānu:

30: migōfēwtunu
600: θūhaňōšunu
9000: cōjuliānu

Numbers above the multiples of thousands have no own name and are specified by the lesser numerals.

Composite numbers are built by just putting them aside, without any conjunction, in descending order:

1985: liā cōjuňōšunu šufēwtunu čon

All cardinal numerals are meant as invariable forms.

Ordinal numerals are formed by adding the adjectival ending -gu to the cardinal numeral form:

1^st: ɕōwgu
6^th: θūhagu

If the numeral form is composite, the ending is added only to the last numeral form:

25^th: ogifēwtunu čongu

Postpositions

In the ancient Figo language a noun cluster can be followed by a postposition, which gives a new meaning to the case of the selected noun cluster. Thus, every possible clause complement can be effectively expressed.

All postpositions are always placed after the noun they specify. Most postposition share a similar origin with the adverbial forms, while some postposition originated from fixed case forms of nouns.

General list of postpositions

Each postposition tends to follow a noun cluster, which is declined in one grammatical case. Thus, it is said that each postposition governs a specific case.

Most postpositions govern only one case, while some other postpositions govern more than one, while slightly altering their meaning depending on the selected case (like šīn). Other postpositions (like fes) govern different cases, according to the class of the specified noun.

	case	meaning
ēh	+ genitive	with, together with (marking company)
hōš	+ genitive	from, native to (marking origin)
jɛl	+ genitive	from, coming from (marking a departure point)
sū	+ dative	for, aiming to (marking purpose)
xodixe	+ instrumental	by, with, by means of (marking instrument - class II)
xodixe	+ genitive	by way of, using (marking exploiting - class I)
fes	+ instrumental	without, without using (marking absence of instrument - class II)
fes	+ genitive	without, in the absence of (marking absence - class I)
kōw	+ dative	towards, in the direction of (marking direction)
few	+ genitive	in relation to (marking relation)
mɛn	+ passive	in comparison to, like, as (marking comparison)
nū	+ dative	about, regarding, concerning (marking topic, theme)
čēr	+ dative	through, throughout, across (marking from a side to the other)
čērlu	+ dative	beyond, on the other side of
fun	+ locative/genitive	after (temporal value)
roɕ	+ locative/genitive	before (temporal value)
šīn	+ genitive	between, among, in the middle of
lūn	+ dative	away, away from (marking distancing)
kōlu	+ dative	against, in opposition to (marking opposition)
šīn¹	+ instrumental	by, with, by means of (marking instrument - class II)
šīn¹	+ genitive	by way of, using (marking exploiting - class I)

¹ Usage of this postposition with this meaning is already fallen into disuse in the classical period, being found only in archaic texts.

Some postpositions conveying location or motion make use of different case to specify a static location (locative or passive case), a motion towards a place (dative case) or a motion from a place (genitive case). Such postpositions are called locative postpositions:

	case	meaning
ūm	+ locative/passive/dative/genitive	inside of
sah	+ locative/passive/dative/genitive	outside of
limtu	+ locative/passive/dative/genitive	under
nit	+ locative/passive/dative/genitive	over, on
pin	+ locative/passive/dative/genitive	near
fōr	+ locative/passive/dative/genitive	in front of, opposite
ɕom	+ locative/passive/dative/genitive	behind
īr	+ locative/passive/dative/genitive	around
šīn	+ locative/passive/dative/genitive	between, among

A clear explanation of each postposition is presented in the following section.

ēh

The postposition ēh conveys the meaning of the complement of company. It specifies an entity, together with which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.

sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu ēh ēmihow
I went home with my friends

This postposition always governs the genitive case.

It never conveys the instrument, by which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the instrumental case or by the postposition kī́g. Thus, this postposition is seldomly used with class II nouns, if not in a broad sense.

hōš

The postposition hōš conveys the meaning of the complement of origin. It specifies the original point of an action or a state.

ju Kīrtaɕu hōš ɛnow
I am from Kī́rta. (It is my birthplace)

This postposition always governs the genitive case.

It can however convey, especially in later texts, the general meaning of motion from a place, in other words, the beginning point of a motion of any kind.

sōnuɕu hōš ēmihəgow
I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)

In the classical period, this last role is played directly by the genitive case alone.

sōnuɕu ēmihəgow
I departed from the house. (my motion began from that place)

jɛl

The postposition jɛl conveys the meaning of the complement of provenience. It specifies the beginning point of an action or a state which can have more than one direction.

Kīrtaɕu jɛl šinohow
I came from Kī́rta. (my travel began in that city)

This postposition always governs the genitive case.

sū

The postposition sū conveys the meaning of the complement of purpose. It specifies an entity, which is the final goal why a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.

hēme ɛštuɕu mōšodihe sū ašišorəgow
I bought some bread for his friend

Generally, the purpose is implicitly meant to be positive, being thus of benefit to the subject or to someone else. It is however possible that the meaning of the purpose is neutral or even negative for someone.

This postposition always governs the dative case.

The use of this postposition is very limited in pre-classical texts, where the purpose is conveyed directly by the dative case alone. This use of the case alone falls into a severe decline in the classical texts, while it disappears entirely in the later period, when the purpose is expressed only by the postposition sū̀.

oltuɕu momuhe šinusow → oltuɕu momuhe sū šinusow
I sing for my mother

It never conveys the cause, because of which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the causative case alone.

xodixe

The postposition xodixe conveys more meanings by governing more than one case. It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of mean. It specifies an entity, through which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the genitive case.

šɛ oltuɕu mōšodiɕu xodixe hōšisogiga imēhow
I will send it through my friend

It never conveys the entity, together which the action is performed; this function is expressed by the postposition ʔḕ.

It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of instrument. It specifies an object by which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the instrumental case.

mōsu jūhaxe xodixe ēlugogon
the mouse was killed with a stone.

In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns.

The meaning of the complement of instrument is basically conveyed by the instrumental case alone.

mōsu jūhaxe ēlugogon
the mouse was killed with a stone.

Therefore, this postposition is almost never used in the pre-classical and in the classical period in this meaning. The only use in this sense is limited to stressing the role of the complement or to avoiding ambiguities. In the texts of the later period the use of this postposition with the meaning of instrument takes a firm hold and spreads significantly.

In pre-classical texts the postposition šīn may express the same functions of this postpostion. In the classical period šīn retains the only locative meaning.

fes

The postposition fes conveys more meanings by governing more than one case.

It conveys, firstly, conveys the meaning of the complement of absence or exclusion. It specifies an entity, without which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists. In this role it governs the genitive case.

sōnohe oltuɕu mōšodiɕunu fes ēmihow
I went home without my friends

In this meaning it is scarcely used with class II nouns, except in a broad sense.

It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.

It additionally conveys the deprivation, namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being. In this role it governs the instrumental case.

mōsu ertuɕu urōšəgaxe fes ruhāniga imēhow
I will catch the mouse without your help

In this meaning it is never used with class I nouns.

It can convey both the idea that the exclusion of the said entity is required to the action to be performed and the idea of the simple absence without any benefit for the final goal.

kōw

The postposition kōw conveys the meaning of the complement of direction. It specifies a location or an entity, towards which a movement is aimed, or a certain action is performed.

ɛštuɕu mōšodilinu ɕučōdeguhe tirōsašahe kōw imēhešon
his friends are going towards the royal palace

This postposition always governs the dative case.

It never conveys the ending point of a motion of any kind; this function is expressed by the dative case alone.

few

The postposition few conveys the meaning of the complement of relation. It specifies an entity, which is the other term in any kind of relations.

ɛštuɕu cecəli ɛšluɕu sōharīdiɕu few hōlumɛcar egmirem fɛnəseš
her child can write well compared to that child

It is therefore used to mark the second term in adjective comparisons. Comparison is indeed meant as a relation between two or more parties.

ertuɕu mōšodi oltuɕu pobuɕu few ogērō ɛneš
your friend is older than my father

In this function, this postposition may be omitted. This is common in texts of earlier period, while it happens rather infrequently in the texts of the classical period.

ertuɕu mōšodi oltuɕu pobuɕu ogērō ɛneš
your friend is older than my father

This postposition always governs the genitive case.

It never conveys an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition mɛn.

mɑg

The postposition mɑg conveys the meaning of the complement of equivalence. It specifies an entity, which is the second term in an equivalence comparison.

ɑktušu kogā́ti mɑg ʔoptsaʔɑt
he works like his friend

This postposition always governs the passive case.

It never conveys an entity, which is the other term in any kind of non-equivalence comparison; this function is expressed by the postposition phɑw.

gū́

The postposition gū́ conveys the meaning of the complement of theme. It specifies an entity, which is the topic to which the conversation or the sentence refers.

owtušu kogā́tinoli ɑktunošu wɑkiɣɑ gū́ ʔatsɑgewugonɑt
my friends were talking about their village

This postposition always governs the dative case.

pḗr

The postposition pḗr conveys the meaning of the complement of crossing. It specifies a location or an entity, through which a movement or a certain action is performed.

ponunoɣɑ pḗr ʔapetṓkow
I walked through the fields

This postposition always governs the dative case.

phun

The postposition phun conveys a temporal relation of posteriority. It specifies the temporal location, after which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.

ertušu kogā́tinora phun ʔakogiwekow
I came after your friends

The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.

This postposition governs the genitive case, when used with a 1^st class noun, and it governs the locative case, when used with a 2^nd class noun.

roš

The postposition roš conveys a temporal relation of anteriority. It specifies the temporal location, before which a certain action is performed or a certain state exists.

ertušu kogā́tinora roš ʔakogiwekow
I came before your friends

The temporal location does not distinguish among real entities, actions, ideas, feeling or cognitions, except by their case usage.

This postposition governs the genitive case, when used with a 1^st class noun, and it governs the locative case, when used with a 2^nd class noun.

wū́g

The postposition wū́g conveys the meaning of the complement of distancing or estrangement. It specifies a location or an entity, away from a certain action is performed or a certain state exists, or the idea of estrangement from such a location or entity.

ɑktušu kogā́tino sṓgošu wū́g siɣakɑt
he will send his friend away from his house

This postposition always governs the ablative case.

pṓtu

The postposition pṓtu conveys more meanings. It conveys, firstly, the meaning of the complement of detriment. It specifies an entity, to the detriment of which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.

ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinoɣɑ pṓtu ʔakakigekow
I did it against your friends

It may additionally convey the meaning of the complement of opposition or objection. It specifies an entity, against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.

šupā́tɑɣɑ pṓtu tsegɑwugow
I am going to speak against the king

It may moreover convey the meaning of motion against a place, in other words, the location against which a certain action is performed, or a certain state exists.

mā́soli ʔḗpsɑɣɑ pṓtu ʔakarṓʔɑt
the mouse ran against the door

This postposition always governs the dative case.

Locative postpositions

Locative postpositions convey a spatial location, which can be either static or in motion. Such postpositions are characterised by a peculiar usage of the nominal cases. They can govern four different cases, while keeping the same meaning. The different cases express the relation between the main meaning of the postposition and the type of staticity or motion the subject of the said location may have. The meaning of the different cases are:

Locative or passive case: static location
Dative case: motion towards a place
Genitive case: motion from a place

These postpositions tend to convey locations and spatial positions, being thus used mostly with 2^nd class nouns. They can however convey an unreal location, imaginary or ideal. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes, selecting different case to express the static location. They govern the locative case for 2^nd class nouns and the passive case with 1^st class nouns.

ʔū́m

The postposition ʔū́m conveys the meaning of internal location. It specifies a location inside of an enclosed place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar ʔū́m ʔamḗʔis
my friend was inside the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ ʔū́m ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went inside the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu ʔū́m kogiweker
you will come from inside the royal palace

It never conveys generic location; this function is expressed by the locative case alone.

sā̀

The postposition sā̀ conveys the meaning of external location. It specifies a location outside of an enclosed place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar sā̀ ʔamḗʔis
my friend was outside the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ sā̀ ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went outside the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu sā̀ kogiweker
you will come from outside the royal palace

wim

The postposition wim conveys the meaning of lower location. It specifies a location below another place.

mā́so phṓwutsar mektū́tsar wim ʔaʔɑñ
the mouse was under the black table

mā́soli phṓwuɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ wim kṓraʔɑt
the mouse is running under the black table

mā́soli phṓwušu mektū́šu wim ʔaʔḗmiɣekɑt
the mouse ran away from under the black table

git

The postposition git conveys the meaning of upper location. It specifies a location above another place.

kojā́hukha rḗʔotsar mektū́tsar git ʔaʔɑñ
the stylus is on the new table

kojā́hukha rḗʔoɣɑ mektū́ɣɑ git ʔathowḗsow
I put the stylus on the new table

kojā́hukha rḗʔošu mektū́šu git rā́wuger
you will take the stylus from (over) the new table

No distinction is made between the upper location with contact (“on the tabe”) or without contact (“over the house, above the house”).

pig

The postposition pig conveys the meaning of close location. It specifies a location near another place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar pig ʔamḗʔis
my friend was near the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ pig ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went close to the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu pig kogiweker
you will come from nearby the royal palace

phṓr

The postposition phṓr conveys the meaning of frontal location. It specifies a location in front of another place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar phṓr ʔamḗʔis
my friend was in front of the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ phṓr ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went in front of the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu phṓr kogiweker
you will come from opposite the royal palace

šom

The postposition šom conveys the meaning of back location. It specifies a location behind another place.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar šom ʔamḗʔis
my friend was behind the royal palace

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ šom ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went behind the royal palace

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu šom kogiweker
you will come from behind the royal palace

tī́n

The postposition tī́n conveys the meaning of middle location. It specifies a location between two or more places or entities.

owtušu kogā́ti šupā́tɑkotsar tirṓsitsar gitirṓsicarna tī́n ʔamḗʔis
my friend was between the royal palace and the tower

šupā́tɑkoɣɑ tirṓsiɣɑ gitirṓsiɣɑna tī́n ʔaʔḗmiɣow
I went between the royal palace and the tower

šupā́tɑkošu tirṓsišu gitirṓsišurna tī́n kogiweker
you will come from between the royal palace and the tower

No distinction is made between the position between two places or entities (“between the eyes”) or among more places or entities (“among the candidates”).

It may additionally convey the meaning of an unreal middle position. In such a case, they may be used with nouns of both classes with no distinction, and it governs only the ablative case. In such role it may occasionally be used to express the second comparison term in the superlative adjectival construction.

ɑktu ertušu kogā́tinošu tī́n gitikorṓtu (ʔɑñ)
he is the tallest of my friends

It never conveys the meaning of crossing; this function is expressed by the postposition pḗr.

ʔī́r

The postposition ʔī́r conveys the meaning of circular location. It specifies a location around another place.

tsetseno ʔokḗtsar ā́kritsar ʔī́r ʔahowī́kon
the children sat around the old tree

tsetsenoli ʔokḗɣɑ ā́kriɣɑ ʔī́r kṓraʔonɑt
the children are running around the old tree

tsetsenoli ʔokḗšu ā́krišu ʔī́r ʔawū́ʔḗmiɣonɑt
the children came from (around) the old tree

Verbs

The verbal system of Kī́rtako language is based on the fundamental dichotomy between imperfective aspect and perfective aspect. This distinction is conveyed by two different verbal roots for every verbal meaning, the imperfective root (R_imp) and the perfective root (R_prf). The perfective root is usually derived from the imperfective one through an introflexive process of vowel switching:

CV₁CV₂C → CV₂CV₁C

Example:

R_imp = gagok- → R_prf = gogak-

Although considerably rare, there are some irregular perfective roots.

Another distinction is made, on a temporal level, between a non-past tense, generally called “present”, and a past tense, by means of the prefix ʔa-, known as augment, which conveys the past tense, while non-past actions are marked by its absence.

R_imp = gagok- → R_imp-past = ʔagagok-

There are three verbal moods and three non-finite forms:

Moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional
Non-finite: infinitive, agentive participle, passive participle

The citation form of verbs is the present imperfective infinitive, marked by the ending -ɑme, added to the imperfective root in its present form. From such form the imperfective root can be inferred and can be changed in its perfective equivalent.

The following personal endings are then added to the various aspectual and temporal forms. In this way, verbs show their agreement with the clause subject in person and number:

1^st sing.	-ow
2^nd sing.	-er
3^rd sing.	-ɑt
3^rd sing.	-
1^st plur.	-onow
2^nd plur.	-oner
3^rd plur.	-onɑt
3^rd plur.	-on

The different moods are formed by adding the following infixes to the verbal root, before the personal endings:

indicative: Ø
subjunctive: -iñ-
conditional: -ɑts-

The non-finite verbal forms are meant as nominal/adjectival forms of the same verbs. They do not use the personal endings, but they declined as nouns or adjectives with the nominal declension endings.

As verbal forms can, however, be formed on both roots and add the past prefix. They can also add the modal infixes before their typical endings.

The non-finite endings are:

infinitive: -ɑme
agentive participle: -ī́to
passive participle: -uki

The infinitival form is meant as a 2^nd class noun.

Conjugation of a regular verb

Example: lī́lopɑme, to see

Indicative mood

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1^st sing.	lī́lopow	ʔalī́lopow	lolī́pow	ʔalolī́pow
2^nd sing.	lī́loper	ʔalī́loper	lolī́per	ʔalolī́per
3^rd sing.	lī́lopɑt	ʔalī́lopɑt	lolī́pɑt	ʔalolī́pɑt
3^rd sing.	lī́lop	ʔalī́lop	lolī́p	ʔalolī́p
1^st plur.	lī́loponow	ʔalī́loponow	lolī́ponow	ʔalolī́ponow
2^nd plur.	lī́loponer	ʔalī́loponer	lolī́poner	ʔalolī́poner
3^rd plur.	lī́loponɑt	ʔalī́loponɑt	lolī́ponɑt	ʔalolī́ponɑt
3^rd plur.	lī́lopon	ʔalī́lopon	lolī́pon	ʔalolī́pon

The indicative mood conveys mainly true and certain actions or state, or at least regarded as such. It is the most used verbal mood in main clauses.

Subjunctive mood

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1^st sing.	lī́lopiñow	ʔalī́lopiñow	lolī́piñow	ʔalolī́piñow
2^nd sing.	lī́lopiñer	ʔalī́lopiñer	lolī́piñer	ʔalolī́piñer
3^rd sing.	lī́lopiñɑt	ʔalī́lopiñɑt	lolī́piñɑt	ʔalolī́piñɑt
3^rd sing.	lī́lopiñ	ʔalī́lopiñ	lolī́piñ	ʔalolī́piñ
1^st plur.	lī́lopiñonow	ʔalī́lopiñonow	lolī́piñonow	ʔalolī́piñonow
2^nd plur.	lī́lopiñoner	ʔalī́lopiñoner	lolī́piñoner	ʔalolī́piñoner
3^rd plur.	lī́lopiñonɑt	ʔalī́lopiñonɑt	lolī́piñonɑt	ʔalolī́ponɑt
3^rd plur.	lī́lopiñon	ʔalī́lopiñon	lolī́piñon	ʔalolī́piñon

The subjunctive is mainly used as a dependent mood, with or without any subordinative conjunctions. In main clauses it may convey wish or exhortation, being thus used also as an imperative form.

Conditional mood

	imperfective		perfective
	present	past	present	past
1^st sing.	lī́lopɑtsow	ʔalī́lopɑtsow	lolī́pɑtsow	ʔalolī́pɑtsow
2^nd sing.	lī́lopɑtser	ʔalī́lopɑtser	lolī́pɑtser	ʔalolī́pɑtser
3^rd sing.	lī́lopɑtsɑt	ʔalī́lopɑtsɑt	lolī́pɑtsɑt	ʔalolī́pɑtsɑt
3^rd sing.	lī́lopɑts	ʔalī́lopɑts	lolī́pɑts	ʔalolī́pɑts
1^st plur.	lī́lopɑtsonow	ʔalī́lopɑtsonow	lolī́pɑtsonow	ʔalolī́pɑtsonow
2^nd plur.	lī́lopɑtsoner	ʔalī́lopɑtsoner	lolī́pɑtsoner	ʔalolī́pɑtsoner
3^rd plur.	lī́lopɑtsonɑt	ʔalī́lopɑtsonɑt	lolī́pɑtsonɑt	ʔalolī́pɑtsonɑt
3^rd plur.	lī́lopɑtson	ʔalī́lopɑtson	lolī́pɑtson	ʔalolī́pɑtson

The conditional mood conveys mainly the intrinsic potentiality of an action or a state, both in main and in dependent clauses. It may also convey wish or hope.

For this reason the present tense usually refer to future actions, while the past tenses are used to refer to future actions in the past (the past perfective is routinely used as future in the past tense).

Non-finite forms

Infinitive

	indicative	subjuncitve	conditional
imp. pres.	lī́lopɑme	lī́lopiñɑme	lī́lopɑtsɑme
imp. pres.	ʔalī́lopɑme	ʔalī́lopiñɑme	ʔalī́lopɑtsɑme
imp. pres.	lolī́pɑme	lolī́piñɑme	lolī́pɑtsɑme
imp. pres.	ʔalolī́pɑme	ʔalolī́piñɑme	ʔalolī́pɑtsɑme

The infinitive is a nominal form of a verb. It is used as a verbal noun in sentences, and it can be declined. It is regarded as 2^nd class noun.

In its subjunctive form it is often used as object or subject of other subordinative verbs, like the negative verbs, the modal verbs or in dependent clauses in their infinitival type.

Direct objects of the infinitival forms are declined in the ablative case.

Agentive participle

	indicative	subjuncitve	conditional
imp. pres.	lī́lopī́to	lī́lopiñī́to	lī́lopɑtsī́to
imp. pres.	ʔalī́lopī́to	ʔalī́lopiñī́to	ʔalī́lopɑtsī́to
imp. pres.	lolī́pī́to	lolī́piñī́to	lolī́pɑtsī́to
imp. pres.	ʔalolī́pī́to	ʔalolī́piñī́to	ʔalolī́pɑtsī́to

The agentive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which actively perform an action.

It is usually used to build relative clauses, in which the subject is the linked noun, and the direct object is declined in the ablative case:

ʔṓnašu ʔalolī́pɑtsī́toli wī́roli
the man which might have seen the woman

As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.

Passive participle

	indicative	subjuncitve	conditional
imp. pres.	lī́lopuki	lī́lopiñuki	lī́lopɑtsuki
imp. pres.	ʔalī́lopuki	ʔalī́lopiñuki	ʔalī́lopɑtsuki
imp. pres.	lolī́puki	lolī́piñuki	lolī́pɑtsuki
imp. pres.	ʔalolī́puki	ʔalolī́piñuki	ʔalolī́pɑtsuki

The passive participle is an adjectival form of a verb. It is used as a verbal adjective in sentences, and it can be declined. It is linked to nouns which undergo an action, or inactively are in a certain state.

Despite the lack of a verbal passive form, this participle is the closest form to such role. It can, however, be used only as an adjective and it is often used to build relative clauses, in which the object is the linked noun, and the subject is declined in the agentive case. In the earlier period it is not used in this role.

wī́roli ʔalolī́puki ʔṓna
the woman seen by the man

As an adjectival form, it displays a complete declension, to agree with the class of the referred noun.

The third person

The are two forms for the third person verbal ending:

-ɑt, called long form
-Ø, called short form

These two forms have different uses:

The long form, -ɑt, is generally used when the subject has an active or animate role, even if the expressed action may also be totally independent from its will. Examples:

sopali wī́ro ñamī́kɑt
the dog is biting the man (agentive active role)

sopa hī́šakɑt
the dog is falling (this role in not dependent from the subject’s will, but it is still animated)

The short form, -Ø, is generally used when the subject has an inanimate role, and, preferably, with inherently inanimate subjects. Example:

sopa kḗwon
the dog is sleeping (non-active and non-animated role)

It is also used in passive constructions:

wī́ro sopali ñamī́k
the man is bitten by the dog

Such usage of both endings is not permanently fixed during the history of the language and some confusion can be found in the earlier period and, most of all, in the later period.

The long forms may also be found with intrinsically inanimate nouns, if they are subjects of an action which is regarded as semantically animate.

pike rḗtɑnɑt
the water is flowing

When using the short forms, some verbs, especially those whose infinitival forms end in -ɣɑme or in -ʔɑme, may drop the final consonant of the verbal root, and undergo a shift in the vowel tone.

ʔimḗɣɑme → ʔimḕ
andare → va

This phenomenon is not, however, a mandatory feature of every verb with these endings.

Negation

The verbal negation is conveyed by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme. As it has a monosyllabic root, it does not display a perfective root.

Within the sentence this verb is conjugated according to the person and the number of its subject and according to the required tense. It has the subjunctive infinitival form of the negated verb as direct object. The aspectual information is conveyed by the infinitival form. The object of the infinitive, is, as a rule, declined in the ablative case.

sopali wī́ro ʔañī́makɑt → sopali wī́rošu ñī́makiñɑme ʔaʔī́sɑt
the dog bit the man → the dog didn’t bite the man

sopa kḗwon → sopa kḗwoniñɑme ʔī́s
the dog is sleeping → the dog isn’t sleeping

As can be seen, the negative verbs can use both the third person endings, according to the rules and the animacy degrees conveyed by the negated verb.

Double negatives are generally not allowed; the presence of another negative element in the sentence inhibits the negative verb.

Syntax

This chapter gives an extensive description of Kī́rtako syntactical features.

Main clause and word order

Kī́rtako is an almost strictly SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) language.

wī́roli sopa lī́lopɑt 
the man is seeing the dog

The quite rich case system allows every other possible word order, but most of them prove to be very marked and infrequently used. The only word order with a clear role and a frequent usage is OSV (Object-Subject-Verbs), which marks the so-called passive construct.

sopa wī́roli lī́lop
the dog is being seen by the man

The other elements in the sentence are usually placed in the order “place-manner-cause-time”, although they are basically freer than the main elements. An object in the dative case, when conveying the indirect object, tends to be placed before the direct object of the sentence.

A peculiar feature is the verbal infinitival agreement: when infinitival forms, as nominal forms of the verbs, take a direct object, are regarded as an expression of belonging, and the direct object is declined in the ablative case.

sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow
I am not seeing the dog.

Moreover, as it can been seen in the example above, when an infinitival form is governed by a modal verb or by the negative verb ʔī́sɑme, the infinitive is always placed before the conjugated modal form.

Nouns

The noun cluster is formed by a noun, carrying the main meaning, and by other noun-type forms, namely adjectives, which specify this meaning or add other meaning to the main noun. Inside of a noun cluster, the noun can be replaced by a pronoun.

The noun usually closes the noun cluster, being preceded by every other specifying form. Thus, other elements conveying possession and belonging are always placed before the noun, as well as every attributive adjective.

wī́rora sṓgo
the man’s house

owtušu lilā́
my hand

jṓpā́ ʔṓna 
the young woman

The role of the noun cluster in the sentence and its number are marked by case and number endings. These endings mark also other adjectival elements inside the noun cluster, resulting this in the process called nominal agreement.

Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree in case and number with the noun they specify. Other elements, which convey possession or belonging do not agree with the main nominal form.

jṓpā́li wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt
the young man is going home

jonora sṓgo
our house

jṓpā́no ʔṓnano
the young women

ʔṓnano jṓpā́no (ʔɑñon)
the women are young

The agreement among nouns and adjectives is not a universal phenomenon. Indefinite adjectives, indeed, usually do not agree with the nominal form, neither in case nor in number.

The grammar role of noun clusters can be further specified by postpositions, which are placed after the cluster. Thus, it can be stated that the noun cluster can be closed by a postposition.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔū́m ʔimḗɣow
I am going inside the house

The cases

The grammatical role of the noun cluster in a sentence is conveyed by some endings. These endings are bound to grammatical cases, with usually well-defined roles.

The cases in Kī́rtako language are 9:

Agentive
Passive
Ablative
Genitive
Dative
Causative
Instrumental
Abessive
Locative

The grammatical roles and all possible differences in usage among similar cases are enlisted below:

Agentive

The agentive case features the endings -li in the singular and -noli in the plural.

The grammatical role of this case is marking the agent of the sentence, which is the active element of the action.

sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt
the dog is seeing the man

wī́roli sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑt
the man is going home

This is the only grammatical role played by the agentive case. The usage of this case as an agent marker is specified will be explained in a different section below.

As a marker of an agent, namely an element able to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 2^nd class nouns, as they cannot be active agents of an action.

Passive

The passive case features the zero ending (shown with -Ø) in the singular and the ending -no in the plural. In the singular form it is the same as the basic root form of the noun.

The main role of this case is marking the patient of the sentence, which is the direct object of a transitive verb.

sopali wī́ro lī́lopɑt
the dog is seeing the man

It also marks the unactive subject of a sentence, which is the unactive element of a state or the unactive participant of an involuntary action.

wī́ro ʔaɣašī́k
the man fell

sopa kḗwon
the dog is sleeping

ʔṓna jṓpā́ (ʔɑñ)
the woman is young

The usage of this case as a patient or unactive subject marker is specified in another section below.

As the basic form of a noun, it is used as the natural vocative form.

mamu, kogiwiñer!
mom, come!

It also represents the noun in its basic quality, namely its purest semantic meaning.

Genitive

The genitive case features the endings -ra in the singular and -nora in the plural.

The grammatical role of this case is marking voluntary possession. It conveys non-intrinsic conscious possession.

phū́kara sṓgo
the person’s house (this person intentionally and consciously owns the house)

This is the only grammatical role played by the genitive case.

The difference between voluntary possession and involuntary possession or belonging, thus the different in usage between the genitive and the ablative case, will be explained in a different section below.

As a marker of voluntary possession, namely possession by an element with its own will, this case cannot be used with 2^nd class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements.

Ablative

The ablative case features the endings -šu in the singular and -nošu in the plural.

The main role of this case is marking belonging to someone or to something.

phū́kanošu wime
the people’s world (this is an example of inverse belonging, since people actually belong to the word and not vice versa)

In a broader sense it conveys involuntary, or intrinsic possession, namely an unconscious and unintentional possession.

phū́kašu lilā́
the person’s hand (a person does not intentionally and consciously own his hand, that is an intrinsic possession)

The difference between involuntary possession or belonging and voluntary possession, thus the different in usage between the ablative and the genitive case, will be explained in a different section below.

As it conveys belonging, the ablative case also marks the noun clusters in their role as direct objects of non-finite verbal forms, namely nominal-adjectival types like the infinitive and the participles. This peculiar marking is called infinitival agreement.

wī́ro lī́lopon → wī́rošu lī́lopɑme
the man is seen → the seeing of the man → the man’s vision

wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt → jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro
the man is tending the flock → the man tending the flock

Such role as a direct object is, thus, regarded as a belonging to the verbal form.

For this reason, the ablative case always marks the direct object of a sentence in which there is the negative verb. This verb requires an infinitival form, which introduces in turn a direct object in the ablative case.

sopa lī́lopow → sopašu lī́lopiñɑme ʔī́sow
I am seeing the dog → I am not seeing the dog

It marks, also, the motion from a place, and, with some specific verbs, origin or source.

wɑkišu kigowow
I come from the village (my journey started there)

wɑkišu hā́kigowow
I come from the village (I was born there)

Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases

Because of the different semantic and syntactical behaviour of both intrinsically animate and inanimate nouns, there is a strong difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.

The genitive case conveys a meaning of intentional possession, namely possession by elements with will and intention and consciously done (although even animals are often included in this semantic group).

phū́kara sṓgo
the person’s house → this person intentionally owns the house

The ablative case conveys a meaning of unintentional possession, namely possession by animate and inanimate elements, without any will and intention, and a meaning of intrinsic possession (as regarding, for example, to body parts), which is basically an unconscious possession, or a meaning of belonging, usually called inverse belonging.

phū́kašu lilā́
the person’s hand → this person does not intentionally or consciously own a hand; it belongs intrinsically to him/her

phū́kašu wime
the person’s world → this person does not actually own the world, he/she belongs to the world

Because of its inherent meaning, the genitive cause cannot be used with 2^nd class nouns, as they usually convey semantically inanimate elements, unable to match with the idea of a conscious or intentional possession.

Dative

The dative case features the endings -ɣɑ in the singular and -noɣɑ in the plural.

The main role of this case is marking the indirect object of the sentence, which is the recipient of the action.

phū́kali sopaɣɑ hḗmɑ kɑwokɑt
the person is giving bread to the dog

In a broader sense it conveys motion to a place.

wɑkiɣɑ ʔimḗɣow
I am going to the village

It may mark, also, the purpose or the goal of an action or a state.

owtušu mamuɣɑ kinusow
I am singing for my mother

Causative

The causative case features the endings -khu in the singular and -nokhu in the plural.

The main role of this case is marking the cause of the sentence, which is the main underlying reason of an action or a state.

phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔahnokhu ʔaʔḗmiɣɑt
the person went home because of the rain

wī́roli ʔṓnakhu ʔalū́ʔḗmiɣɑt
The man walked away because of the woman

In a broader sense it also marks the efficient cause.

sasī́gino tsū́thḗkhu ʔaʔosī́pon
the plants spoiled because of the snow

This is an essential role in marking an unconscious agent, unable to display its own will and being thus intrinsically inanimate, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the cause, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.

Some 2^nd class nouns, although semantically inanimate, are able to elicit actions or changes in other elements. However, lacking their own will, they cannot play the role of active agent of the sentence and be marked by the agentive case.

Instrumental

The instrumental case features the endings -khɑ in the singular and -nokhɑ in the plural.

The grammatical role of this case is marking the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is in being.

phū́kali mā́so jū́wakhɑ ʔaʔilukokɑt
the person killed the mouse with a stone

It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of company.

This is a quite important role in marking an inanimate agent, unable to display its own will and even to make a motion, inside of an agentive-inactive system. The supposed “agent” became thus the instrument, while avoiding the role of subject of the sentence.

phū́ka jū́wakhɑ ʔaphū́wikon
the person was hit by/with a stone ← A stone hit the person

As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1^st class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.

Abessive

The abessive case features the endings -gil in the singular and -nogil in the plural.

The main role of this case is marking the deprivation, namely the absence of the instrument through which the action is performed, or a state is being.

sopa hḗmɑgil ʔiluk
the dog will die without bread

It cannot convey the meaning of the complement of absence of company.

It may also convey the lack of an inanimate entity, whose absence is aimless to the action or the state.

phṓɣagil jageli ʔajilɑkɑt
the sheep without wool ran away

In this meaning the abessive case has a specifying role and it thus tends to be placed before the noun it specifies, similarly to other specifying elements of the noun cluster.

As a marker of inanimate instrument, used to perform an action, this case cannot be used with 1^st class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.

Locative

The locative case features the endings -tsar in the singular and -notsar in the plural.

The semantic role of this case is marking the location, namely the place where an action is performed, or a state is in being.

ʔṓnali mā́so sṓgotsar ʔalolī́pɑt
The woman saw a mouse in the house

It thus marks primarily the static location, namely the motionless position.

wɑkitsar mḗʔisow
I am in the village; I am at the village

As a marker of places, this case cannot be used with 1^st class nouns, as they usually convey semantically animate elements.

The active-stative alignment

The case system of Kī́rtako language is based on a morphological alignment called agentive-stative type (also called in Piti philological studies the agentive-passive alignment). This kind of alignment is essential different from the nominative-accusative alignment, which is widespread among most European languages, and from the even rarer ergative-absolutive alignment.

In an agentive-stative alignment the choice of the case relies on the intrinsic ability of the subject to be an active agent in the sentence or not. Unlike the ergative-absolutive alignment, subjects of an intransitive verb can also be agentive subjects, if the action is performed with a certain degree of animacy or intentionality. This usually also depends on the semantic nature of the verb itself. Let’s see two examples:

to jump: this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves an activity and a will from the subject. Thus, the alignment selects the agentive case for such subjects.
to fall: this verb is considered as grammatically intransitive, but the described action involves no active engagement or no active will from the subject. It is more regarded as an incidental event, even if it implies some kind of motion. Thus, the alignment selects the passive case for such subjects.

The system selects only the passive case for direct objects of transitive verbs. Potential confusion is avoided, as the agentive case and the passive case cannot be selected for two kinds of elements which may be in the same sentence.

The general usage rule for these cases is:

Subject of a transitive verb: agentive case
Active subject of an intransitive verb: agentive case
Inactive subject of an intransitive verb: passive case
Direct object of a transitive verb: passive case

Examples:

sopali^AGEN wī́ro^PASS ñamī́kɑt
the dog is biting the man
(sopali is the subject of the transitive verb ñamī́kɑme and is declined in the agentive case, while wī́ro is the object of the verb and it is declined in the passive case)

sopali^AGEN ʔimḗɣekɑt
the dog is running away
(sopali is the subject of the intransitive verb ʔimḗɣekɑme, for which it is an active subject. As such, it intentionally and actively performs the action, and it is declined in the agentive case)

sopa^PASS kḗwon
the dog is sleeping
(sopa is the subject of the intransitive verb kḗwonɑme, for which it is an unactive subject. As such, it does not intentionally and actively perform the action, and it is declined in the passive case)

The rules of this system are interlaced with the class system. 2^nd class nouns cannot be declined in the agentive case at all. Sentences in which these elements might be transitive or active subject are usually differently arrange, as such nouns cannot be in the agentive case:

the storm spoiled the harvest → the harvest spoiled because of the storm
umatsṓta kumḗkhu ʔaʔosī́p

however, some natural entities can be perceived as animate, as having their own will, like sɑño, light, pike, water, ʔako, wind, and they may optionally be regarded as 1^st class nouns. In such cases these nouns can be active subjects of transitive verbs and be declined in the agentive case.

Verbs

Among all elements of a sentence, the verb conveys the most features. Indeed, this element conveys such features like person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, as well as its own semantic meaning.

At the semantic level, the verb carries a basic meaning, which conveys an action, a situation, a feeling, or a state.

gɑgokɑme
to bring

kḗwonɑme 
to sleep

mḗʔisɑme
to be placed

thā́gɑme
to know

Each verb is formed by a root form, called verbal root, to which affixes are added, both suffixes and prefixes. By means of these affixes, verbs are conjugated, according to the verbal conjugation.

Each verbal root has a counterpart, derived by the basic root through an introflexive process of vowel switching, conveying an aspectual change.

gagok- → gogak-
to bring^IMPF → to bring^PRF

In terms of analysis, these are deemed as separated roots with a different aspectual value, but the same basic semantic meaning. They are called imperfective root and perfective root. Monosyllabic roots, however, do not display any aspectual counterpart. Any distinction according to tense, mood, person, and number is made through affixal endings.

Verbal aspect

Kī́rtako verbs primarily display a basic feature: the verbal aspect. They make this distinction between two aspects, called imperfective aspect and perfective aspect, by means of two different verbal roots, carrying the same semantic meaning, the imperfective root, and the perfective root.

The verbal aspect essentially describes the extension degree over time of an action or a state.

Imperfective aspect: it marks incomplete actions, namely the incompleteness of an action or a state. It is used to mark ongoing actions or states, repeated actions or states during an extended time, or a prolonged action or state in time. It is also used to express an action or a state in themselves, without any reference to their completeness degree.

gagok-: to bring. The imperfective root conveys the action of bringing or carrying while the action itself is ongoing. It may convey the action of repetitively bringing, focusing on the repetitiveness or it may simply describe the action of bringing, without any reference to it being completed or not.

Perfective aspect: it marks complete actions, namely the completeness of an action or a state. It is used to mark a completed and finished action or state.

gogak-: to bring. The perfective root conveys the idea of the action of bringing from the beginning to the end of the action itself, focusing on its conclusion and completeness. The different roles of the verbal aspect may vary depending on the semantic meaning of the verbal root. An action can be indeed described during its development or after its conclusion and keep its original meaning, because the single action is limited in time.

hḗmɑ ʔagagokow
I was bringing some bread / I used to bring some bread / I brought some bread (repetitively)

hḗmɑ ʔagogakow
I brought some bread (I finished the action / the bread is/was in the place where I put it)

In these examples both roots keep the same meaning of “bringing”.

Oppositely, states, conditions, and feelings tend to describe a verbal feature which has an ongoing nature, with a lengthened duration in time. Both aspects convey the same semantic meaning, but also have different semantic nuances:

sopa ʔañowekow
I loved the dog / I used to love the dog (the described condition is long-lasting)

sopa ʔañewokow
I loved the dog (the described condition is now over)

In these examples both roots have the broader meaning of “loving”. The perfective root, however, conveys a slightly changed meaning of “stopping loving”, “no more loving”.

The verbal aspect is tightly bounded with tense, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.

Tense

Kī́rtako verbs can also display another feature: the tense. They make this distinction through a prefix, ʔa-, which is added to both aspectual roots. This prefix sets the action or the state in a past time, in relation to the time of the conversation, creating thus two separated tenses, called present and past tense.

gagok- → ʔagagok-
to bring^PRES → to bring^PAST

The form not marked by the prefix is called present, although it may also convey actions or state always happening or in the future.

The tense is tightly bounded with the verbal aspect, as some functions of the verbal aspect cannot be expressed in certain verbal tenses.

The aspect-tense system

In the verbal system the feature of aspect is inseparably bounded with the feature of tense. They are fused in an interlaced aspect-tense system which is expressed by the verbal root and the temporal prefix. This system conveys different information regarding the action or the state, which are semantically expressed by the verb.

The aspect-tense system is as follows:

	Aspect
Tense	Imperfective present	Perfective present
Tense	Imperfective past	Perfective past

For the sake of ease in analysis, such forms are usually called verbal tenses. The main information, conveyed by the various verbal tenses is given below.

Imperfective present

The imperfective present conveys primarily ongoing actions or states, during the same moment when speech occurs.

hḗmɑ hḗmonow
I am eating bread (in this moment, ongoing action)

It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, including the same moment when speech occurs.

hḗmɑ jḗsɑti hḗmonow
I eat bread every day (recurring action, present moment included)

It can, moreover, convey general truths, actions or states which are repeated on an indefinite basis, or perpetually recurring.

rū́roki kitatsar ʔū́khasɑt 
the sun shines in the sky (general truth)

With a time-referring element, like a temporal adverb, this tense can also convey future actions or state, which are set after the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that future moment.

hḗmɑ rosɑti hḗmonow
I will be eating bread tomorrow (in that moment, the action will be occurring)

hḗmɑ phuwɑkotsar jḗsɑti hḗmonow
Next year I am going to eat bread everyday (the action is going to be repeated in future time)

Perfective present

The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed at the same moment when speech occurs.

hḗmɑ homḗnow
I ate/have eaten bread (at this very moment, the action is completed)

An action is, however, not usually complete at the exact moment of the present, whereas it tends to be completed in the present or in the future. Thus, this tense usually conveys actions or state that will be completed or finished in a future time after the moment when speech occurs.

hḗmɑ homḗnow
I am going to eat bread (the action is going to be completed)

Usage of inherent time-referring elements is therefore optional.

hḗmɑ phusɑti homḗnow
I am going to eat bread tomorrow (the action is going to be completed)

As the inherent reference to future time is prevailing, and despite its name of perfective “present”, usage of time-referring elements is compulsory to convey the meaning of completeness at the same moment when speech occurs.

Imperfective past

The imperfective past conveys primarily actions or states, which are set before the moment when speech occurs, ongoing or recurring in that past moment.

hḗmɑ ʔaɣḗmonow
I was eating bread (in that moment, the action was occurring)

It can also convey habitually recurring actions or states, which are repeated on an almost regular basis, but only in the past and excluding the moment when speech occurs.

hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔaɣḗmonow
I used to eat bread every day (the action was repeated in past time)

Perfective past

The perfective present conveys basically complete actions or states, which are completed before the moment when speech occurs.

hḗmɑ ʔaɣomḗnow
I ate bread (the action is or was completed)

Mood

Kī́rtako verbs display an additional feature: the mood, namely the way or the manner an action is performed, or a state is in being. They make this distinction through a certain number of suffixes, which are added to both aspectual roots. These suffixes create three separated moods, called indicative, subjunctive and conditional mood.

Each mood can display every possible aspectual and temporal form of the root. Usage of such forms, however, is not necessarily the same in each mood. The different usage and information conveyed by the moods are described below.

Indicative

The indicative is the main mood of Kī́rtako verbal system. It features the zero suffix ending (shown with -Ø), or, it can be said that it does not feature any suffix.

It primarily conveys a meaning of statement and certainty, regarding the referred information. At a syntactical level, it is used mostly in main clauses, as the basic form of information transfer. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow
I am going home (imperfective present)

owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerow
I will be listening to you voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)

ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑt
he’s going to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)

khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑt
the tailor was sewing the dress (imperfective past)

wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekow
I came to the village (perfective past)

The indicative mood may also be found in sentences which do not express any certainty. In such a case, this kind of information is conveyed by other elements in the sentence.

Subjunctive

The subjunctive mood features the suffix -iñ-. It has three main functions.

It conveys, primarily, a meaning of hope and wish, usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow
I wish I am going home (imperfective present)

owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow
if I only be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)

ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt
I wish he eats two eggs (perfective present - future usage)

khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowiñɑt
I wished the tailor were sewing the dress (imperfective past)

wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekiñow
if only I had come to the village (perfective past)

It also conveys a meaning of exhortation, regarding the referred information. In this meaning it is seldomly used in the past tenses. It usually expresses an exhortation only in the present and in the future.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow
I better be going home (imperfective present)

owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓweriñow
I’ll better be listening to your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)

ʔaki thā́tsono homḗniñɑt
let him eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)

Such usages, in the allowed tenses, can be semantically overlapped, as an exhortation can be interpreted as a kind of wish from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. The context will usually clarify the function of the subjunctive forms in a sentence.

As an exhortative form, the subjunctive is used to express the imperative form, which does not exist in Kī́rtako as an independent form. Such usage is specified in another chapter below.

Moreover, the subjunctive is mostly used dependent clauses. It is widely used as a subordinating form in such clauses. In this case it is usually used without the other modal meanings, and it simply replaces the indicative form, without inferring any other additional modal meaning.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣow → tsɑgewow hī́ɑt sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñow
I am going home → I say I am going home (imperfective present)

Conditional

The conditional mood features the suffix -ɑts-. It has several functions. It conveys, primarily, a meaning of desire and wish, usually from the speaker, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow
I’d like to be going home (imperfective present)

owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow
I’d like to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)

ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt
I’d like to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)

khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt
I wanted the tailor to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)

wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow
I did like to come to the village (perfective past)

It also conveys a meaning of will, regarding the referred information, usually from the subject of the sentence. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow
I want to be going home (right now) (imperfective present)

owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow
I want to hear (repeatedly) your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)

ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt
he wants to eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)

khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt
the tailor wanted to be sewing the dress (imperfective past)

wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow
I would have come to the village (perfective past)

Moreover, it conveys a meaning of potentiality, usually deemed as inherent in the action or the state themselves, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow
I may be going home (right now) (imperfective present)

owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow
I may be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)

ʔahno hašī́kɑtsɑt
it might rain (perfective present - future usage)

ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt
I may eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)

khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt
the tailor might have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)

ʔatsḗthū́sɑtsɑt
it might have snowed (perfective past)

wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow
I might have come to the village (perfective past)

It can also convey a meaning of possibility, usually from the subject of the sentence, regarding the referred information. The usage of the verbal tenses is the same as explained in the specific section.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣɑtsow
I could be going home (imperfective present)

owtušu ʔḗtsɑ phusɑti khṓwerɑtsow
I could be hearing your voice tomorrow (imperfective present - future usage)

ʔaki thā́tsono homḗnɑtsɑt
I could eat two eggs (perfective present - future usage)

khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt
the tailor could have been sewing the dress (imperfective past)

wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow
I could have come to the village (perfective past)

Such usages can be semantically overlapped, as a will can be interpreted as a kind of desire from the speaker for the action to be performed or the state to be in being. Furthermore, a possibility may be interpreted as a form of potentiality, from the subject or inherent in the action or the state. The context will usually clarify the function of the conditional forms in a sentence.

As said above, the conditional can convey a potentiality or a possibility, usually referring to a future moment in relation to the moment, we are speaking about. Thus, these forms can be used, even without any time-referring element, to express actions or states set in a future moment in relation to a past period, in both aspects.

khatowī́tili pā́ktā́ ʔakhatowɑtsɑt
the tailor would have been sewing the dress (but it wasn’t happening)

wɑkiɣɑ ʔakogiwekɑtsow
I would come to the village (but it didn’t happen)

This usage is known as “future in the past”.

Modal verbs

Some verbs can be used to conveys modal meanings, combined with other verbal forms. Such verbs are usually called modal verbs.

Modal verbs are:

ʔī́sɑme: do not (negative verb)
gṓtsekɑme: to be allowed to (can, may)
phɑgesɑme: to be able to (can)
goʔī́kɑme: to want to
kokisɑme: to be compelled to (have to)

Other modal features are directly conveyed by the verbal roots, through the verbal moods. These features, as already explained above, are:

Possibility, potentiality, will, desire: conditional mood
Wish, hope: subjunctive mood

The different usage and information conveyed by the modal verbs are described below.

In the following description the adverb jṓr, necessarily, is included, as it has a modal meaning and usage. On the contrary, the negative verb ʔī́sɑme is not included, as its role and usage are extensively explained in the morphological section.

gṓtsekɑme

This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically allowed to perform the action or to be in a certain state. Who gives permission is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information.

Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb to can or to may.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekow
I can go home (I am allowed to go home)

The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.

phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme gṓtsekɑt
the person can go home

Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.

ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑt
the woman can eat bread

As can be seen, both 3^rd person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.

When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb.

ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme gṓtsekɑme ʔī́sɑt
the woman cannot eat bread

phɑgesɑme

This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically able to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This ability may be either temporary or permanent.

Therefore, this verb conveys two of the meanings of the modal verb to can or of the modal expression to be able to.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesow
I can go home (I am able now)

khatowī́tili khatowiñɑme phɑgesɑt
the tailor can sew (he learnt it, he has a permanent ability)

Such usages can be semantically overlapped, and, as in English, there is no clear distinction between a temporary or a permanent ability within the modal usage of this verb. The context will usually clarify the role of the modal verb.

The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.

phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme phɑgesɑt
the person can go home

Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.

ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑt
the woman can eat bread

As can be seen, both 3^rd person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.

When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb.

ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme phɑgesɑme ʔī́sɑt
the woman cannot eat bread

goʔī́kɑme

This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically willing to perform the action or to be in a certain state.

Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verb to want.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kow
I want to go home (My will is to go home)

The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.

phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme goʔī́kɑt
the person wants to go home

Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.

ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑt
the woman wants eat bread

As can be seen, both 3^rd person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.

When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb.

ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu hḗmoniñɑme goʔī́kɑme ʔī́sɑt
the woman does not want to eat bread

This verb is deemed as modal, as it tends to add a modal value to other verbs. For this reason, it does not usually convey the direct wish for something, and it is not usually used with a direct object without another verbal form. This meaning is normally expressed by the verb guʔā́šɑme.

hḗmɑ guʔā́šow
I want bread

Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to use the modal verb goʔī́kɑme as a normal transitive verb.

hḗmɑ goʔī́kow
I want bread

In such case, this usage is allowed as a second verbal form is semantically implied. It is noteworthy that, as the infinitival form is dropped, the direct object of the sentence is declined in the proper case, according to its role.

hḗmɑ(šu hḗmoniñɑme) goʔī́kow
I want (to eat) bread

kokisɑme

This verb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence is generically compelled to perform the action or to be in a certain state. The source of this obligation is not relevant for the purpose of the verbal information, but obligation is usually meant as independent from the will of the subject.

Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs to must or to have to.

sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisow
I have to go home (I am obliged to go)

Sentence construction is typically altered by this verb, as it tends to be used in the passive construct, especially in the classic period.

sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis
the person has to go home

Such usage of the passive construct for this verb, however, tends to die out in the later period, and sentences to be built with the normal syntactical construction, as required by the meaning of the sentences.

phū́kali sṓgoɣɑ ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokisɑt
the person has to go home

The verbal form specified by the modal verb is conjugated in the nominal form called subjunctive infinitive. This form, deemed as a nominal form introduced by the modal verb, plays a similar role to that of the direct object of the sentence, but, unlike a nominal direct object, it is placed just before the modal verb.

sṓgoɣɑ phū́kali ʔimḗɣiñɑme kokis
the person has to go home

Thus, the possible direct object of this infinitival form is deemed as a belonging to such form, and it is declined in the ablative case.

hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokis
the woman has to eat bread

As can be seen, both 3^rd person endings can be added to the modal verb, depending on the animacy degree of the verb.

When negated, the modal verb is placed just before the negative verb.

hḗmɑšu ʔṓnali hḗmoniñɑme kokisɑme ʔī́sɑt
the woman must not eat bread

The negative form of this verb usually conveys the obligation to not perform the action or to be in a certain state.

jṓr

This adverb conveys the modal meaning that the subject of the sentence generically needs to perform the action or to be in a certain state. This necessity is usually meant as the subject’s own one. Therefore, this verb conveys one of the meanings of the modal verbs to must or to need.

sṓgoɣɑ jṓr ʔimḗɣow
I must go home (I need to go)

This adverb is placed inside of a sentence without altering the order of the other elements. Therefore, a direct object is declined in the passive case, as for its role in the sentence, and the main verb is conjugated according to tense and mood required by the syntax of the sentence.

ʔṓnali hḗmɑ jṓr hḗmonɑt
the woman must eat bread

Likewise, the adverb does not alter the syntax of a negative sentence, being placed before the verbal cluster.

ʔṓnali hḗmɑšu jṓr hḗmonɑme ʔī́sɑt
the woman does not need to eat bread

The negative form of this adverb usually conveys the lack of need to perform the action or to be in a certain state.

Passive construct

Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice, either simple or compound. It is however possible to use a syntactical construction with a passive meaning, by modifying the word order from SOV to OSV. When placed in the first position, the direct object is somehow highlighted. Cases are unaltered and the agent of the sentence is still marked by the agentive case.

wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑt → ʔṓna wī́roli lī́lop
the man sees the woman → the woman is seen by the man

As can be seen, the 3^rd person of the verb is systematically chosen in the short form.

When a sentence lacks an agent, the verb is usually conjugated in the 3^rd person plural short form:

wī́ro lī́lopon
they see the man → the man is seen

Reflexive construct

Kī́rtako verbs do not display any morphological passive voice or any reflexive pronouns. Verbs, which have a reflexive meaning in other languages, have different verbal root and are deemed as different verbs.

kā́kuʔɑme - gṓɣapɑme
to bend (something) - to bend (oneself)

With some verbs, however, it is possible to use to use a syntactical construction with a reflexive meaning, namely when the action is actively performed by the subject, but its result affects the subject itself. It is called reflexive construct.

In this construct, the personal pronoun, agreeing in number and person in the required case, is preceded by the adjective meʔɑ, same.

meʔɑ jo mī́woñow, meʔɑ nɑ mī́woñer... meʔɑno jono mī́woñonow...
I wash myself, you wash yourself… we wash ourselves…

In most cases personal pronouns in the passive case are used, as the pronoun is regarded as the direct object of the action of the verb; the adjective meʔɑ is declined in agreement. This construct can be used only with transitive verbs.

In the later period, in the western texts, the adjective meʔɑ can be placed after the pronominal forms.

Imperative

Kī́rtako lacks proper imperative forms. As the subjunctive mood can convey an exhortative meaning, the 2^nd person forms are used in an imperative role, in both aspects according to the aspectual nature of the action or the state.

ʔḗmiɣiñer
go!

In the negative form is primarily found, however, the imperfective aspect:

tumawiñɑme ʔī́siñer
do not drink! (both once and never)

Verb “to have”

Possession and belonging are conveyed by two different verbs, hḗʔī́ɣɑme e totirɑme. Both verbs play the role of the English verb to have. The difference in the role of the two verbal forms is essentially like the same difference in usage between the genitive case and the ablative case.

The verb totirɑme conveys an intentional possession from the possessor.

phū́kali sṓgo totirɑt
the person has (owns) a house

This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally limited in time, non-intrinsic and consciously performed by the possessor.

kojā́hukha totirow
I have a stylus

As it conveys an intentional possession, this verb is regarded as transitive: the owner is expressed in the agentive case, as an agent with a will of its own, and the owned is expressed in the passive case, as it is the direct object of the verb.

šupā́tɑli^AGEN tirṓsi^PASS totirɑt
the king has a palace

As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with 1st class nouns as their subject. The verb hḗʔī́ɣɑme conveys, conversely, an unintentional possession from the possessor or the intrinsic belonging to the possessor.

phū́ka ʔaki lilā́nošu hḗʔī̀ 
a person has two hands

This kind of possession is meant as fundamentally unlimited in time, intrinsic and unconsciously performed by the possessor.

ʔḗmašu hḗʔī̀ɣow
I have a head

As it conveys an unintentional possession or a belonging, this verb is regarded as intransitive: the owner is expressed in the passive case and the owned is expressed in the ablative case, as it is deemed as a belonging to the subject. In the 3^rd person the verb usually selects the short forms.

šupā́tɑ^PASS ʔaki rakonošu^ABL hḗʔī̀
the king has two eyes

As a transitive verb, this verb can be used only with nouns of both classes as their subject. In the texts of the later period, however, this verb tends to be regarded as a transitive one, with the owner in the agentive case and the owned in the passive case, while it still selects the 3^rd person short forms.

phū́kali ʔaki lilā́no hḗʔī̀ 
a person has two hands

In such cases, also 2^nd class nouns can be declined in the agentive case. This phenomenon can be considered as part of the general confusion in case usage in the later period.

Interrogative clauses

Interrogative clauses, namely simple questions, do not display any specific feature regarding their word order. Interrogative pronouns are placed in their logical position inside the clause, and they are not moved at the beginning of the sentence:

wī́roli šɑ lī́lopɑt?
what is the man seeing?

Interrogative pronouns may be optionally fronted, but this position is deemed as strongly marked or a way to express the passive construct:

šɑ wī́roli lī́lopɑt?
the man is seeing what? / what is being seen by the man?

Clauses without any interrogative pronoun (also called “yes-no questions”) feature the interrogative particle om, which usually marks the verbal form, by being placed right before it.

wī́roli ʔṓna om lī́lopɑt?
is the man seeing the woman?

However, the particle om can be placed before any element of the clause to specify its role as the main element of the question:

wī́roli om ʔṓna lī́lopɑt?
is the woman, who is being seen by the man?

If there is a modal verb at the end of the clause, om is placed before that, after the infinitival form of the main verb:

wī́roli ʔṓna lī́lopɑme om ʔī́sɑt?
isn’t the man seeing the woman?

Subordination

Dependent clauses in Kī́rtako language feature a wider usage of the subjunctive mood, which replaces the forms of the indicative mood, becoming thus a sort of subordinating form. Many dependent clauses can also be headed by a non-finite form, usually a subjunctive infinitive. In such clauses the meaning of exhortation or wish of the subjunctive mood is not expressed.

Declarative content clauses (subjective and objective clauses)

Declarative content clauses mainly feature the infinitive, which plays the role of the object of the declarative verb. In subjective declarative clauses the indicative infinitive is mostly used, although it can be also replaced by its subjunctive (or conditional) form:

wā́gosɑme wā́go (ʔɑñ)
it is right to rule

In such clauses the infinitive is deemed as a noun, and it tends to be placed in the logical position of the subject.

For objective declarative clauses, which can have a different subject from the main clause, two constructions are possible:

The objective clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the subjunctive infinitive (or conditional), while the subject is declined in the proper case, according to the clause syntax.

wī́roli ʔatsegɑwɑt ʔṓnali kogiwiñɑme
the man said that the woman is going to come

The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ablative case.

papuli mamuɣɑ ʔatsegɑwɑt tatuli tū́kḗšu ʔaʔilukokiñɑme
the father told the mother that his brother killed the bear

The objective clause is placed after the declarative verb, and it is introduced by the particle hī́ɑt. The dependent verb is conjugated in the subjunctive or in the conditional.

papuli ʔatsegɑwɑt hī́ɑt tatuli tū́kḗ ʔaʔilukokɑtsɑt
the father told the mother that his brother might have killed the bear

The dependent clause syntax is not essentially altered, except for the modal change.

This construction is quite uncommon in the classical period, while it becomes more recurring in the texts of the later period.

Adverbial clauses of reason (causative clauses)

There are two possible constructions:

The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the subjunctive infinitive (or conditional), declined in the causative case.

wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑmekhu
the man came because the dog had bitten the woman

The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ablative case.

The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particles šɑkhu or šɑtukhu. The dependent verb is conjugated in the subjunctive or in the conditional.

šɑtukhu sopali ʔṓnašu ʔañī́makiñɑt wī́roli ʔakogiwɑt 
as the dog had bitten the woman, the man came

The particle šɑtukhu is usually used when these clauses are placed before the main clauses, while šɑkhu is used when they are placed after the main clause.

The non-finite construction has already almost fallen out of use in the classical period, being limited to the dependent clauses where the subject is the same as the main clause.

Adverbial clauses of purpose (final clauses)

They are constructed in the following way:

The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and the verb is conjugated in the subjunctive infinitive (or conditional), declined in the dative case.

papuli mū́ketu rimusɑt rā́nošu mṓtsatiñɑmeɣɑ
the father tends the flock to collect the milk

The direct object of the infinitival form is regularly declined in the ablative case.

Adverbial clauses of time (temporal clauses)

Construction of clauses of time always involves the usage of the subjunctive or conditional mood and their placement at the end of the main clause or before it. There are several introducing particles with different meanings:

šɑtutsar	when
juʔṓtsar	when / while
juʔṓɣɑ	until / as long as
juʔṓšu	how long / since when
juʔṓšu phun	after
juʔṓšu roš	before

The particle juʔṓtsar has different usage as compared to the particle šɑtutsar:

when šɑtutsar is used with both verbal aspects, it has always the meaning of when.
when juʔṓtsar is used with verbal forms in the imperfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of while, and when it is used with verbal forms in the the perfective aspect, it takes on the meaning of when.

In the later period the subjunctive mood is increasingly replaced by the indicative forms.

Adverbial clauses of manner (modal clauses)

They are constructed in the following way:

The adverbial clause is placed at the end of the main clause, and it is introduced by the particle mɑtsar. The dependent verb is conjugated in the subjunctive or in the conditional.

wī́roli jagetu rimusɑt mɑtsar ʔṓnaɣɑ ʔatsegɑwiñɑt
the man is tending the flock as he had told the woman

Relative clauses

Relative clauses have a specifying role for nouns (or pronouns). There are two possible constructions:

By placing, before the specified noun, the agentive participle, or the passive participle. The possible direct object of the participle is declined in the ablative case, as with the infinitival form, while the agent of the passive particle is declined in the agentive case. Both participles agree in case and number with the name they specify.

jagetušu rimusī́to wī́ro ʔalolī́pow
I saw the man tending the flock → I saw the man who was tending the flock

tū́kḗli ʔaʔilukokuki jage ʔalolī́pow
I saw the sheep killed by the bear → I saw the sheep who was killed by the bear

It is noteworthy to highlight that this is not a real passive sentence.

By using the relative pronoun hī́. In this case relative clauses can be placed before or after nouns, although the trend is to be placed after them. Such clauses can also be placed outside the main clause if ambiguity can be easily avoided. The relative pronoun tends to be placed in its logical syntactical position, but it may also be placed near the specified noun, thus at the beginning or at the end of the clause. The dependent verb is conjugated in the subjunctive or in the conditional.

hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow
tū́kḗ hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt ʔalolī́pow
tū́kḗ ʔalolī́pow hī́li jage ʔaʔilukokɑt 
I saw the bear who killed the sheep

The non-finite construction is by far the most used, while the finite construction is generally used when the clause is too complex. In the later period, however, the finite construction enjoys increased vitality even in simpler sentences. Constructions with the passive participles remain largely used in every period.

Conditional clauses

Conditional clauses employ specific constructions, which provide for a combined usage of mood, aspect, tense, and introduction particles in two sentences, namely the antecedent (which conveys the hypothetical assumption, introduced by “if”) and the consequent (which conveys the possible outcome of the hypothesis).

Broadly, it conveys the idea of a possible, unlikely, or impossible hypothesis, in the past, in the present, or in the future.

The antecedent is usually introduced by the particle ʔḗɣī́tsar or is marked by the particle omlo, placed before the conjugated verbal form. The dependent verb is conjugated in the subjunctive mood in the antecedent, while the verb in the consequent can be conjugated in the conditional mood or in the indicative mood.

Possible hypothesis. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely possible. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.

In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the present subjunctive and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the present indicative. Both aspects can be used.

hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnonow
if I buy bread, we will eat together

ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmononow
if I buy bread every day, we will always eat together

In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the unlikely hypothesis.

hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow
if I buy bread, let’s eat together!

Unlikely hypothesis. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely unlikely to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states in the present or in the future.

In the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the present subjunctive and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the present conditional. Both aspects can be used.

hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗnɑtsonow
if I bought bread, we would eat together

ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti titorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ hḗmonɑtsonow
if I bought bread every day, we would always eat together

In the consequent, the indicative mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.

hḗmɑ omlo totirugiñow, ʔḗhlo homḗniñonow
if I bought bread, we should eat together (let’s eat together)!

Impossible hypothesis. The conveyed hypothesis is regarded as largely impossible to happen. Such hypotheses usually convey actions or states both in the present/future and in the past. Past hypotheses are regarded as inherently impossible.

For present or future hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the present subjunctive and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the present conditional. Both aspects can be used.

niwoɣɑ omlo kogiwiñɑt, nɑ jḗparɑtsow
if he came here, I would help him

ʔḗɣī́tsar niwotsar jḗsɑti ʔɑñiñ, nɑ jḗjuʔṓ japḗrɑtsow
if he were here every day, I would always help him

In the consequent, the conditional mood can be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood. However, this way it is not possible to distinguish the possible hypothesis from the possible or impossible hypothesis.

For past hypotheses, in the antecedent the verb is conjugated in the past subjunctive and in the consequent the verb is conjugated in the past conditional. Both aspects can be used.

hḗmɑ omlo ʔatotirugiñow, ʔḗhlo ʔahomḗnɑtsonow
if I had bought bread, we would have eaten together

ʔḗɣī́tsar hḗmɑ jḗsɑti ʔatitorugiñow, ʔḗhlo jḗjuʔṓ ʔahḗmonɑtsonow
if I had bought bread every day, we would have always eaten together

Because of the impossible past nature of this type, the conditional mood cannot be replaced by the subjunctive to express the imperative-exhortative meaning of this mood.

These three types can be mixed.

Interrogative content clauses (indirect questions)

Indirect questions are syntactically built in the same way as the direct questions, with the only exception being the indicative mood replaced by the subjunctive mood. The word order of such sentences is substantially unaltered, but the entire clause is placed before or after the main clause. Interrogative pronoun can be fronted to the beginning of the sentence, while the particle om stays in its regular position.

šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiɣer → pā́kṓnɑtsow šɑɣɑ ʔaʔḗmiñiɣer
where did you go? → I’d like to know where you went

User:Bukkia/sandboxIII

Contents

Typological structure

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Stress

Syllabic structure

Diphthongs

Morphology

Nouns

Cases

Noun declension

Adjectives and pronouns

Adjectives

Declension of qualifying adjectives

Comparison of qualifying adjectives

Personal pronouns

Reflexive pronoun and adjective

Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns

Interrogative pronouns

Relative pronoun

Indefinite adjectives and pronouns

Adverbs

Numerals

Postpositions

General list of postpositions

ēh

hōš

jɛl

sū

xodixe

fes

kōw

few

mɑg

gū́

pḗr

phun

roš

wū́g

pṓtu

Locative postpositions

ʔū́m

sā̀

wim

git

pig

phṓr

šom

tī́n

ʔī́r

Verbs

Conjugation of a regular verb

Indicative mood

Subjunctive mood

Conditional mood

Non-finite forms

Infinitive

Agentive participle

Passive participle

The third person

Negation

Syntax

Main clause and word order

Nouns

The cases

Agentive

Passive

Genitive

Ablative

Difference in usage between genitive and ablative cases

Dative

Causative

Instrumental

Abessive

Locative

The active-stative alignment

Verbs

Verbal aspect